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Early Monastic Buddhism v1.c16: Chapter XIII: The Moral Precepts

Early Monastic Buddhism v1.c16

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Chapter XIII: The Moral Precepts

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Observance of *sīlas* or moral precepts, as has been already shown, forms the first step in the spiritual progress of a person. The *sīlas* can be generally classified under three heads, *kāyika* (physical), *vācasika* (verbal) and *mānasika* (mental). In several *suttas* of the *Suttapiṭaka*, the *sīlas* have been treated from different standpoints and hardly admit of enumeration within a small compass. By way of illustration we may refer to the very first *sutta* of the *Dīgha Nikāya* for a list of *sīlas* which are classified there under *cūla* (minor), *majjhima* (medium) and *mahā* (major). In the *Visuddhimagga* (pp. 10-16), Buddhaghosa has attempted to generalise them in the answer to the question: *katividhaṃ sīlaṃ*. For the monks and nuns is prescribed a number of moral duties, some of which are codified in the *Bhikkhu-pātimokkha* and *Bhikkhuṇī-pātimokkha*, while for the unordained novices (*sāmaṇeras*) are prescribed the well-known ten *sīlas*,¹ of which the first five only are meant for all lay-devotees (upāsakas and upāsikās), the more faithful among them, however, being permitted to observe the first eight sīlas on the uposatha days, with the option of observing all the ten sīlas. These five or eight sīlas are called by Buddhaghosa¹ gahaṭṭhasīlas (precepts meant for householders).

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¹ The ten *sīlas* or *sikkhāpadas* are:
(i) Pāṇātipātā veramaṇi.
(ii) Adinnādānā veramaṇi.
(iii) Abrahmacariyā or kāmesu micchācārā veramaṇi.
(iv) Musāvadā veramaṇi.
(v) Surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhānā veramaṇi.
(vi) Vikālabhojanā veramaṇi.
(vii) Naccagītavāditavisukadassanā veramaṇi. (viii) Mālāgandhavilepana-dhāraṇa-maṇḍana-vibhūsaṇaṭṭhānā veramaṇi.

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¹ Vism., p. 15.

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The Pātimokkha² is the accepted code of moral duties for the monks and nuns, and the declaration of non-transgression of any of the rules contained in it on the fortnightly uposatha days is regarded as sufficient for making a monk or nun morally pure. Apart from the Pātimokkha rules, there are hundreds of other rules which the monks and nuns are expected to observe. In short, every monk or nun is required to be ideally pure as far as the moral precepts are concerned.

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² See Infra, Ch. XVII.

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Broadly speaking, the moral duties of a bhikkhu can be divided into the following five sub-sections:³

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³ Atthasālini, p. 168 omits the fifth, the dhutaṅgas.

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(i) Pātimokkhasaṃvarasīla

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First, a monk is required to be well-restrained according to the 227 disciplinary rules of the Pātimokkha (see infra, ch. xvii). He should also be discreet in his conduct and movements, i.e. he must not commit any wrong either bodily or verbally in carrying on the affairs of his daily life (ācāra), or by frequenting places (gocara) unfit for a Buddhist recluse. He must always be afraid of the commission of the slightest offence (anumattesu vajjesu bhayadassāvī) and in general be observant of all the moral precepts (samādāya sikkhati sikkhāpadesu).⁴

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⁴ Vibhaṅga, p. 246-8.

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(ix) Uccāsayana-mahāsayana veramaṇī.
(x) Jātarūparajataggahaṇa veramaṇī. (See Vinaya, I, pp. 83-4; II, p. 258).

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(ii) *Indriyasaṃvarasīla*

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Next to the observance of the general moral laws and Pātimokkha rules, it is enjoined that a monk must be so restrained in his organs of sense that although these may be functioning as usual the mind of the bhikkhu will not be swayed by the characteristics or the qualities, whether good or bad, of the things seen, heard, smelt, felt or tasted.¹

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¹ *Vibhaṅga*, p. 248.

