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Vedic Mythology c5.s8: H. Lower Deities

Vedic Mythology c5.s8

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H. Lower Deities

§ 46. Ṛbhus

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Besides the higher gods of the Veda there are a number of mythical beings not regarded as having the divine nature fully and originally. The most important of these are the Ṛbhus. They are celebrated in eleven hymns of the RV. and are mentioned by name over a hundred times. They form a triad. Their individual names, which often occur, are Ṛbhu or less commonly Ṛbhukṣan ('chief of the Ṛbhus'), Vāja, and Vibhvan. These three names are several times mentioned together, sometimes only two of them, while occasionally Ṛbhu is referred to alone. They are most often spoken of in the plural as *ṛbhavaḥ*, but the plural of each of their names may designate the triad. Sometimes the plurals of all three (4, 36³; 8, 48¹) or of only two (*Vājā Ṛbhukṣaṇaḥ* or *Vājā Ṛbhavaḥ*) appear to be used together pleonastically to indicate the trio. Once the combination *Vājo Vibhvā̃n Ṛbhavaḥ* occurs (4, 36⁶). Occasionally an indefinite group seems to be meant, as all (*viśve*) the Ṛbhus (7, 51³), or Ṛbhu with the Ṛbhus, Vibhvan with the Vibhus (7, 48²) are invoked. In the latter passage Ṛbhu and Vibhvan are evidently thought of as chiefs of groups of the same name. The three Ṛbhus are once distinguished as eldest, younger, and youngest (4, 33⁵).

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The Ṛbhus are about a dozen times called by the patronymic name of Saudhanvana, sons of Sudhanvan, 'the good archer'. They are also once collectively addressed as the son (*sūno*) of Indra (4, 37⁴). In the same verse they are invoked as 'children of might' (*śavaso napātaḥ*), as if a play on the meaning of *napāt* (also 'grandson') were intended, in contrast with the epithet 'son of might' (*śavasaḥ sūnu*), which is applied exclusively to Indra. The epithet *śavaso napātaḥ* is almost peculiar to them, being applied to them five times and otherwise only once to Mitra-Varuṇa. In one passage (3, 60³) they are spoken of as 'children of Manu' (*manor napātaḥ*) and their parents (*pitarā*) are several times mentioned. In one hymn they address Agni as their brother (1, 161¹·³).

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They are very frequently invoked to come to the sacrifice (4, 34¹·³, 37¹) and to drink the Soma juice (4, 34⁴. 36²; 7, 48¹). Being high in heaven they are besought to come to the Soma in the lower abodes (4, 37³). In this they are generally associated with Indra (3, 60⁴⁻⁶; 4, 33³. 34⁶. 35⁷), a few times with the Maruts (1, 20⁵. 111⁴; 4, 34¹¹), and once with the Ādityas, Savitṛ, Mountains, and Rivers (4, 34⁸). In other respects also they are closely connected with Indra. They are Indra-like (4, 37⁵) and Ṛbhu is like a new Indra (1, 110⁷). With Indra they help mortals to victory (4, 37⁶) and are invoked with him to crush foes (7, 48³). They are said to have obtained the friendship of Indra by their skilful work (3, 60³; 4, 35⁷·⁹); for it is they who fashioned his steeds. In the hymns devoted to their praise, they are rarely invoked with gods other than Indra, there being only one such passage (4, 34⁸) in which Indra is not mentioned as well. Indra's connexion with them is indeed so characteristic, that he is, like the eldest of the triad, called 'chief of the Ṛbhus' (*ṛbhukṣan*), a term also two or three times applied to Indra's associates, the Maruts. In some of the Viśvedeva hymns they are brought into connexion with a few other gods, chiefly Tvaṣṭṛ.

