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Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus c7: Part Second

Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus c7

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English

Contents

Part Second

Saivas

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In the former communication on this subject, which I had the honour to lay before the Society, I attempted to convey a notion of the different classes amongst which the numerous worshippers of VISHNU are distributed. In my present, I propose to complete my task, and commencing with the followers of SIVA and of SAKTI, conclude with those sects which are of a miscellaneous and less orthodox description.

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The worship of SIVA in the districts along the Ganges, presents itself under a very different aspect from that of VISHNU, and with some singular anomalies. It appears to be the most prevalent and popular of all the modes of adoration, to judge by the number of shrines dedicated to the only form under which SIVA is reverenced, that of the *Linga*; yet it will be generally observed, that these temples are scarcely ever the resort of numerous votaries, and that they are regarded with comparatively little veneration by the Hindus. *Benares*, indeed, furnishes exception, and the temple of *Visweswara** is thronged with a never-ceasing crowd of adorers. There is, however, little solemnity or veneration in the hurried manner in which they throw their flowers or fruits before the image ;* and there are other temples, the dwellings of other divinities, that rival the abode of *Visweswara* in popular attraction.

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∗ "The Lord of all," an epithet of SIVA, represented as usual by a *Linga*. It is one of the twelve principal emblems of this description, and has been, for many centuries, the chief object of veneration at *Kási* or *Benares*. The old temple was partially destroyed by the Mohammedans in the reign of AURENGZEB : the present was built by AHALYA BAI, the Mahratta Princess, and although small and without pretension to magnificence, is remarkable for the minute beauty of its architectural embellishments.

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The adoration of SIVA, indeed, has never assumed, in upper India, a popular form. He appears in his shrines only in an unattractive and rude emblem, the mystic purpose of which is little understood, or regarded by the uninitiated and vulgar, and which offers nothing to interest the feelings or excite the imagination. No legends are recorded of this deity of a poetic and pleasing character ; and above all, such legends as are narrated in the Puranas and Tantras, have not been presented to the Hindus in any accessible shape. The Saivas have no works in any of the common dialects, like the *Rámáyana*, the *Bártta*, or the *Bhakta Málá*. Indeed, as far as any enquiry has yet been instituted, no work whatever exists, in any vernacular dialect, in which the actions of SIVA, in any of his forms, are celebrated. It must be kept in mind, however, that these observations are intended to apply only to Gangetic Hindustan, for in the South of India, as we shall hereafter see, popular legends relating to local manifestations of SIVA, are not uncommon.

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Corresponding to the absence of multiplied forms of this divinity, as objects of worship, and to the want of those works which attach importance to particular manifestations of the favourite god, the people can scarcely be said to be divided into different sects, any farther than as they may have certain religious mendicants for their spiritual guides. Actual divisions of the worshippers of SIVA are almost restricted to these religious personages, collected sometimes, in opulent and numerous associations; but for the greater part detached, few, and indigent. There are no establishments amongst the Saivas of Hindustan, like those of *Srináth* or *Puri*; no individuals as wealthy as the *Gokulastha Gosains*, nor even as influential as the descendants of *Adwaita* and *Nitya'nand*. There are no teachers of ancient repute except *Sankara Acha'rya*, and his doctrines are too philosophical and speculative to have made him popular.

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∗ A Hindu temple comprises an outer court, usually a quadrangle, sometimes surrounded by a piazza; and a central edifice constituting the shrine. This, which in upper India is generally of small dimensions, is divided into two parts, the *Sabhá*, or vestibule; and the *Garbhagriha*, or adytum, in which the image is placed. The course of worship is the circumambulating of the temple, keeping the right hand to it, as often as the devotee pleases : the worshipper then enters the vestibule, and if a bell is suspended there, as is commonly the case, strikes two or three times upon it. He then advances to the threshhold of the shrine, presents his offering, which the officiating Brahman receives, mutters inaudibly a short prayer, accompanied with prostration, or simply with the act of lifting the hands to the forehead, and departs. There is nothing like a religious service, and the rapid manner in which the whole is performed, the quick succession of worshippers, the gloomy aspect of the shrine, and the scattering about of water, oil, and faded flowers, inspire any thing but feelings of reverence or devotion.

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The worship of *Siva* continues, in fact, to be what it appears to have been from a remote period, the religion of the *Brahmanas*.* *Sambhu* is declared, by *Menu*, to be the presiding deity of the Brahmanical order, and the greater number of them, particularly those who practice the rites of the *Vedas*, or who profess the study of the *Sastras*, receive *Siva* as their tutelary deity, wear his insignia, and worship the *Linga*, either in temples, in their houses, or on the side of a sacred stream, providing, in the latter case, extempore emblems kneaded out of the mud or clay of the river's bed. The example of the Brahmans, and the practice of ages, maintain the veneration universally offered to the type of *Siva*; but it is not the prevailing, nor the popular condition of the Hindu faith, along the banks of the Ganges. We shall now proceed to specify the different classes into which the worshippers of *Siva*, as distinct from the mass of Brahmans, may be distinguished.

Dandis and Dasnamis

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It is customary to consider these two orders as forming but one division. The classification is not, in every instance, correct, but the practices of the two are, in many instances, blended, and both denominations are accurately applicable to the same individual. It will not be necessary, therefore, to deviate from the ordinary enumeration.

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The *Dandis*, properly so called, and the *Tridandis* of the *Vaishnavas*, are the only legitimate representatives of the fourth *Asrama*, or mendicant life, into which the Hindu, according to the instructions of his inspired legislators, is to enter, after passing through the previous stages of student, householder and hermit.* It is not necessary, however, to have gone through the whole of the previous career, as the Brahman may pass from any one of the first orders to the last at once;† he is then to take up his staff and water pot, to derive from begging such a portion of food as is sufficient for his mere sustenance, and to devote the remainder of his day to holy study and pious meditation.‡

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∗ See a preceding Note—A. R. vol. XVI. page 2.

