Early Monastic Buddhism v2.c42.s2.t5: Bodhisattva-doctrine
Early Monastic Buddhism v2.c42.s2.t5
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Bodhisattva-doctrine
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As has already been mentioned, the Mahāsanghikas were the first to usher in the conception of Bodhisattva, viz., that a being in any form of existence can have or develop the determination to attain *bodhi* (*bodhicittotpāda*) at sometime or other, however long and arduous the process may be, no matter even if it entails self-immolation, not once but several times in different existences. This conception is not quite clearly expressed in the *Mahāvastu*, where we find the first attempt to detail the career of a Bodhisattva, which is as follows:—
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(i) *Prakṛti-caryā* (duties while a common man)
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(ii) *Praṇidhāna-caryā*¹ (duties when taking the vow for attaining Buddhahood)
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¹ After *bodhicittotpāda* and *praṇidhāna*, there must be also *vyākaraṇa* (prophesy) by a Buddha that such and such a being will become the Buddha.
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(iii) *Anulomacaryā* (duties for spiritual progress to Buddhahood)
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(iv) *Anivartana-caryā* (duties for remaining firm in a particular stage of spiritual progress).
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These four *caryās*¹ are explained in detail thus:—
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¹ In the *Bodhisattvabhūmi*, the four *caryās* are given differently thus, *Bodhipakṣya caryā*, *Abhijñācaryā*, *Pāramitā-caryā*, *Sattvaparipāka-caryā*. Dr. Har Dayal has followed this scheme of *Caryās* in his *Bodhisattva Doctrine*, p. 76. See also Thomas, *History of Buddhist Thought*, p. 201; *AMB.*, pp. 286-289.
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(i) *Prakṛti-caryā*² has no corresponding practice in the full-fledged Mahāyānism. A Bodhisattva is a common man (*puthujjana*) while he is in *prakṛti-caryā*. This *caryā* requires a Bodhisattva to be a good, if not an ideal, householder, fulfilling the duties towards his parents, recluses and Brāhmaṇas, respecting the elders of the family, observing the ten moral rules,³ admonishing others to be charitable and virtuous, worshipping Buddha and Śrāvakas, but not developing the mental state to attain *bodhi*.⁴ Gautama Buddha was in his *prakṛticaryā* during the time of Aparājitadhvaja Buddha.⁵
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² *Mahāvastu*, i, pp. 46-47, 81 cf. *Cariyāpiṭaka* Cy., p. 162.
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³ See *Mahāvastu*, i, p. 107, ii, pp. 14-16. The *daśa kuśala-karmapathas* are:—Refraining from (i) *prāṇātipāta* (killing), (ii) *adattādāna* (stealing), (iii) *kāmamithyācāra* (misconduct), (iv) *anṛtavacana* (speaking falsehood), (v) *piśuṇavacana* (malignant speech), (vi) *paruṣavacana* (harsh speech), (vii) *sambhinnapralāpa* (frivolous talk), (viii) *abhidhyā* (avariciousness), (ix) *vyāpannacitta* (malevolence) and (x) *mithyādṛṣṭi* (wrong view).
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⁴ *Mahāvastu*, pp. 47, 81:
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⁵ *Mahāvastu*, i, p. 1; but see p. 60 where it is said that he
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नैव ताव जनयन्ति मानसं भयपुद्गलगतं नरोत्तमा ।
नैव ताव जनयन्ति मानसं सर्वधमंविदुताय पण्डिताः ।
नैव ताव जनयन्ति मानसं ज्ञानसागरताय नायकाः ।
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(ii) *Praṇidhāna-caryā* corresponds to *bodhicittotpāda* of the developed Mahāyānism. While in this *caryā*, a Bodhisattva takes the vow that by the merits that have so far accrued to him, he may become omniscient, that his zeal in keeping his vow may not flag, that he may end his past evil acts by suffering pains, and that he may wander over this world like the Buddha untouched by the worldly objects as the incomparable teacher, revered by men and gods, and ultimately he may roll the wheel of law,¹ preach the truth, and train up beings like the Buddha the lamp of this world.²
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¹ *Mahāvastu*, i, p. 50:—
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² *Ibid.*, p. 54:—
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Gautama Buddha first took this vow during the time of a past Śākyamuni Buddha after offering him a drink of gruel. He took the vow for the second time during the time of Samitāvi Buddha, and later as the monk Abhiya during the time of Sarvābhibhu Buddha. In this way he took this vow five times.