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The references to the physical aspect or the equipment of the Ṛbhus are scanty. They are of sunlike appearance (1, 110⁴). They have a car (1, 161⁷), which is drawn by steeds (7, 48¹). Their car is bright, their steeds are fat; they wear metal helmets and fair necklaces (4, 37⁴). Ṛbhu is a possessor of steeds (*aśvin*: 4, 37⁵). The Ṛbhus are characteristically defthanded (*suhastāḥ*) and skilful (*apás*, *svapas*: 4, 33 1. 8 &c.), their skilful deeds being incomparable (3, 60⁴). They are frequently said to have acquired the rank of gods in consequence of their marvellous skill. Through their wondrous deeds they obtained divinity (3, 60¹). By their skilful deeds they became gods and immortal, alighting like eagles in heaven (4, 35⁸). They are men of the air who by their energy mounted to heaven (1, 110⁶). For their skilful services they went the path of immortality to the host of the gods (4, 35³), obtaining immortality among the gods and their friendship (4, 33 3. 4. 35³. 36⁴). But they were originally mortals, children of Manu, who by their industry acquired immortality (3, 60³; 1, 110⁴). The AB. (3, 30²) speaks of them as men who by austerity (*tapas*) obtained a right to partake of Soma among the gods. The gods rejoiced so greatly in their work, that Vāja became the artificer of the gods, Ṛbhukṣan of Indra, and Vibhvan of Varuṇa (4, 33⁹). They went to the gods and obtained the sacrifice, or a share of the sacrifice, among the gods through their skilful work (1, 20 1. 8. 121 6. 7). Thus the third or evening pressing or libation (*savana*) belongs to them, they having obtained it by their skilful work (1, 161⁸; 4, 33¹¹. 34⁴. 35⁹). They are thus sometimes expressly invoked as gods (4, 36⁵. 37¹).

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Like the higher gods, they are besought to give prosperity and wealth (4, 33⁸. 37⁵), in cattle, horses, heroes (4, 34¹⁰), and to grant vigour, nourishment, offspring, dexterity (1, 111²). They grant treasures to the Soma presser (1, 20⁷; 4, 35⁶). He whom they help is invincible in fight (4, 36⁶), and Ṛbhu and Vāja are besought to give aid and booty in battle (1, 115⁵).

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The same verb *takṣ*, to fashion, is generally used with reference to the manual skill of the Ṛbhus as to that of Tvaṣṭṛ. The five great feats of dexterity by which they became gods, are spoken of with pretty uniform frequency and are all or most of them mentioned in nearly every hymn dedicated to their praise. They fashioned or made a car (1, 111¹. 161³; 4, 33⁸. 36²), which is horseless, reinless, three-wheeled, and traverses space (4, 36¹). The car which goes round they fashioned for the Aśvins (1, 20³. 161⁶; 10, 39¹²). When in a verse (4, 34⁹) which enumerates each of their feats with a single word, they are said to have fashioned the Aśvins themselves, this appears to be only a loose way of referring to the same exploit.

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For Indra they fashioned the two bay steeds (*harī*) which waft him (4, 33¹⁰ &c.). It appears to be only a varied reference to the same feat when the Ṛbhus are represented as desiring to make a horse or as having made one horse after another (1, 161 3. 7).

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They further fashioned or made a cow (1, 161³; 4, 34⁹), which yields nectar (1, 20³) and is all-stimulating and omniform (4, 33⁸). This cow they formed out of hide (1, 110⁸) or extracted (*ariṇīta*) from a hide (1, 161⁷ &c.). They guarded her and formed her flesh (4, 33⁴). That they formed this cow for Bṛhaspati may be inferred from a verse (1, 161⁶) which states that Indra yoked the two bay steeds and the Aśvins the car, while Bṛhaspati drove up the omniform (cow). A minor feat, only twice referred to and perhaps connected with the foregoing one, consists in their having re-united the mother with her calf (1, 110⁸. 111¹).

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The Ṛbhus also rejuvenated their parents (1, 20⁴. 111¹; 4, 35⁵), who were frail and lay like decaying posts (1, 110⁸; 4, 33 2. 3). They made the two who were old young again (1, 161 3. 7). When in the brief enumeration of their feats already referred to (4, 34⁹), they are simply said to have fashioned their parents, the same feat is doubtless meant. It was their laudable fame among the gods, that they made their frail and very old parents young again so as to walk (4, 36³). In the first verse of the same hymn it is said to have been the great proclamation of their divine power, that they made heaven and earth to thrive. The latter thus seem to be intended by their parents.