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Adopting, as a general guide, the rules of original works, the *Dandé* is distinguished by carrying a small *Dand*, or wand, with several processes or projections from it, and a piece of cloth dyed with red ochre, in which the Brahmanical cord is supposed to be enshrined, attached to

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* Thus MENU, 6, 33.

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वनेषु तु विहृत्यैवं तृतीयंभागमायुषः ।
चतुर्थमायुषो भागंत्यक्त्वा सङ्कान् परिव्रजेत् ॥

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“Having thus performed religious acts in a forest during the third portion of his life, let him become a *Sanydsi*, for the fourth portion of it, abandoning all sensual affection.

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† So MENU, as expounded by KULLUKA BHATTA, 6, 38.

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प्रजापत्यां निरूप्येष्टिं सर्ववेदसदक्षिणाम्
आत्मन्यग्नीन् समारोप्य ब्राह्मणः प्रव्रजेद्गृहात् ॥
ब्रह्मचर्यादेव प्रव्रजेत् गृहादा वनदा इति टीका ।

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“Having performed the sacrifice of *Prdjápati*, &c. a Brahman may proceed from his house, that is, from the second order, or he may proceed even from the first to the condition of a *Sanydsi*.” Indeed the intermediate stage of the *Vanaprastha* is amongst the prohibited acts in the *Kali* age.

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‡ Agreeably to the high authority already quoted, 6, 41, &c.

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अगारादभिनिष्क्रान्तः पवित्रोपचितोमुनिः
समुपोढे षु कामेषु निरपेक्षः परिव्रजेत् ॥
अनग्निरनिकेतः स्याद्ग्राम मन्नार्थ माश्रयेत्
उपेक्षकः अकुंसुको मुनिर्भावसमाहितः ।

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“Departing from his house, taking with him pure implements, his water-pot, and staff, keeping silence, unallured by desire of objects near him, let him enter into the fourth order.”

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“Let him have no culinary fire, no domicile, let him when very hungry, go to the town for food, let him patiently bear disease, let him study to know God, and fix his attention on God alone.”

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it: he shaves his hair and beard, wears only a cloth round his loins, and subsists upon food obtained ready-dressed from the houses of the Brahmanas once a day only, which he deposits in the small clay pot that he carries always with him: he should live alone, and near to, but not within a city; but this rule is rarely observed, and in general the *Dandís* are found in cities collected like other mendicants in *Maths*.* The *Dandí* has no particular time or mode of worship, but spends his time in meditation, or in practices corresponding with those of the *Yoga*, and in the study of the *Vedanta* works, especially according to the comments of SANKARA'CHA'RYA. As that teacher was an incarnation of SIVA,† the *Dandís* reverence that deity and his incarnations, in preference to the other members of the Triad, whence they are included

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† This character is given to him in the *Sankara Vijaya* of MA'DHAVA ACHA'RYA; his followers in the *Dekhin* assert that SIVA'S descent as SANKARA, was foretold in the *Skanda Purána*: a prophecy which, if found in that work, will assist to fix its date, but the passage has not been met with.

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* These are all founded on the following texts of MENU:—

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कृतकेशश्मश्रुनखः पात्रीदण्डी कुसुम्भवान्
विचरेन्नियतो नित्यं सर्वभूतान्यपीडयन् ॥
एककालञ्चरेद्भैक्षं न प्रसज्जेत विस्तरे ।
भैक्षे प्रसक्तो हि यतिर्विषयेष्वपि सज्जति ।
विधूमे सन्नमुसले व्यङ्गारे भुक्तवज्जने
वृत्ते सरावसम्पाते भिक्षां नित्यं यतिश्चरेत् ॥
अलाभे न विषादी स्याल्लाभे चैव न हर्षयेत्
प्राणायात्रिकमात्रः स्यान्मात्रासङ्गाद्विनिर्गतः ॥

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“His hair, nails and beard being clipped, bearing with him a dish, a staff, and a water-pot, let him wander about continually without giving pain to any being.” 52. “Only once a day let him demand food, let him not habituate himself to eat much at a time, for an anchorite habituated to eat much, becomes inclined to sensual gratification.” 55. “At the time when the smoke of kitchen fires has ceased, when the pestle lies motionless, when the burning charcoal is extinguished, when people have eaten and when dishes are removed, that is, late in the day, let the *Sanyási* always beg food.” “For missing it let him not be sorrowful, nor for gaining it, let him be glad, let him care only for a sufficiency to support life, but let him not be anxious about his utensils.” 57, MENU 6.

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amongst his votaries; and they so far admit the distinction as not unfrequently to bear the *Saiva* mark upon the forehead, smearing it with the *Tripundra*, a triple transverse line made with the *Vibhūti*, or ashes which should be taken from the fire of an *Agnihotra Brahman*, or they may be the ashes of burnt cowdung from an oblation offered to the god.* They also adopt the initiating Mantra of all the Saiva classes, either the five or six syllable Mantra, “ *Nama Siváya*,” or, “ *Om, Nama Siváya*.” The genuine *Dandí*, however, is not necessarily of the Saiva or any other sect; and in their establishments it will be usually found that they profess to adore *Nirguna* or *Niranjana*, the deity devoid of attribute or passion.†

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† The *Dandís* of the North of India are the *Sanyásis*, or monastic portion of the *Smartal Brahmanas* of the South, of whom Buchanan gives the following account; “ The most numerous class here, and which comprehends about one-half of all the Brahmans in the Lower Carnatic, is called the *Smartal* sect, and its members are the followers of SANKARA ACHA'RYA. They are commonly said to be of the sect of

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* The material, or *Vibhūti*, and the efficacy of the mark, the *Tripundra*, are thus described in the *Kásikhanda*—

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आग्नेयमुच्यते भस्मदग्ध गोमयसम्भवं
तदेव द्रव्यमित्युक्तं त्रिपुण्ड्रस्य महामुने ॥

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The ashes of fire made with burnt cowdung, are the material fittest for the *Tripundra*.