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(iii) *Anuloma-caryā* corresponds to *Bodhi-prasthāna-citta* of the *Bodhicaryāvatāra* (p. 23). A Bodhisattva immediately after taking the vow, mentioned above, commences performing the duties prescribed for his spiritual progress. The duties to be performed and the virtues to be acquired by a Bodhisattva are
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offered valuable robes to Aparājitadhvaja Buddha and prayed for attainment of *sambodhi*.
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एवमहं लोकमिमं चरेयं यथा अयं चरति असंगमानसो ।
चक्रं प्रवर्तयं अनन्यसाह्यो भवेयमहं देवमनुष्यपूजितो ॥
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अथे चरेयं लोके देवमनुष्यानां देशिय धर्मं ।
एवं विनेय सत्त्वां यथा अयं लोकप्रयतो ॥
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endless. In some texts¹ an attempt has been made to arrange the duties and virtues in a gradual order in ten stages (bhūmis). The keynote of the Bodhisattva practices is self-sacrifice for the good of others with a firm resolution for the attainment of bodhi. The practices mentioned in the Mahāvastu are not only much less elaborate than those found in the later texts, but also are not in a progressive order. Briefly, these are as follows:—
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¹ Daśabhumikasūtra; Bodhisattvabhūmi; Sūtrālaṅkāra of Asaṅga.
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In the 1st bhūmi (Dūrārohā)² the Bodhisattva cultivates charity (tyāga), compassion (karuṇā), unweariness, (aparikheda), conceit-lessness (amāna), love for study (sarvaśāstrādhyāyitā), valour (vikrama), knowledge of the worldly ways (lokānujñā) and patience (dhṛti).
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² See Mahāvastu, i, pp. 85-89.
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In the 2nd bhūmi (Baddhamānā) the Bodhisattva develops twenty kinds of strong inclinations (adhyāśaya) viz., excellent (kalyāṇa), quiet (snigdha), sweet (madhura), etc. Each of these inclinations is explained in verse.³
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³ A bodhisattva while in the first bhūmi remains a prthagjana (common man), but deserving gifts See Mahāvastu, i, p. 78.
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In the 3rd bhūmi (Puṣpamaṇḍitā) the Bodhisattva exerts for making all beings happy without seeking happiness for his own-self, and sacrifices everything even his life for listening to wise sayings.
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In the 4th bhūmi (Rucirā) the Bodhisattva refrains from commission of any of the extreme offences, viz., patricide, matricide and arhanticide, and dissension in the Saṅgha, and stūpa-desecration; he avoids heretic views, performs the ten good deeds⁴ (kuśalakarmapatha); does not use any magical spell for injuring others, does not get depressed in danger nor becomes elated in success, remains pure in physical, mental and vocal acts, as also in his inclinations (*adhyāśaya*).
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⁴ See above, p. 306 n. 3.
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In the 5th *bhūmi* (*Citravistara*) the Bodhisattva realises the fact that worldly existences are ablaze with attachment (*rāga*), hatred (*dosa*), and delusion (*moha*).
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In the 6th *bhūmi* (*Rūpavatī*) the Bodhisattva comprehends that existence in the world is unhappy and painful.
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In the 7th *bhūmi* (*Durjayā*) the Bodhisattva attains complete self-control and wishes for the good of all beings.
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In the 8th *bhūmi* (*Janmanirdeśa*) the Bodhisattva sacrifices everything including the dearest things which are very difficult to part with. From this *bhūmi* onwards the Bodhisattva should be looked upon as the *Samyaksambuddha* as he has mastered the higher meditational practices, acquired full knowledge and delivered wise discourses.
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In the 9th and 10th *bhūmis* (*Yauvarājya* and *Abhiṣeka*)¹ therefore the Bodhisattva has nothing more to attain. Now he can take rebirth in whatever form he likes; he can also become a universal monarch. These two *bhūmis*, evidently, were reached by Gautama Buddha in his last two existences in the Tuṣita heaven and in the mortal world.² He decided to take rebirth as a human being for imparting instructions to men and gods, leading them to *arhat*hood or other attainments. In the later Mahāyānic texts, the Bodhisattva in the eighth *bhūmi* becomes a Buddha *in esse*, a member of the Buddha family with Buddha *gotra*, and guarded henceforward by the gods and Vajrapāṇi.³ In the 9th *bhūmi*, according to these texts, the Bodhisattva becomes a *dharma* preacher, a guide to other beings. In the 10th *bhūmi* he obtains the resplendent body and omniscience while in meditation;¹ he is now consecrated as the *Samyaksambuddha* and so this *bhūmi* is called *Abhiṣeka*.