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The exhibition of skill which is most frequently mentioned and appears to have been thought the greatest, as showing the Ṛbhus in the character of successful rivals of Tvaṣṭṛ, consists in their having made the one cup, the work of Tvaṣṭṛ, into four (1, 20⁶. 110³; 4, 35²· ³. 36⁴). This cup is the drinking vessel of the gods (1, 161⁵; 4, 35⁵) or of the Asura (1, 110³). The Ṛbhus were commissioned by the gods through their messenger Agni, to make the one cup, which was of wood, into four, promising as a reward that they should receive worship equally with the gods (1, 161¹· ²). Tvaṣṭṛ praised (*panayat*) the proposal of the Ṛbhus to make two, three, or four cups, and acquiesced (*avenat*) when he saw the four shining cups (4, 33⁵· ⁶). But in another passage it is said that Tvaṣṭṛ, on seeing the four cups, hid himself among the females and desired to kill the Ṛbhus for desecrating the drinking vessel of the gods (1, 161⁴· ⁵), though the Ṛbhus in a previous verse of the same hymn (v. ¹) disclaim any wish to desecrate it. They are described as measuring out like a field the one wide drinking vessel (*pātra*), desiring fame among the immortals (1, 110⁵). The same feat is less definitely referred to when they are said to have formed or fashioned cups (1, 161⁹; 3, 60² cp. 4, 35⁵).

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The skill of the Ṛbhus is incidentally exemplified by the statement that they fashioned prayer (10, 80⁷), sacrifice (3, 54¹²), and the two worlds (4, 34⁹), or that they are supporters of the sky (10, 66¹⁰).

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Another myth connects the Ṛbhus with Savitṛ. They are said to have been round the sky, wind-sped, in swift course (4, 33¹ cp. 1, 161¹²). After much wandering they came to the house of Savitṛ, who conferred immortality on them when they came to Agohya (1, 110²· ³). When, slumbering for twelve days, they had rejoiced in the hospitality of Agohya, they made fair fields and directed the streams, plants occupied the arid ground and waters the lowlands (4, 33⁷). By their skill they made grass on the heights and waters in the depths, when they slumbered in the house of Agohya (1, 161¹¹). Having slept, they asked Agohya as to who had awakened them; in a year they looked around (ib. ¹³).

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The word *ṛbhu* is apparently derived from the root *rabh*, to grasp (cp. 2, 3⁸)¹, thus meaning ‘handy’, ‘dexterous’. It frequently occurs in the RV. as an adjective and is several times thus used as an attribute of Indra, Agni, and the Ādityas. It seems to be identical with the German *elbe* and the English *elf*². Vāja (from the root *vaj*) means the ‘vigorous one’³, and Vibhvan⁴ (from *vi* and the root *bhū*), ‘the eminent’ (artist). Thus both the name of the Ṛbhus and the account given of them in the RV. indicate that their essential character is that of skilful artificers.

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It is clear that they were regarded as not having been gods from the beginning. Whether their close connexion with Indra has in any way to do with their original nature is doubtful. It is also uncertain who is meant by their patronymic Saudhanvana, since the word *sudhanvan* occurs only twice in the RV. as an attribute of Rudra and of the Maruts. It is, however, most probable that their parents who are mentioned so often, represent heaven and earth⁵. The notion that they produce fertility is connected with their sojourn of twelve days in the house of Savitṛ or Agohya, the sun ‘who cannot be concealed’⁶. They have therefore by various scholars⁷ been taken to be genii of the three seasons⁸, which are at a stand-still during the twelve days of the winter solstice. The cup of Tvaṣṭṛ possibly represents the moon, and the four into which it was transformed by the Ṛbhus, its four phases. On the whole it seems probable that the Ṛbhus were originally terrestrial or aerial elves, whose dexterity gradually attracted to them various myths illustrative of marvelous skill. But the evidence furnished by the RV. is hardly sufficient to warrant any certain conclusion.