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(iii) *Ājīvapārisuddhisīla*

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The common Pāli expression for propriety in food as found in the Piṭakas is *bhojane mattaññu*, i.e. a bhikkhu should exercise sufficient self-restraint with regard to his food. He must always remember that he takes food not for making his body good-looking but just for its maintenance in order to be able to fulfil his mission. His food will be of such a nature that he must not develop a taste for new sensations (*vedanaṃ*) and at the same time get rid of the old ones.²

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² *Ibid*., p. 249.

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In the *Pātimokkha-sutta*, there is a number of restrictions imposed on a monk for the manner in which he should take food, and a series of instructions concerning the right ways of collecting his food, but even all those instructions cannot naturally be exhaustive, so Buddhaghosa says that a bhikkhu must avoid committing offence relating to *ājīva* but not falling within the scope of the *Pātimokkha* rules, e.g. a bhikkhu may, by talks or signs or direct or indirect hints, persuade the believing laity to offer gifts of food, dress or other requisites to himself, or may take recourse to the various means enumerated in the *Brahmajālasutta* not befitting a Buddhist monk.³ (iv) *Paccayasannissitasīla*

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³ *Visuddhimagga*, p. 23-4.

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After dealing with the likely transgressions that a monk may commit in course of his daily life, Buddhaghosa dilates on what should be the aims and objects of monks in wearing robes, accepting alms for food, using seats and beds, or seeking medicaments. In short, he means that the whole attention of the monk should be fixed on his goal and remain unmindful of his worldly necessities except so far as these are required to keep him up for reaching the goal.

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(v) *Dhutaṅgas* or *Ascetic Practices*

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Buddhaghosa, after thus dealing with the *sīlas* in a general way, passes on to the *dhutaṅgas*, the thirteen rigorous practices permitted to some monks. It will be apparent from what has been said above that according to the Buddhists, purity is more mental than physical, and hence, in Buddhist ethics emphasis has been laid more on mental than on physical discipline.¹ The monks, as a rule, were not required to undergo unnecessary physical discomforts except what was necessary for concentration of mind, i.e., a little food and cloth with a bare bed, seat, medicaments and a resting place. The restrictions which were observed by them in these matters are detailed in the *Pātimokkha* and other parts of the *Vinaya*. In the earliest stage of Buddhism, when the monks used to live as hermits in caves and forests, i.e. before the practice of living in monasteries came into vogue, four *nissayas* (conditions) were prescribed for them. These were,—

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¹ In the *Majjhima* (I, p. 238) it is stated that the ascetic practices do not even lead to *kāyabhāvanā* (physical discipline) not to speak of *cittabhāvanā* (mental discipline). Success in the ascetic practices, it is remarked (vide *Digha*, III, pp. 42-45), sometimes leads to joy, self-praise, lack of diligence and love of gain, fame and honour.

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1. *piṇḍiyālopa-bhojanam* (to take food received as alms)
2. *paṃsukūlacīvaram* (to use robes made of rags collected from dust heap)
3. *rukkhamūlasenāsanam* (to sit and lie at the foot of a tree) and
4. *pūtimuttabhesajjam* (to use excrements and urine as medicines).

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In the *Sutta-Nipāta* and other earlier books of the Piṭakas, practice of a rigorous hermit life has been extolled, but with the introduction of monastic life, the rigorousness was gradually relaxed, and a good illustration of this fact is furnished by the *Mahāvagga* itself.¹

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¹ See *Infra*, Ch. XVI. 2 See *Majjhima*, I, 30; II, pp. 6-9 3 *Vinaya*, II, p. 215. 4 *Majjhima*, II, p. 9 ff.

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From the rules in the *Pātimokkha* it is apparent that the earliest form of *nissayas* was already superseded, at the time of its compilation, by the *atirekalābha*, but in any case there must have been all along a section of monks who were in favour of the observance of rigorous practices in the Buddhist monastic life, and this section was perhaps responsible for the introduction of the *dhutaṅgas*.