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त्रिपुण्ड्रं कुरुते यस्तु भस्मना विधिपूर्वकम् ।
महापातकसङ्घातैर्मुच्यते चोपपातकैः
अमन्त्रेणापि यः कुर्याज्ज्ञात्वा महिमानतिं
त्रिपुण्ड्रं भालफलके मुच्यते सर्वपातकैः ।

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Whoever marks the *Tripundra* with ashes, agreeably to rule, is purified from sins of the first and second degree: who makes it on his forehead without the *Mantras*, being ignorant of its virtue, will be purified from every simple sin. The mode of making it is thus laid down :

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भ्रुवोर्मध्ये समारभ्य यावदन्तो भवेद्भुवोः ।
मध्यमानामिकाङ्गुष्ठयोर्मध्येतु प्रतिलोमतः ॥
अंगुष्ठेन कृता रेखा त्रिपुण्ड्राख्याभिधीयते ।

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Beginning between the eye-brows, and carrying it to their extremity, the mark made with the thumb reverted between the middle and third fingers, is called the *Tripundra*.

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The *Dandís*, who are rather practical than speculative, and who have little pretence to the appellation beyond the epithet and outward signs of the order, are those most correctly included amongst the *Saiva* sects. Amongst these, the worship of SIVA, as BHAIRAVA, is the prevailing form, and in that case part of the ceremony of initiation consists in inflicting a small incision on the inner part of the knee, and drawing the blood of the novice as an acceptable offering to the god. The *Dandís* of every description, have also a peculiar mode of disposing of their dead, putting them into coffins and burying them; or when practicable, committing them to some sacred stream. The reason of this is their being prohibited the use of fire on any account.*

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Any Hindu of the three first classes may become *Sanyási* or *Dandí*, or, in these degenerate days, a Hindu of any caste may adopt the life and emblems of this order. Such are sometimes met with, as also are Brahmans, who, without connecting themselves with any community, assume the character of this class of mendicants. These constitute the *Dandís* simply so termed, and are regarded as distinct from the primitive members of the order, to whom the appellation of *Dasnámis* is also applied, and who admit none but Brahmans into their fraternity.

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The *Dasnámi Dandís*, who are regarded as the descendants of the original members of the fraternity, are said to refer their origin to SANKARA ACHA'RYA, an individual who appears to have performed a part of some importance in the religious history of Hindustan; and to whom an influence has been often attributed much exceeding that which he really exercised. His biography, like that of most of the Hindu saints, is involved in considerable obscurity; but a few facts may be gleaned from such accounts as we have of him, upon which reliance may be placed, and to which it may not be uninteresting here briefly to advert.

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SIVA, but they consider BRAHMA, VISHNU and ISWARA to be the same as the creator, preserver, and destroyer of the universe. They are readily distinguished by three horizontal stripes on the forehead, made with the ashes of cowdung." (Buch. I. 13) "The *Sanyásis* are the *Gurus* of this sect;". (Ibid, 305) and the *Dandis* have great influence and authority amongst *Saiva* Brahmans of the North of India.

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∗ In the South, the ascetic followers of both SIVA and VISHNU bury the dead; (Dubois, 56) so do the *Vaishnava Vairágis* and *Sanyásis* in the North of India, and the *Saiva Jogis*. The class of Hindu weavers called *Yogis*, have adopted a similar practice; (Ward I, 201) all the castes in the South, that wear the *Linga*, do the same, (Buch. I. 27.)

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A number of works are current in the South of India relating to this teacher, under the titles of *Sankara Cheritra*, *Sankara Kathá*, *Sankara Vijaya*, or *Sankara Digvijaya*, following much the same course of narration, and detailing little more than SANKARA'S controversial victories over various sects; in most cases, no doubt, the fictions of the writers. Of the two principal works of the class, one attributed to ANANDAGIRI, a pupil of SANKARA, has already been noticed.* The other is the work of MA'DHAVA ACHA'RYA, the minister of some of the earliest chiefs of *Vijayanagar*, and who dates, accordingly, in the fourteenth century. This is a composition of high literary and polemical pretension, but not equally high biographical value. Some particulars of SANKARA'S birth and early life are to be found in the *Kerala Utpatti*, or political and statistical description of *Malabar*, although the work is sometimes said to have been composed by SANKARA himself.

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With regard to the place of SANKARA'S birth, and the tribe of which he was a member, most accounts agree to make him a native of *Kerala*, or *Malabar*, of the tribe of Namburi Brahmans, and in the mythological language of the sect, an incarnation of SIVA. According to other traditions, he was born at *Chidambaram*, although he transferred his residence to *Malabar*; whilst the *Kerala Utpatti* recognises *Malabar* as his native place, and calls him the offspring of adultery, for which his mother SRI MAHADEVI was expelled her caste.

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In *Malabar*, he is said to have divided the four original castes into seventy-two, or eighteen sub-divisions each, and to have assigned them their respective rites and duties. Notwithstanding this, he seems to have met with particular disrespect, either on account of his opinions, origin, or his wandering life. On his return home, on one occasion, his mother died, and he had to perform the funeral rites, for which his relations refused to supply him with fire, and at which all the Brahmans declined to assist. SANKARA then produced fire from his arm, and burnt the corpse in the court yard of the house, denouncing imprecations on the country, to the effect, that the Brahmans there should not study the Vedas, that religious mendicants should never obtain alms, and that the dead should always be burned close to the houses in which they had resided—a custom which is said to have survived him.

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∗ See *Asiatic Researches*, vol. XVI. page 10.