§ 47. The Apsarases

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Apsaras denotes a kind of nymph that even in the RV. appears almost completely separated from her physical basis. The information there obtainable is very scanty, as the name occurs only five times. The Apsaras smiles at her beloved (the Gandharva mentioned in the preceding verse) in the highest heaven (10, 123⁵). Vasiṣṭha was born of the Apsaras (7, 33¹²) and the Vasiṣṭhas are said to have sat close to the Apsarases (ibid. ⁹). The Apsarases of the sea are described as flowing to Soma (9, 78³), with reference to the water which is mixed with the juice. The long-haired ascetic with semi-divine powers is spoken of as able to move on the path of the Apsarases and the Gandharvas (10, 136⁶). The Apsaras is also doubtless meant by the aqueous nymph (*apyā yoṣā*), the wife of the Gandharva in the waters (10, 10⁴).

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More is said about the Apsarases in the AV. Their abode is in the waters, whence they come and go in a trice (AV. 2, 2³); and they are besought to depart from the vicinity of men to the river and the bank of the waters (AV. 4, 37³). The goddesses accompanying the Gandharva Viśvāvasu are described as connected with clouds, lightning, and stars (AV. 2, 2⁴). They are expressly called wives of the Gandharvas (AV. 2, 2⁵), and their connexion with the latter has assumed the character of a formula in the later Saṃhitās (VS. 30, 8; AV. 8, 9⁹, &c.)¹. In the ŚB. (11, 5, 1⁴) the Apsarases are described as transforming themselves into a kind of aquatic bird (*ātayaḥ*: cp. RV. 9, 5⁹). In the post-Vedic literature they are very often spoken of as frequenting forest lakes and rivers, espescially the Ganges, and they are found in Varuṇa's palace in the ocean². The etymological meaning of the word is most probably ‘moving in the waters’³.

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¹ Cp. HIL. 411.

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² Holtzmann, ZDMG. 33, 635.

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³ Roth, Nirukta, Erl. 65; Goldstücker, Lexicon s. v.; ORV. 522.

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The above evidence indicates that the oldest conception of the Apsaras is that of a celestial water nymph, already regarded in the RV. as the consort of a genius named Gandharva. In the later Saṃhitās the sphere of the Apsarases extends to the earth and in particular to trees. They are spoken of as inhabiting banyans (*nyagrodha*) and sacred fig-trees (*aśvattha*), in which their cymbals and lutes resound (AV. 4, 37⁴). Elsewhere the same trees as well as other varieties of the fig-tree (*udumbara* and *plakṣa*) are said to be the houses of Gandharvas and Apsarases (TS. 3, 4, 8⁴). The Gandharvas and Apsarases in such trees are entreated to be propitious to a passing wedding procession (AV. 14, 2⁹)⁴. In the ŚB. (11, 6, 1) the Apsarases are described as engaged in dance, song, and play. Post-Vedic texts even speak of mountains, both mythical and actual, as favourite resorts of these two classes of beings⁵. The AV. adds the traits that the Apsarases are fond of dice and bestow luck at play (AV. 2, 2⁵ &c.), but that they are feared especially as causing mental derangement, magic therefore being employed against them (AV. 2, 3⁵ &c.).

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⁴ Cp. Aufrecht, KZ. 34, 439.

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The love of the Apsarases, who are of the great beauty⁶ (cp. ŚB. 13, 4 3⁷. ⁸), is enjoyed not only by the Gandharvas, but occasionally even by men (cp. 10, 95⁹). A myth turning on such a union is related of at least one individual Apsaras in Vedic literature. The names only of several other Apsarases are there mentioned. The AV. refers to three, Ugrajit, Ugrampaśyā, and Rāṣṭrabhṛt (AV. 16, 118¹⁻²), while the VS., among several others, speaks of Urvaśī and Menakā (VS. 15, 15—19). The ŚB. (3, 4, 1²²) also specifies Śakuntalā, the ancestress of the royal family of the Bharatas⁷ (ŚB. 13, 5, 4¹³), as well as Urvaśī (ŚB. 11, 5, 1¹).