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In the four Nikāyas and also in the *Vinaya Piṭaka* there is no mention of the term *dhutaṅgas* not to speak of its inclusion in the list of *sīlas*. Some of the *dhutaṅga*-practices, such as *sapadānacārī*, *piṇḍapātiko*, *paṃsukūliko*, *rukkhamūliko*, *abbhokāsiko*, *āraññiko*, *pantasenāsano* are mentioned incidentally in the Nikāyas² and *Vinaya*³ but it is also stated that Buddha himself did not practise them in his own life while some of his disciples did.⁴ It is therefore evident that the *dhutaṅgas* were not recognised in early Buddhism as a group of practices or at least as subsidiary practices compulsory for the Buddhist monks. It may be contended by some that Mahākassapa is referred to in the *Saṃyutta* and the *Aṅguttara Nikāyas*¹ as the foremost of the dhūtavādins, hence the dhutaṅga practices were in vogue but as against it we may point out that had it been so, the thirteen dhutaṅgas would have found a place in the last section of the *Aṅguttara*, if not, in the *Dasuttarasuttanta* of the *Dīgha Nikāya*.² The interpretation given in the *Visuddhimagga* (pp. 80-81) deserves also attention. According to it, a bhikkhu need not practise the dhutaṅgas in his own life but for that reason he is not debarred from being a dhūtavādin, i.e., an advocate or preacher of the dhutaṅgas. It may be that Mahākassapa like Buddha was only a dhūtavādī and did not observe the dhutaṅgas. The silence of the *Nikāyas* and the *Vinaya* is a distinct evidence of its later growth, or at least its later recognition by the Theravāda sect.

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¹ *Saṃyutta*, II, p. 156; *Aṅguttara*, I, p. 23.

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² In the *IHQ.*, (vol. XIII). Dr. Bapat points out that in the *Nikāyas*, āraññaka, piṇḍapātika, paṃsukūlika and tecīvarika are mentioned while in the *Niddesa* (p. 188), there are other four, viz., sapadānacārika, khalupacchābhattika, nesajjika and yathāsanthatika. In the *Milindapañha* the number is brought to thirteen. In the *Mahāvyutpatti*, sapadānacārika and pattapiṇḍika are omitted and nāmatika is added. Cf. Kern, *Manual of Buddhism*, p. 75-76; Childers, *Pāli Dictionary*, p. 310.

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In this connection it is worth while to refer to one of the causes of dispute between Buddha and his cousin Devadatta. The latter wanted to make some rigorous practices compulsory on the monks of the Saṅgha, to which, however, Buddha was opposed. The practices were, 1. bhikkhū yāvajīvaṃ āraññakā assu
2. ,, ,, piṇḍapātikā ,,
3. ,, ,, paṃsukūlikā ,,
4. ,, ,, rukkhamūlikā ,,
5. ,, ,, macchamaṃsaṃ na khādeyyuṃ.¹

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¹ Buddha permitted rukkhamūlasenāsana for eight months and the eating of fish and meat under three restrictions, viz., adiṭṭham, asutam and aparisaṅkitam. See Vinaya, II, p. 197 also Jātaka, I, p. 34. Cf. the Mahāyānic restrictions about meat-eating in the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, ch. viii. See also Thomas, Life of Buddha, pp. 134 ff.