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All accounts concur in representing SANKARA as leading an erratic life, and engaging in successful controversy with various sects, whether of the *Saiva*, *Vaishnava*, or less orthodox persuasions. In the course of his peregrinations, he established several *Maths*, or convents, under the presidence of his disciples, particularly one still flourishing at *Sringeri*, or *Sringagiri*, on the western Ghats, near the sources of the *Tungabhadra*. Towards the close of his life, he repaired as far as to *Kashmir*, and seated himself, after triumphing over various opponents, on the throne of *SARASWATI*. He next went to *Badarikasrama*, and finally to *Kedarnath*, in the *Himalaya*, where he died at the early age of thirty-two. The events of his last days are confirmed by local traditions, and the *Pitha*, or throne of *SARASWATI*, on which SANKARA sat, is still shown in *Kashmir*; whilst at the temple of *SIVA*, at *Badari*, a Malabar Brahman, of the *Namburi* tribe, has always been the officiating priest.*

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The influence exercised by SANKARA in person, has been perpetuated by his writings, the most eminent of which are his *Bhāshyas*, or Commentaries on the *Sūtras*, or Aphorisms of VYA'SA. A Commentary on the *Bhagavad Gita*, is also ascribed to him, as is one on the *Nrisinha Tapanīya Upanishad*: a cento of verses, in praise of DURGA, the *Saundaryā Laharī*, is likewise said to be his composition, as sometimes is the *Amru Sataka*, a collection of amatory stanzas, written in the name of AMRU, a Prince, whose dead body SANKARA is fabled to have animated, that by becoming familiarised with sensual enjoyments, he might argue upon such topics with the wife of *Madana Misra*, who was more than equal to him in discussions of this nature, and was the only disputant he was unable to subdue, until the period of his transmigration had expired, and he had thence become practised in the gratification of the passions.

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Although no doubt of SANKARA's existence, or of the important part performed by him in the partial re-modelling of the Hindu system, can be entertained, yet the exact period at which he flourished can by no means be determined. I have, in another place, expressed my belief that he may have existed about the eighth or ninth century.† Subsequent enquiry has failed to add any reasons to those assigned for such an inference; but it has offered nothing to weaken or invalidate the conclusion there proposed.*

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∗ Asiatic Researches, vol. XII. page 536. † Preface to the Sanscrit Dictionary, page XVII.

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The spiritual descendants of SANKARA, in the first degree, are variously named by different authorities, but usually agree in the number. He is said to have had four principal disciples, who, in the popular traditions, are called *Padmapáda*, *Hastámalaka*, *Sureswara* or *Mandana*, and *Trotaka*. Of these, the first had two pupils, *Tírtha* and *Asrama*; the second, *Vana* and *Aranya*; the third had three, *Saraswatí*, *Purí*, and *Bhárati*; and the fourth had also three, *Giri* or *Gir*, *Párvata*, and *Ságara*. These, which being all significant terms, were no doubt adopted names, constitute collectively the appellation *Dasnámi*, or the *ten-named*, and when a Brahman enters into either class, he attaches to his own denomination that of the class of which he becomes a member; as *Tírtha*, *Purí*, *Gír*, &c.† The greater proportion of the ten

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† It is scarcely worth while perhaps to translate words of such common occurrence, but to prove what I have stated in the text, I subjoin their signification: *Tírtha*,

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* A *Hálakánara* Manuscript, in the possession of the late Col. Mackenzie, entitled *Sankara Vijaya*, (Mackenzie Collection 11, 34) gives the following list of the spiritual heads of the *Sringeri* establishment:

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| 1. Govinda Páda. | 17. Nrisinha Bhárati Achárya. |
| 2. Sankara Achárya. | 18. Sankara Bhárati Achárya. |
| 3. Sanandana Achárya. | 19. Nrisinha Bhárati Achárya. |
| 4. Surásura Achárya. | 20. Purushottoma Bhárati Achárya. |
| 5. Trotaka Achárya. | 21. Ramachandra Bhárati Achárya. |
| 6. Hastámalaka Achárya. | 22. Nrisinha Bhárati Achárya. |
| 7. Jnyánaghana Achárya. | 23. Immadi Bhárati Achárya. |
| 8. Jnyánottama Achárya. | 24. Abhinava Nrisinha Bhárati Achárya. |
| 9. Sinhagiríswara Achárya. | 25. Sachchidánanda Bhárati Achárya. |
| 10. Iswaratírtha Achárya. | 26. Nrisinha Bhárati Achárya. |
| 11. Nrisinha Múrtti Achárya. | 27. Immádi Sachchidananda Bhárati |
| 12. Vitarana Achárya. | Achárya. |
| 13. Vidyásankara Achárya. | 28. Abhinava Sachchidánanda Bháratia |
| 14. Bhárati Krishna Achárya. | Achárya. |
| 15. Vidyásanya Achárya. | 29. Nrisinha Bhárati Achárya. |
| 16. Chandra Sekhara Achárya. | |

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This gives 27 descents from SANKARA. As the *Mahant* is elected from the disciples, either by the *Guru* when about to die, or by the *Swámalu*, the spiritual chiefs of other establishments of the same sect, he is raised probably to the station in the prime of manhood, and in the ease and dignity of his sanctity has a favourable prospect of a long life. Twenty-five years to a *Guru* may therefore be but a fair average allowance, and the above list comprises at that rate an interval of 657 years : at what period it closes does not appear; but the *Halakanara* language is obsolete, and the work is possibly not less than two or three centuries old. This series of *Gurus* is so far corroborative of the view else where taken of SANKARA'S date; but as it has been extracted by a Pandit, from a work which I could not consult myself, it is by no means certain that it is correct, and I do not wish to attach any undue importance to the authority.

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classes of mendicants, thus descended from SANKARA ACHA'RYA, have failed to retain their purity of character, and are only known by their epithets as members of the original order. There are but three, and part of a fourth mendicant class, or those called Tírtha or Indra, Asrama, Saraswatí, and Bháratí, who are still regarded as really SANKARA's Dandís. These are sufficiently numerous, especially in and about Benares. They comprehend a variety of characters; but amongst the most respectable of them, are to be found very able expounders of the Vedanta works. Other branches of Sanscrit literature owe important obligations to this religious sect.* The most sturdy beggars are also members of this order, although their contributions are levied particularly upon the Brahmanical class, as whenever a feast is given to the Brahmanas, the Dandís of this description present themselves unbidden guests, and can only be got rid of by bestowing on them a due share of the cates provided for their more worldly-minded brethren. Many of them practice the Yoga, and profess to work miracles, although with less success than some members of the order in the days of the author of the Dábistán, who specifies one Dandadhári, as able to suspend his breath for three hours, bring milk from his veins, cut bones with hair, and put eggs into a narrow mouthed bottle without breaking them.