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¹ See PW. s. v. *gandharva*.

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² HOLTZMANN, ZDMG. 33, 635. 641.

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⁶ In the Epic period the Apsarases have become regular celestial courtesans.

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⁷ Cp. WEBER, IS. 1, 198—201; HOLTZMANN, ZDMG. 33, 635 f.; LEUMANN, ZDMG. 48, 80—2; v. BRADKE, ibid. 498 ff.

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The only one of these names occurring in the RV. is that of Urvaśī. That she was there regarded as an Apsaras, appears from the fact that Vasiṣṭha is said in one verse to have been born of Urvaśī and, in the next, of an Apsaras (7, 33¹¹. ¹²). She is once invoked with the streams (5, 41¹⁹). Her name is otherwise only mentioned⁸ twice in a late and obscure hymn (10, 95¹⁰. ¹⁷), which consists of a dialogue between her and her lover Purūravas, son of Iḷā. She is there described as aqueous (*apyā*), as filling the atmosphere, and traversing space (the latter expression is also applied to the celestial Gandharva in 10, 139⁵). She is said to have spent four autumns among mortals (v. ¹⁶) and is besought to return (v. ¹⁷). The request is apparently refused; but Purūravas receives the promise that his offspring shall worship the gods with the offering, while he himself shall enjoy bliss in heaven (*svarga*: v. ¹⁸). Several verses of this hymn find their setting in a continous story told in the ŚB. (11, 5, 1), which fills in details partly based on a misunderstanding of the text of RV. It is there related that the Apsaras Urvaśī joins herself with Purūravas, son of Iḷā, in an alliance, the permanence of which depends on the condition that she shall never see him naked. The Gandharvas by a stratagem produce a noise during the night. Purūravas springs up naked, when he is seen by Urvaśī illuminated by a flash of lightning. Urvaśī vanishes forthwith. Purūravas wanders about in search of her, till he at last observes her swimming in a lotus lake with other Apsarases in the form of an aquatic bird. Urvaśī discovers herself to him and, in response to his entreaties, consents to receive him for one night a year later⁹. He returns at the appointed time, and on the following day the Gandharvas grant him the boon of becoming one of themselves by producing fire in a particular way. Excepting 10, 95, the name of Purūravas, which means ‘calling aloud’, occurs only in one passage of the RV. (1, 31⁴), where Agni is said to have caused the sky to thunder (*vāśaya*) for the righteous man (*manave*) Purūravas. The word may here, however, have the adjectival sense. Purūravas and Urvaśī have by some scholars¹⁰ been interpreted as sun and dawn.

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³ Explained by YN. 5, 13 by *ap-sāriṇī*; cp. MEYER, Indogermanische Mythen 1, 183; GGH. 10; PVS. 1, 79 cp. 183 ff.; LUDWIG, Methode 91; otherwise WEBER, IS. 13, 135, GW., BURY, BB. 7, 339.

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⁴ HAAS, IS. 5, 394; 13, 136; E. H. MEYER, op. cit. 13.

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⁵ HOLTZMANN, ZDMG. 33, 640 f.; v. SCHROEDER, op. cit. 67; MANNHARDT, Wald- und Feldkulte 1, 99 ff.

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⁸ Cp. OLDENBERG, SBE. 46, 323.

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⁹ They have a son named Āyu: cp. KHF. 65. 71; ¹ Yasht 5, 37; 19, 41; cp. Sp AP. 276; Bartholomae, ZDMG. 42, 158. — ² WVB. 1894, p. 34. — ³ HVM. 1, 427. — ⁴ Disputed by Bergaigne and Hille-brandt; cp. ORV. 246, note 1. — ⁵ See PW. s. v. *gandharva-nagara*, *-pura*. — ⁶ KHF. 151–2; WVB. 1894, 7–9 (cp. 1888, p. 13, n.); as to Kṛśānu, cp. also Weber, IS. 2, 313–4; Kuhn in KZ. 1, 523; Roth, ZDMG. 36, 359; BRV. 3, 30 ff.; Sp.AP. 223–4; Bloomfield, JAOS. 16, 20; ORV. 181. — ⁷ v. Schroeder, GGH. 73;