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¹ *Mahāvastu*, i, pp. 105-6.
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² Thomas, *History of Buddhist Thought*, p. 203.
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³ *AMB.*, p. 282.
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¹ *AMB.*, p. 283.
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(iv) *Anivartana-caryā* of the *Mahāvastu* is equated by Dr. E. J. Thomas² to the *Avaivartya-caryā* of the later Mahāyānic texts. In the *Mahāvastu*, however, it carries a different sense. In this text some lapses are pointed out as causes for retrogression of a Bodhisattva from a higher to a lower *bhūmi*, and so a Bodhisattva is warned about these lapses in connection with every *bhūmi* that may be reached by him. The word *avaivartya* is used as an adjective of the Bodhisattva³ in every *bhūmi*, implying that the resolution of the Bodhisattva for attaining *bodhi* remains unflinching all along. Incidentally the text⁴ mentions that the Bodhisattva while in one of the first seven *bhūmis* may, for any serious lapse, be reborn in one of the lower forms of existence. In the later Mahāyānic texts, the 8th *bhūmi* is called *Avaivartya* or *Acalā*, from which the Bodhisattva can never have any retrogression; he is destined to attain *bodhi* and become a *samyaksambuddha*, and so it is quite different from the *anivartana-caryā* of the *Mahāvastu*.
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² *History of Buddhist Thought*, p. 201.
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³ *Mahāvastu*, i, p. 82: यं पुनर्भों जिनपुत्र अविवर्तियो बोधिसत्त्वो प्रथमं चित्तमुत्पादयति etc.; p. 83: ये इमे भो जिनपुत्र अविवर्तिका बोधिसत्त्वा केवलाकानि तं प्रथमाया भूमी स्थिताः दुष्करानि कृतानोति etc.
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⁴ *Mahāvastu*, i, pp. 102-4.
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The Bodhisattva conception apparently was not fully developed in the *Mahāvastu*. The conception presented in the text is half-way between Hinayāna and Mahāyāna. The Bodhisattva, it has in view, is the previous existences of Gautama Buddha.¹ It makes no reference to the acquisition of pāramitās i.e., the inconceivable and immeasurable virtues acquired by Bodhisattvas in the several bhūmis, as detailed in the Daśabhūmikasūtra² or the Bodhisattvabhūmi.³ There can be no doubt therefore that in the Mahāvastu, we have not only the earliest speculations about the life and career of a Bodhisattva, but also the earliest Jātaka stories. It is in the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka⁴ that we find a fairly developed conception of the Bodhisattva. The Śrāvakas in this work are not disparaged as is done in the later Mahāyāna texts, and a hope is held out to them, that by taking recourse to certain Bodhisattva practices they could still achieve Buddhahood. The new ideals preached in this text electrified the mass, made Buddhism an all-India religion, and we may say that the popular form of Buddhism reached its climax about the time of composition of this work, i.e., about the 2nd century A.D.
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¹ Cf. Thomas, History of Buddhist Thought, p. 201: "The conception of the career in the Mahāvastu also shows more primitive features. It is described not as a career for any bodhisattva, but as having been the career of Śākyamuni and previous Buddhas."
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² See AMB., ch. IV.
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³ Bodhisattvabhūmi (ed. Wogihara), Tokyo.
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⁴ Saddharmapuṇḍarīka, p. 221.
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Gṛhī Bodhisattvas: In the early Mahāyāna texts, there is no express mention of householder-bodhisattvas.⁵ In the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka (p. 20), a Bodhisattva is said to have 800 disciples (antevāsins), but it is not known whether they were householders or recluses. In the Daśabhūmikasūtra, it is stated that in the fourth bhūmi, the Bodhisattva takes ordination, which implies that he could remain a householder up to the fourth bhūmi, or the practice of vīrya-pāramitā. The dhyāna and prajñā pāramitās are to be accomplished after a bodhisattva becomes a monk. In the later Mahāyāna texts like Ugradattaparipṛcchā and Śikṣāsamuccaya, a special code has been framed for the conduct of the householder-bodhisattvas.¹ The pāramitās, it seems, were meant more for the householders than for the recluses. In actual practice, as is found in the Jātaka stories, the pāramitās were being accomplished by laymen, gods and animals, and rarely by ascetics. In the Mahāvastu and other early Mahāyāna texts, the duties of Gṛhi-bodhisattvas are not distinctly prescribed, but in course of time this desideratum of a code was removed and the career of a householder-bodhisattva was clearly chalked out.²
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⁵ Cf. Bodhisattvabhūmi (ed. Wogihara), p. 138:—तत्र कतमद् बोधिसत्त्वस्य सर्वशीलम्। समासतौ बोधिसत्त्वस्य गृहस्थगतं प्रव्रजितपद्यगतं च शीलम् सर्वशीलमित्युच्यते।
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¹ AMB., pp. 295-301.