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The remaining six and a half members of the Dasnámi class, although considered as having fallen from the purity of practice necessary to the Dandí, are still, in general, religious characters, and are usually denominated Atíts:† the chief points of difference between them and

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† From अतिथि Atithi, a guest, a temporary dweller upon earth; or अतीत Atita, past away, liberated from worldly cares and feelings.

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a place of pilgrimage; Asrama, an order, as that of student, householder, &c.; Vana, a wood; Aranya, a wood; Saraswátí, the goddess of speech and eloquence; Purí, a city; Bháratí, speech, or its goddess; Giri, a mountain; in common use it always occurs Gir, which implies speech; Párvata, a mountaineer; Ságara, an ocean; the names are always compounded with different terms. One of SANKARA's disciples we have seen, called ANANDA GIRI. The famous MA'DHAVA, when he became a Dandi, adopted the appellation of VI'DYA'RANYA. PU'RANGIR, has been elsewhere adverted to, and other like names occur in some of the following notes. Bhárati is the prevailing title of the latter Sringagiri Gurus.

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∗ SANKARA' and MA'DHAVA are well known by their numerous and excellent works. The chief Vedanta writers, in like manner, were Dandis; and the author of the Dasakumára, RA'MASRAMA, the Commentator on AMERA, and VIJNYA'NESWARA, the Commentator on the texts of YAJNAVALKYA, were of the same class of ascetics.

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the preceding, are their abandonment of the staff, their use of clothes, money, and ornaments; their preparing their own food, and their admission of members from any order of Hindus. They are often collected in *Maths*, as well as the *Dandís*, but they mix freely in the business of the world; they carry on trade, and often accumulate property, and they frequently officiate as priests at the shrines of some of the deities:* some of them even marry, but in that case they are distinguished by the term *Samyogí*, from the other *Atíts*.

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The chief practices and designations of the *Dandís*, as generally characteristic of them, have been already adverted to, but a great variety prevails in the details.† Their philosophical tenets in the main, are those of the *Vedanta* system, as taught by SANKARA' and his disciples; but they generally superadd the practice of the *Yoga*, as taught by the followers of PATANJALI, and many of them have latterly adopted the doctrines of the *Tantras*. Besides SANKARA', the different orders of *Dandís* hold in high veneration the MUNI DATTATREYA, the son of ATRI and ANASUYA'. By virtue of a boon bestowed upon ATRI, or according to one legend, on his wife, by the three deities BRAHMA', VISHNU, and SIVA, that sage had three sons, SOMA, DATTA, and DURVA'SAS, who were severally portions of the deities themselves.‡ DATTA, or DATTATREYA, was eminent for his practice of the *Yoga*, and hence is held in high estimation by the *Jogis*, of whom we are next to speak, whilst, as an incarnation of a portion of VISHNU, he is likewise venerated by the *Vaishnavas*.

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† A specimen of the independent but scarcely orthodox *Dandí*, is presented in the well know personage Puran Gir, of whom Mr. Duncan published an account in the 5th volume of the Asiatic Researches.

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‡ *Bhágavat*, Book IV, and *Márkandeya Purána*, Chapter XVI.

Yogis or Jogis

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The *Dandís* are to the *Saiva* sects, what the followers of RA'MA'NUJA are to those of the *Vaishnava* faith, and a like parallel may be drawn between the disciples of RA'MA'NAND and those of GORAKHNA'TH, or the Kánphata Jogis, the first pair being properly restricted to the Brahmanical order, intended chiefly for men of learning; the two latter admitting members from every description of people, and possessing a more attractive popular character.

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∗ The officiating priests at the celebrated shrine of ANNAPU'RNA, in Benares, are *Atíts*.

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The term Jogi, or Yogi is properly applicable to the followers of the Yoga, or Pátanjala school of philosophy, which, amongst other tenets, maintained the practicability of acquiring, even in life, entire command over elementary matter, by means of certain ascetic practices. The details of these it is unnecessary to particularize, and accounts of them and of the Yoga philosophy, will be best derived from the translation of BHOJA DEVA'S' Comment on the Pátanjala Sútras, in Ward's Account of the Hindus, and Mr. Colebrooke's Essay on the Sánkya and Pátanjala doctrines, in the 1st volume of the Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society. It is sufficient here to observe, that the practices consist chiefly of long continued suppressions of respiration; of inhaling and exhaling the breath in a particular manner; of sitting in eighty-four different attitudes; of fixing the eyes on the top of the nose, and endeavouring, by the force of mental abstraction, to effect a union between the portion of vital spirit residing in the body and that which pervades all nature, and is identical with SIVA, considered as the supreme being, and source and essence of all creation. When this mystic union is effected, the Yogi is liberated in his living body, from the clog of material incumbrance, and acquires an entire command over all worldly substance. He can make himself lighter than the lightest substances, heavier than the heaviest; can become as vast, or as minute as he pleases, can traverse all space, can animate any dead body, by transferring his spirit into it from his own frame, can render himself invisible, can attain all objects, becomes equally acquainted with the past, present, and future, and is finally united with SIVA, and consequently exempted from being born again upon earth. The superhuman faculties are acquired, in various degrees, according to the greater or less perfection with which the initiatory processes have been performed.