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IS. 1, 197; GVS. 1, 283; BRV. 2, 324; Oldenberg, SBE. 46, 28. — 10 Weber, IS. 1, 196; MM., Oxford Essays p. 61; Essays 1, 408–10; Chips 4², 109 f. Lassen, Indische Alterthumskunde 1, 432, note 2; KHF. 71–8; Roth, Nirukta 155–6; GRV. 2, 488; BRV. 2, 90–6; v. Schroeder, op. cit. 1, 23–39 (cp. WZKM. 9, 253); Oldenberg, ZDMG. 37, 81; 39, 52 n. 4. 73–6; GGA. 1890, 420 ff.; GVS. 1, 243–95; Siecke, Die Liebesgeschichte des Himmels, Strassburg 1892 (Urvaśī = moon); HRI. 137.

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§ 48. Gandharvas. — With the Apsaras or Apsarases are associated even in the RV., as has been shown, a male being or beings named Gandharva. Of the twenty occurrences of the word in the RV. only three are in the plural, while of the thirty-two occurrences in the AV. half are in the plural. The name is found a few times in the Avesta as Gandarewa¹ (a dragon-like monster) and only in the singular. This points to the Gandharvas as a class having been gradually developed from a single being. In the later Saṃhitās they are spoken of as forming a distinct class by the side of Gods, Fathers and Asuras (AV. 11, 5²; TS. 7, 8, 25²). Their number is fixed as 27 in some Yajus texts and is even said to be 6333 in the AV. (11, 5²)². The fact that the conception goes back to the Indo-Iranian period, accounts to some extent for its obscurity. The evidence of the RV. is, moreover, so scanty and vague that no certain result as to its definite original character is attainable. It is worthy of note that the name is found only once in books II to VII, while in book VIII it occurs twice as that of a being hostile to Indra. The word seems sometimes to be only an appellative³. It is occasionally accompanied by the epithet *viśvāvasu*, 'possessing all goods' (9, 86³⁶; 10, 139⁴· ⁵; AV. 2, 2⁴; VS. 2, 3). This epithet is in one hymn used alone to designate Gandharva (10, 85²¹· ²² cp. ⁴⁰· ⁴¹); and in the later Saṃhitās, the Brāhmaṇas, and the post-Vedic literature, it frequently occurs as the name of an individual Gandharva.

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In the RV. Gandharva seems to be localized in the high region of air or sky. He is a measurer of space (10, 139⁵). He is found in the fathomless spaces of air (8, 66⁵). He is heavenly (*divya*) and stands erect on the vault of heaven (10, 123⁷). He is the lover on whom the Apsaras smiles (ib. ⁵). His abode is in heaven (AV. 2, 2¹· ²) and the Blest live with the Gandharvas (AV. 4, 34³). In several passages Gandharva is closely connected with some form of celestial light. Thus he is brought into relation with the sun, 'the golden-winged bird, the messenger of Varuṇa' (10, 123⁶), with the sunbird (10, 177²), with the sun-steed (1, 163²), with Soma likened to the sun (9, 85¹²). He is further connected with the 27 stars of the moon's orbit (VS. 9, 7) and in particular with Rohiṇī (AV. 13, 1²³). He is possibly also associated with the rainbow⁴ in one hymn of the RV. (10, 123). In the VS. (18, 38 ff.) the Gandharvas are enumerated with Agni, Sun, Moon, and Wind. In post-Vedic literature one of the names of the mirage is 'city of the Gandharvas'⁵.