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² For further details, see AMB., pp. 295 f.; and Bodhisattva Prātimokṣa Sūtra.
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Conclusion: In the pre-Aśokan days Buddhism hardly became a popular movement. It was confined to recluses, the number of which increased to a certain extent owing to the slight deviations made from the austere principles of the earliest form of Buddhism. In his edicts Aśoka did not fully approve of the emphasis laid by early Buddhism on retirement from household life. This attitude of Aśoka might have some effect on the religion. During Aśoka's reign, the caitya and stūpa worship of Buddha's images got currency. About two centuries had elapsed since Buddha's demise, and during this long period, Buddha came to be deified inspite of all the textual injunctions to the contrary. The laymen expressed their devotion by erecting stūpas and decorated them with images of Buddha. The laity, however, still remained outside the Buddhist fold, and earned merits only by making gifts to the monks and offering worship to the Buddhist *stūpas*. They were held out the hope of rebirth in one of the heavens, but not emancipation. At this stage, about the 2nd century B.C. appeared the *Jātakas* and *Avadānas* depicting the previous lives of Buddha and his disciples. These stories caught the imagination of the generality of the people who now hoped that they could become Bodhisattvas and earn necessary merits to become a Buddha in the long run. Their hopes were further strengthened by the doctrine of *pāramitās*, and special texts were composed to show that the perfection in the *pāramitās* assured one Buddhahood and that the practice of *pāramitās* was open to all, recluses or householders. The laymen now felt that they could become actual followers of the religion and derive the benefits. The self-sacrifice preached in the *pāramitā* doctrine had a wide appeal and made Buddhism an all-India religion. It was through the propagation of this *pāramitā* cult that the religion reached the pinnacle of its glory.
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the *prætorian* guards, whose licentious fury was the first symptom and cause of the decline of the Roman empire, derive their institution from Augustus. That crafty tyrant, sensible that laws might colour, but that arms alone could maintain, his usurped dominion, had separated the veterans from the rest of the army, and reserved them for his own service. He established nine cohorts, each of a thousand men, and commanded by a tribune, which were stationed in the neighbourhood of Rome. Augustus, for obvious reasons, never ventured to employ more than three cohorts in the city; but Tiberius, at the persuasion of Sejanus, assembled the whole body in a permanent camp, which was constructed at the walls of the city, and gave the prætorians a decided superiority over the civil magistrates, and even over the senate. Their numbers were afterwards increased by Vitellius to sixteen thousand, and by the Severi to a much greater amount.
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The prætorians were the flower of the army, and were recruited exclusively from Italy, or from the more Romanized provinces of Spain, Noricum, and Macedonia. Their pay was double that of the legionaries, and their term of service was limited to sixteen years, whereas the others were obliged to serve twenty. They were the immediate guardians of the emperor's person, and the arbiters of the empire. Their insolence grew with their power, and they soon learned to despise the authority of the senate, and to treat the emperors themselves as their creatures.
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The history of the prætorians is a history of the decline and fall of the Roman empire. They were the instruments of every revolution, and the authors of every calamity. They sold the empire to the highest bidder, and they murdered the emperors who refused to comply with their demands. The reign of Pertinax, who attempted to reform their discipline, was short and bloody; and the sale of the empire to Didius Julianus, by the prætorians, is one of the most disgraceful events in the annals of history.
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The prætorians were finally suppressed by Constantine the Great, who, after his victory over Maxentius, demolished their camp, and dispersed the cohorts into the distant frontiers of the empire. This was a wise and necessary measure, which restored the authority of the civil government, and delivered the capital from the tyranny of a licentious soldiery.
Linked texts (9)
- Mahāvastu — Sanskrit
- Cariyāpiṭaka — Pāli
- Bodhisattvabhūmi — Sanskrit
- Daśabhūmikasūtra — Sanskrit
- Bodhisattvaprātimokṣasūtra — Sanskrit
- Saddharmapuṇḍarīkasūtra — Sanskrit
- Mahāyānasūtrālaṃkāra — Maitreyanātha & Asaṅga, Sanskrit
- Bodhicaryāvatāra — Śāntideva, Sanskrit
- Śikṣāsamuccaya — Śāntideva, Sanskrit