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According to standard authorities, the perfect fulfilment of the rites which the Yogi has to accomplish, requires a protracted existence and repeated births, and it is declared to be unattainable in the present or *Kali age,* The attempt is therefore prohibited, and the *Yoga* is prescribed in modern times. This inhibition is, however, disregarded, and the individuals who are the subjects of our enquiry, endeavour to attain the super-human powers which the performance of the *Yoga* is supposed to confer. They especially practice the various gesticulations and postures of which it consists, and labour assiduously to suppress their breath and fix their thoughts until the effect does somewhat realise expectation, and the brain, in a state of over-wrought excitement, bodies forth a host of crude and wild conceptions, and gives to airy nothings a local habitation and a name,† A year's intense application is imagined enough to qualify the adept,‡ whilst inferior faculties may be obtained by even a six month's practice.

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* The *Kásikhanda* thus enumerates the difficulty or impossibility of completing the *Yoga* in the present age.

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चञ्चलेन्द्रिय वृत्तित्वात्कलिकाल्मषजृम्भणात् ।
अल्पायुष्कात्तथानां केह योगमहोदयः ॥

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"From the unsteadiness of the senses, the prevalence of sin in the *Kali*, and the shortness of life, how can Exaltation by the *Yoga* be obtained."

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Again -

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न सिध्यति कलौ योगो न सिध्यति कलौ तपः ।

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In the *Kali* age, the *Yoga* and severe penance are impracticable.

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† Some who have commenced their career in this line, have carried the practice to several hours duration, at which time they have described themselves as becoming perfectly exhausted, with strange objects passing before them, and sparks of fire flashing in their eyes. One individual quitted it from having at last a figure resembling himself always before him, and knowing this to be a deception, he wisely inferred the similar character of any other visionary creature of his contemplation, and the absurdity of the practice. Dubois has some amusing anecdotes on this subject, (page 357, &c.) they are fully authenticated by the similar accounts which many *Vairágis*, in upper India, will readily furnish. The worthy Abbe may indeed be generally trusted when he confines himself to what he saw or knew: in much that he heard he was misled, and in almost every thing connected with the language and literature, and the religion or philosophy, as taught by classical authority, he commits egregious blunders.

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ब्रह्मचारी मिताहारी योगी योगपरायणः ।
अब्दाद्ध्र्वं भवेत्सिद्धो नात्र कार्या विचारणा ॥

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Leading a life of chastity and abstemiousness, and diligent in the practice of the *Yoga*, the *Yogi* becomes perfect after a year: of this there is no doubt. *Hatha Prodípa*.

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There are few *Jogis*, however, who lay claim to perfection, and their pretensions are usually confined to a partial command over their physical and mental faculties. These are evinced in the performance of low mummeries, or juggling tricks, which cheat the vulgar into a belief of their powers. A common mode of display is by waving a *Chowri*, or bunch of peacock’s feathers, over a sick or new-born infant, to cure it of any morbid affection, or guard it against the evil eye. A trick of loftier pretence has, of late, attracted some notice in the person of a Brahman at Madras, who, by some ingenious contrivance, appeared to sit in the air, and who boasted of being able to remain for a considerable period under water. He and his followers ascribed the possession of these faculties to his successful practice of the observances of the *Yoga*.*

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In referring to the origin of this system, we must, no doubt, go back to some antiquity, although the want of chronological data renders it impossible to specify the era at which it was first promulgated. That it was familiarly known and practised in the eighth century, we may learn from the plays of BHAGABHU'TI, particularly the *Málatí* and *Mádhava*,† and from several of the *Saiva Puránas*, in some of which, as the *Kúrma Purána*, we have a string of names which

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† See especially the opening of the 5th Act, and Notes.

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* “ *Sitting in the Air.*—An exhibition at Madras has excited considerable curiosity. A Brahmin, old and slightly made, represented to be of high caste, contrives to poise himself in a most extraordinary manner in the air. He performs this feat at any gentleman’s house, not for money, but as an act of courtesy. The following is a description, from an eye-witness, given in a Calcutta paper.—‘ The only apparatus seen is a piece of plank, which, with four pegs, he forms into a kind of long stool ; upon this, in a little brass saucer or socket, he places, in a perpendicular position, a hollow bamboo, over which he puts a kind of crutch, like that of a walking crutch, covering that with a piece of common hide : these materials he carries with him in a little bag which is shown to those who come to see him exhibit. The servants of the house hold a blanket before him, and when it is withdrawn, he is discovered poised in the air, about four feet from the ground, in a sitting atitude, the outer edge of one hand merely touching the crutch, the fingers of that hand deliberately counting beads : the other hand and arm held up in an erect posture. The blanket was then held up before him, and they heard a gurgling noise like that occasioned by wind escaping from a bladder or tube, and when the screen was withdrawn he was again standing on terra firma. The same man has the power of staying under water for several hours. He declines to explain how he does it, merely saying he has been long accustomed to do so.’ The length of time for which he can remain in his aerial station is considerable. The person who gave the above account says that he remained in the air for twelve minutes; but before the Governor of Madras he continued on his baseless seat for *forty minutes*”—*Asiatic Monthly Journal for March, 1829*.

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appear to be those of a succession of teachers.* The cavern temples of the South of India, in the subjects of their sculptures, and the decorations of SIVA and his attendants, belong to the same sect;† whilst the philosophical tenets of Patanjali are as ancient perhaps as most of the other philosophical systems, and are prior to the Puránas, by which they are inculcated in a popular form. The practices of the Yoga are also frequently alluded to, and enforced in the Mahá-bhárat.‡ There is little reason to question therefore the existence and popularity of the Yoga in the early centuries of the Christian era, but whether it was known and cultivated earlier must be matter of vague conjecture alone. As represented in the Sankaravijaya, (Section 41) the Yogis vindicate their doctrine by texts from the Vedas, but the applicability of the texts is there denied, and is certainly far from conclusive or satisfactory.