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Gandharva is, moreover, in the RV. often associated (chiefly in the ninth book) with Soma. He guards the place of Soma and protects the races of the gods (9, 83⁴ cp. 1, 22¹⁴). Observing all the forms of Soma, he stands on the vault of heaven (9, 85¹²). Together with Parjanya and the daughter of the sun, the Gandharvas cherish Soma (9, 113³). Through Gandharva's mouth the gods drink their draught (AV. 7, 73³). The MS. (3, 8¹⁰) states that the Gandharvas kept Soma for the gods, but having allowed it to be stolen, were as a punishment excluded from the Soma draught. Doubtless owing to this association with Soma, Gandharva is described as knowing plants (AV. 4, 4¹). It is probably as a jealous guardian of Soma that Gandharva in the RV. appears as a hostile being, who is pierced by Indra in the regions of air (8, 66⁵) or whom Indra is invoked to overcome (8, 1¹¹). For in a later text Soma is besought to elude the Gandharva Viśvāvasu in the form of an eagle (TS. 1, 2, 9¹). Soma is further said to have dwelt among the Gandharvas or to have been stolen by the Gandharva Viśvāvasu, but to have been bought from the Gandharvas, as they were fond of females, at the price of the goddess Vāc (AB. 1, 27; TS. 6, 1, 6⁵; MS. 3, 7³). The trait of hostility appears to be old, for in the Avesta (Yt. 5, 38) the hostile Ganda-rewa, dwelling in the sea Vourukaṣ̌a, the abode of the white Haoma, is fought with and overcome by Keresāspa. Moreover, the archer Kṛśānu, who shoots at the eagle that carries off the Soma (RV. 4, 27³), appears to be a Gan-dharva⁶, being expressly said to be one in TA. 1, 9³.

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Gandharva is sometimes connected with the waters. 'Gandharva in the waters' and the 'aqueous nymph' are alluded to as the parents of Yama and Yamī (10, 10⁴). Soma poured into water is called 'the Gandharva of the waters' (9, 86³⁶). Gandharva, connected with the Apsarases, is also said to dwell in the waters in the AV. (2, 2³; 4, 37¹²). In the Avesta Gandarewa is a lord of the abyss who dwells in the waters (Yt. 15, 28).

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The union of Gandharva with the water nymph is typical of marriage. He is therefore connected with the wedding ceremony, and the unmarried maiden is said to belong to Gandharva as well as to Soma and Agni (10, 85⁴⁰⁻¹). The Gandharva Viśvāvasu in the first days of wedlock is regarded as a rival of the husband (ib. ²²), and the Gandharvas' love of women is prominent in later texts (cp. MS. 3, 7³). The Gandharvas and Apsarases thus preside over fertility and are prayed to by those who desire offspring (PB. 19, 3²).

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Of the conception of the Gandharvas being celestial singers, which appears in the Epics and later, there seems to be no distinct trace in the RV. (cp. 10, 177². 11²).

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There are only two or three references to their physical appearance in the RV. They are wind-haired (3, 38⁶) and Gandharva has brilliant weapons (10, 123⁷). The AV. is more definite (especially 4, 37; 8, 6¹ ff.). Here they are said to be shaggy and to have half animal forms, being in many ways dangerous to men. Elsewhere, however, they are spoken of as handsome (ŚB. 13, 4, 3⁷. ⁸). The RV. adds the touch that Gandharva wears a fragrant (*surabhi*) garment (10, 123⁷), while in the AV. (12, 1²³) the odour (*gandha*) of the earth is said to rise to the Gandharvas.

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This suggests the derivation from *gandha* as possible. But such an ety-mology, even if true, would seem to shed no light on the original conception. The name has even been identified with Κένταυρος; but in order to justify this equation the aid of popular etymology has to be called in⁷ as well as the doubtful epenthesis of *u* assumed in the Greek word⁸. The two con-ceptions, moreover, appear to have nothing in common. The utmost, from a review of the evidence, it seems possible to say about the original nature of the Gandharva is, that he was a bright celestial being, sometimes thought of as dwelling in the waters with his spouse the Apsaras. Various conjectures have, however, been made by different scholars. Some regard the Gandharvas as wind-spirits⁹, others think that Gandharva represents the rainbow¹⁰, or a genius of the moon¹¹, or Soma¹², or the rising sun¹³, or a cloud-spirit¹⁴.