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Though the Pāli tradition has nothing but condemnation for Devadatta’s actions, it is apparent that Devadatta was not without some followers and influence, and that his disciplinary principles were not wholly brushed aside by the monks. The adoption of the dhutaṅgas by the Pāli school and the prohibition of eating fish and flesh by the Mahāyānists give the palm to Devadatta. The earliest reference to dhutaṅgas and their excellence is found in the Milindapañha (pp. 351-355) and their full exposition in the Visuddhimagga (pp. 59-83). The thirteen dhutaṅgas are:—

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1. paṃsukūlikaṅgaṃ = to wear robes made of rags collected from dust heaps of streets, cemeteries, etc.;
2. tecīvarikaṅgaṃ = to have not more than three robes, i.e. one each of saṅghāṭi, uttarāsaṅga and antaravāsaka and even for washing or colouring one must manage with these three only;
3. piṇḍapātikaṅgaṃ = to eat food collected by begging only from door to door, and avoid any of the fourteen kinds of food-offerings permitted in the Vinaya;² 4. *sapadānacārikaṅgaṃ* = to beg food from house to house consecutively and without any omission;¹

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² The fourteen kinds are,—saṅghabhattam, uddesabh., niman-tanabh., salākābh., pakkhikam, uposathikam, paṭipādikam, āgantukabh., gāmikabh., gilānabh., gīlanuppaṭṭhākabh., vihārabh., dhūrabh., vārakabh.

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¹ Mahākassapa is said to have been the foremost in this *dhutaṅga*, see *Vism*, p. 68

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5. *ekāsanikaṅgaṃ* = to take meal at one sitting, i.e., if one is required to stand up or move to show respect to his teacher or do some other work, he cannot resume his seat and take his food again;

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6. *pattapiṇḍikaṅgaṃ* = to possess only one bowl and not a second and to take all kinds of food thrown into it, be they tasteful or not;

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7. *khalupacchābhattikaṅgaṃ* = not to take any food after finishing or signifying intention of finishing one's meal, even if any be offered (cf. *Pācittiya*, 35),

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8. *āraññikaṅgaṃ* = to dwell only in forests and not on the outskirts of towns or villages, and the forests must be sufficiently far from any locality;

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9. *rukkhamūlikaṅgaṃ* = to live in a place without any shed and under a tree, and the tree must not be one of the boundary marks of a parish, or one within the compound of a monastery or *cetiya* (sanctuary), or one bearing fruits and so forth.

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10. *abbhokāsikaṅgaṃ* = to live in an open space, i.e., neither under a shed nor under a tree, but one with this vow as well as the previous one is permitted to take shelter in a covered place if it be raining, provided he does not run for any shelter to avoid being drenched;

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11. *sosānikaṅgaṃ* = to live in a cemetery. Buddhaghosa in explaining what is a suitable cemetery says that it must not be one used by the people of a village but one left unused for at least twelve years, but from the other conditions mentioned by Buddhaghosa (see *Vism.*, p. 77) it seems that he had in mind not a quite unfrequented cemetery;

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12. *yathāsanthatikaṅga* = to use whatever bed or seat is allotted to one without questioning or suggesting an alternative; and

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13. *nesajjikaṅga* = to spend nights sitting and not lying; of the three *yāmas*, one may be spent in walking (*caṅkamana*).

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In practising the dhutaṅgas one may be very severe (*ukkaṭṭha*), moderately severe (*majjhima*) or moderate (*mudaka*). A bhikkhu may or may not observe all the thirteen dhutaṅgas, and if he practises the severer of them, it follows that he is not required to practise the less severe, e.g. an *abbhokāsika* need not bother about *rukkhamūlikaṅga* or *yathāsanthatikaṅga*; a *sapadānacārika* must necessarily be a *piṇḍapātika*, and an *ekāsanika* can easily be a *pattapiṇḍika* or *khalupacchābhattika*. A bhikkhunī is permitted to practise only eight dhutaṅgas, i.e. they are debarred from being *āraññika*, *khalupacchābhattika*, *abbhokāsika*, *rukkhamūlika* and *sosānika*. A sāmaṇera can practise twelve dhutaṅgas, i.e. omitting *tecivarikaṅga*, similarly a sāmaṇerī can practise seven omitting the *tecivarikaṅga*. For the male and female lay-devotees, only two of the dhutaṅgas are prescribed, viz., *ekāsanikaṅga* and *pattapiṇḍikaṅga*.

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