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† In the temples of Salsette, Elephanta, and Ellora, the principal figure is mostly SIVA, decorated with ear-rings, such as are still worn by the Kánphata Jogis; the walls are covered with ascetics in the various Asanas, or positions in which the Yogi is to sit; a favourite subject of sculpture at Elephanta and Ellora is the sacrifice of DAKSHA disconcerted, and the guests, though saints and gods, put to rout, bruised and mutilated, by VIRABHADRA, and the Ganas of SIVA, in revenge for that deity's not having been invited, a story told in most of the Puránas which inculcate the Yoga tenets. The cells attached to some of the temples are also indicative of Jogi residence, and one of the caves of Salsette is named that of Jogiswara, or SIVA, as lord of the Jogis. Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay. Vols. 1 and 2.

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‡ These allusions occur in the Vana Parva chiefly; whilst in the Udyoga Parva, the observances of the Yoga are detailed at considerable length, and strenuously enjoined.

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The principal mode in which the Yoga takes a popular shape in upper India, is probably of comparatively recent origin. This is the sect of *Kánphata Jogis*, who acknowledge as their founder a teacher named *Gorakhna'th*, traces of whom are found in a *Gorakhkshetra* at *Peshawer*, mentioned by *Abulfazl*, and in the district and town of *Gorakhpur*, where also exist a temple and religious establishment of his followers. They hold also in veneration a plain near *Dwáraka*, named *Gorakhkhetr*; and a cavern or subterraneous passage at *Haridwar*. The Saiva temples of *Nepal*, those of *Sambunath*, *Pasupatináth*, and others, belong to the same system, although local legends attached to them, have combined in a curious manner the fictions of the *Bauddha* with those of the Brahmanical mythology.*

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∗ SIVA, it is said, appeared in the beginning of the Kali age as SWETA, for the purpose of benefiting the Brahmanas. He resided on the Himalaya mountains and taught the Yoga. He had four chief disciples, one also termed SWETA, and the others SWETASIKHA, SWETASWA, and SWETALOHITA. They had twenty-eight disciples—Sutára, Madana, Suhotra, Kankana, and twenty-four others. Of these four, whose names are not mentioned, had ninety-seven disciples, masters of the Yoga and inferior portions of SIVA. Those Brahmanas who recite the names of the teachers and offer to them libations acquire Brahmavidyá, or knowledge of spirit. That this long string of one hundred and twenty-five names is wholly fictitious, seems improbable, although the list is possibly not very accurate. The four primitive teachers may be imaginary; but it is a curious circumstance that the word Sweta, white, should be the leading member of each appellation, and that in the person of SIVA, and his first disciple, it should stand alone as SWETA, the white. SIVA, however, is always painted white, and the names may be contrived accordingly; but we are still at a loss to understand why the god himself should have a European complexion.

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From a *Ghoshti*,† or controversial dialogue between *Kabi'r* and *Gorakhna'th*, it would seem that they were personally known to each other, but various texts in the *Bijek* allude to him as if recently deceased. In either case these two teachers may have been cotemporaries, or nearly so, and the latter therefore flourished in the beginning of the 15th century. According to his followers, he was an incarnation of *Siva*; but in the controversial tract above named, he calls himself the son of *Matsyendra Na'th*, and grandson of *Adina'th*.‡ *Matsyendra Na'th* appears to have been the individual who introduced the Yoga Saivism into *Nepal*: one of the works of the sect, the *Hatha Pradípa*, makes *Matsyendra* prior to *Gorakh* by five spiritual descents.§ and this would place the former in the 14th century, supposing the *Kabir* work to be correct in the date it attributes to the latter.

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* See Asiatic Researches, Vol. XVI. page 471, and Note. † This has been printed in the first volume of Hindee and Hindustani Selections, for the use of the Interpreters of the Bengal Army, compiled by Captain Price. The discussion, in the form of a dialogue, occurs page 140.

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‡ आदिनाथके नाती मच्छन्द्रनाथ के पूत ।
मैं योगी गोरख अवधूत ॥

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§ The list of teachers is thus particularised :

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1. *Adináth.*
2. *Matsyendra.*
3. *Sambara.*
4. *Ananda.*
5. *Bhairava.*
6. *Chourángi.*
7. *Ména.*
8. *Goraksha.*
9. *Virúpáksha.*
10. *Vileso.*
11. *Manthana Bhairava.*
12. *Siddhabuddha.*
13. *Kanthada.*
14. *Paurandaka.*
15. *Suránanda.*
16. *Siddhapáda.*
17. *Churpati.*
18. *Káneri.*

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If the date assigned by Hamilton to the migration of the Hindu tribes from Chitaur, the beginning of the 14th century, be accurate,* it is probable that this was the period at which the worship of SIVA, agreeably to the doctrines of MATSYENDRA, or GORAKH, was introduced there, and into the eastern provinces of Hindustan.

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The temple of GORAKHNA'TH at Gorakhpur, according to the local tradition, was founded by SIVA in the second, or Treta age. Of its revolutions subsequent to that period, no account was preserved, until it was converted into a Mohammedan mosque by ALA-ADDIN. The temple, after some interval, was re-built in a different situation by an association of the followers of GORAKHNA'TH, and this was possibly the period at which the sect assumed its present form. A similar fate, however, attended this edifice, and it was appropriated by AURANGZEB to the Mohammedan religion. A second interval elapsed before a shrine was again erected to GORAKHNA'TH, when it was re-built on the spot on which it now stands, by BUDDHANA'TH, according to instructions communicated to him by GORAKHNA'TH in person. The present temple is situated to the west of the City of Gorakhpur, and attached to it on the south are three temples, consecrated to MAHA'DEVA, PASUPATINA'TH and HANUMA'N. The inclosure also comprehends the tombs of several eminent members of this communion, and the dwellings of the Mahant and his resident disciples.