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MEYER, Indoġ. Mythen 164 f. — 8 Cp. BRUGMANN, Grundriss 1, 481. — 9 MANNHARDT 201; MEYER, op. cit. 1, 219 f.; V. SCHROEDER, op. cit. 71; HVM. 1, 446. — 10 ROTH, Nir. Erl. 145; GRV. 2, 400; DPV. 253; KIRSTE, WZKM. 9, 164. — 11 PW.; LRV. 4, 158; HRI. 157. — 12 BRV. 2, 38 ff. — 13 WC. 34. 36 cp. LRF. 101. — 14 KHF. 153. A. KUHN, KZ. 1, 513 ff.; WEBER, IS. 1, 90; 5, 185. 210; 13, 134 f.; MEYER, op. cit. 11—2. 16—8. 23. 55. 179; BRV. 3, 64—7; PVS. 1, 77—81; SP.AP. 210—15; HVM. 1, 427—66; ORV. 244—9; ZDMG. 49, 178—9.

§ 49. Tutelary Deities

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— The name of Vā́stoṣ páti occurs only seven times in the RV., and one hymn of three stanzas (7, 54) is devoted to his praise. He is there invoked to grant a favourable entry, to remove disease, to bless man and beast, to confer prosperity in cattle and horses, and always to afford protection. In the first verse of the hymn immediately following (7, 55¹) he is described as a destroyer of disease, who assumes all forms. He is once (7, 54²) identified with Soma, being addressed as Indu. In a verse of a hymn to the All-gods (5, 41⁸) he is invoked in immediate juxtaposition with Tvaṣṭr and is perhaps identified with him as the great artificer. In another verse (8, 17¹⁴) he is called a firm pillar, a cuirass of Soma-pressers, and seems to be identified with Indra. In the only passage of the tenth book which mentions him, he is spoken of as the observer of ordinances who, along with prayer (*brahma*), was fashioned by the gods (10, 61⁷). According to GELDNER¹ Rudra is here meant, Vāstoṣpati being an epithet of that god in TS. 3, 40, 10³. Though identified with various deities in the above passages, there seems no sufficient reason to suppose that the name was originally attached to any one particular greater deity as an epithet (like *gṛhapati* to Agni). The Gṛhya Sūtras (ĀGS. 2, 9⁹; ŚGS. 3, 4; PGS. 3, 4⁷) prescribe that Vāstoṣpati is to be propitiated when a new house is to be entered. This, together with the contents of the hymn devoted to his praise, points to his having been simply a tutelary deity of the house², as the name itself 'Lord of the dwelling' implies. He thus seems to be one of the lower order of deities which in primitive beliefs animate, inhabit, or preside over natural objects such as trees and mountains.

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² Cp. BLOOMFIELD, SBE. 42, 343—4.

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To the same order belongs Kṣetrasya pati the tutelary deity of the field. He is invoked, in the first three verses of 4, 57, to grant cattle and horses as well as to fill heaven and earth, plants and waters with sweetness³. In a verse of a hymn to the All-gods (7, 35¹⁰) he is besought, along with Savitṛ, the Dawns, and Parjanya, to bestow prosperity. In a similar hymn (10, 66¹³), worshippers express a desire to have him as a neighbour. The Gṛhya Sūtras state that he is sacrificed to or worshipped when a field is ploughed (AGS. 2, 10⁴; ŚGS. 4, 13⁵). In one verse of a hymn addressed to agricultural deities (4, 57⁶) Sītā, the Furrow, is invoked to grant rich blessings and crops. Sītā later appears (PGS. 2, 17⁹) as the wife of Indra (perhaps because that god is once in the RV. called *urvarāpati*, 'lord of the field': 8, 21³ cp. 4, 57⁷) and bears the patronymic Sāvitrī (TB. 2, 3, 10¹). In the Sūtra passage just mentioned the blessings of Urvarā, the arable Field, described as 'having a garland of threshing-floors', are invoked.

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¹ FaW. 21; V. = Agni, WC. 22.

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³ PERRY, Drisler Memorial 241, thinks Pūṣan is probably meant. Cp. WINDISCH, Berichte der k. sächs. Gesellschaft 1892, p. 174; ORV. 254—5.

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