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GORAKHNA'TH was a man of some acquirement, and has left specimens of his scholarship in two Sanscrit Compositions, the Goraksha sataka and Goraksha kalpa: third, the Goraksha sahasra Náma is, probably, of his writing. The celebrated BHARTRIHARI, the brother of VRIKRAMA'DITYA, is said to have been one of his disciples, but chronology

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| 19. Pujyapádda. | 26. Prabhudeva. |
| 20. Nityanátha. | 27. Goráchili. |
| 21. Niranjana. | 28. Dindima. |
| 22. Kapála. | 29. Bháluki. |
| 23. Bindu. | 30. Nágabodha. |
| 24. Kákachandíswara. | 31. Chandakapálika |
| 25. Allamá. | |

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The author of the Hatha Pradipa, ATMA RA'MA, states that these and many more Mahasiddhas, or perfect Yogis, are in existence. His names are possibly those of the Mahants, of a particular establishment: some of them are very unlike Hindu appellatives. If the date assigned to Goraknáth in the text be rightly conjectured, we cannot assign much more than fifteen years to each of his successors.

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∗ Hamilton's Nepal, page 14.

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will not admit of such an approximation. According to the authorities of the sect, GORAKH is but one of nine eminent teachers, or *Náths*. Of the perfect *Yogis*, or *Siddhas*, eighty-four are enumerated; but it is said, that there have been many more, of whom several are still upon the surface of the earth.

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The *Jogis* of GORAKHNA'TH are usually called *Kánphatas*, from having their ears bored, and rings inserted in them at the time of their initiation. They may be of any caste; they live as ascetics, either singly or in *Maths*.* SIVA is the object of their worship—they officiate indeed, as the priests of that deity, in some places, especially at the celebrated *Lát*, or Staff, of BHAIRAVA, at *Benares*. They mark the forehead with a transverse line of ashes, and smear the body with the same; they dress in various styles, but in travelling usually wear a cap of patchwork and garments dyed with red ochre. Some wear simply a *Dhoti*, or cloth round the loins.

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The term *Jogi*, in popular acceptation, is of almost as general application as *Sanyási* and *Vairági*; and it is difficult to fix its import upon any individual class, besides the *Kánphata*: the vagrants so called, following usually the dictates of their own caprice as to worship and belief, and often, it may be conceived, employing the character as a mere plea for a lazy livelihood. The *Jogis* are, indeed, particularly distinguished amongst the different mendicant characters, by adding to their religious personification more of the mountebank than any others; most of the religious mendicants, it is true, deal in fortune-telling, interpretation of dreams, and palmistry; they are also often empirics, and profess to cure diseases with specific drugs, or with charms and spells: but besides these accomplishments, the *Jogi* is frequently musical, and plays and

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∗ Solitary and independent living, however, appears to be improper, if the authority of the *Hatha Pradipa* is to be depended upon.

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सुराज्ये धार्म्मिके देशे सुभिक्षे निरुपद्रवे । एकान्ते मठिकामध्ये स्थातव्यं हठ योगिना ॥

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“In a well-governed and well-regulated country, fertile and prosperous, the *Hatha* Yogi (he who upholds the world in eternal continuity,) should reside in a solitary cell, within the precincts of a *Math*.” “Other directions follow, applicable to most establishments of a similar nature. The cell should have a small door, be neither too lofty, nor too low, be well smeared with cow-dung, and should be kept clean and free from reptiles: the *Math* should have a temple, a mound or altar, and a well, adjoining, and be enclosed by a wall.

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sings; he also initiates animals into his business, and often travels about with a small bullock, a goat, or a monkey, whom he has taught to obey his commands, and to exhibit amusing gesticulations. The dress of this class of *Jogis* is generally a cap and coat, or frock of many colours: they profess to worship *Siva*, and often carry the *Linga*, like the *Jangamas*, in the cap; all classes and sects assume the character, and *Musselman Jogis* are not uncommon. One class of the *Hindu Jogis* is called *Saringihar*, from their carrying a *Saringi*, or small fiddle or lute, with which they accompany their songs: these are usually *Bhásha* stanzas on religious or mythological topics, amongst which, stanzas ascribed to *Bhatrihari*, and a *Pauranic* legend of the marriage of *Siva* and *Pa'rvati*, are particularly celebrated. The *Saringihars* beg in the name of *Bhairava*: another sect of them, also followers of that deity, are termed *Dúríhárs*, from their trafficking in small pedlary, especially the sale of thread and silk, to the housewives of the villages; another class adopt the name of *Matsyendris*, or *Macchendris*, from *Matsyendra*, whom they regard as their founder; and a fourth set are *Bhartriharis*, from a traditional reference to him as the institutor of this particular order. The varieties of this class of mendicants, however, cannot be specified: they are all errants; fixed residences, or *Maths*, of any *Jogis*, except the *Kánphatas*, rarely occurring: an observation that will apply to, perhaps, all the *Saiva* sects, of whom it yet remains to give an account.

Jangamas

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The worship of *Siva*, under the type of the *Linga*, it has been observed, is almost the only form in which that deity is reverenced.∗

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∗ Its prevalence throughout the whole tract of the *Ganges*, as far as *Benares*, is sufficiently conspicuous. In *Bengal*, the temples are commonly erected in a range of six, eight, or twelve, on each side of a *Ghat*, leading to the river. At *Kalna* is a circular groupe of one hundred and eight temples, erected by the Raja of Bardwan. Each of the temples in *Bengal*, consists of a single chamber, of a square form, surmounted by a pyramidal centre; the area of each is very small, the *Linga*, of black or white marble, occupies the centre; the offerings are presented at the threshold. *Benares*, however, is the peculiar seat of this form of worship: the principal deity

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It is also perhaps the most ancient object of homage adopted in India, subsequently to the ritual of the Vedas, which was chiefly, if not wholly, addressed to the elements, and particularly to fire. How far the worship of the Linga is authorised by the Vedas, is doubtful, but it is the main purport of several of the Puranas.* There can be no doubt of its universality at the period of the Mohammedan invasion of India. The idol destroyed by Mahmud, of Ghizni, was nothing more than a Linga, being, according to Mirkhond, a block of stone, of four or five cubits long, and proportionate thickness.† It was, in fact,

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