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Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus c7.s3: Miscellaneous Sects

Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus c7.s3

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Miscellaneous Sects

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The sects that have been described are those of the regular system, and particularly of what may be called Brahmanical Hinduism, emanating, more or less directly, from the doctrines of the original creed. Besides these, there are a number which it is not so easy to class, although they are mostly referable to a common source, and partake, in many respects, of the same notions, especially of those of a *Vaishnava* and *Vedanta* tendency. They exist in various degrees of popularity,

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कौपीनः कपालपात्रितवामकरः सहनाद घण्टाधृतदक्षिणकरः सम्भो भैरव अहोकालीति मुहु मुहु जंपन् ।

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His body is smeared with ashes from a funeral pile, around his neck hangs a string of human skulls, his forehead is streaked with a black line, his hair is wove into the matted braid, his loins are clothed with a tiger's skin, a hollow skull is in his left hand, (for a cup) and in his right he carries a bell, which he rings incessantly, exclaiming aloud, Ho, *Sambhu Bhairava* -- Ho, lord of *Kali*.

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and date from various periods, and in most instances, owe their institution to enthusiastic or contemplative individuals, whose biography is yet preserved consistently enough by tradition.

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This is not the case, however, with the first two on the list—the *Saurapátas* and *Ganapátas*: these are usually, indeed, ranked with the preceding divisions, and make, with the *Vaishnavas*, *Saivas*, and *Sáktas*, the five orthodox divisions of the Hindus: they are of limited extent and total insignificance.

Saurapatas, or Sauras

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The *Saurapátas* are those who worship SURYAPATI, the Sun-god only; there are a few of them, but very few, and they scarcely differ from the rest of the Hindus in their general observances. The *Tilaka*, or frontal mark, is made in a particular manner, with red sandal, and the necklace should be of crystal; these are their chief peculiarities: besides which they eat one meal without salt on every Sunday, and each *Sankránti*, or the sun’s entrance into a sign of the Zodiac: they cannot eat either until they have beheld the sun, so that it is fortunate that they inhabit his native regions.

Ganapatyas

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These are worshippers of GANESA, or GANAPATI, and can scarcely be considered as a distinct sect: all the Hindus, in fact, worship this deity, as the obviator of difficulties and impediments, and never commence any work, or set off on a journey, without invoking his protection. Some, however, pay him more particular devotion than the rest, and these are the only persons to whom the classification may be considered applicable. GANESA, however, it is believed, is never exclusively venerated, and the worship, when it is paid, is addressed to some of his forms, particularly those of *Baktratunda* and *Dhundhiráj*.

Nanak Shahis

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A sect of much greater importance is that which originated with Na'nak Shah, and which, from bearing at first only a religious character, came, in time, to be a political and national distinction, through the influence of Mohammedan persecution and individual ambition. The enterprising policy of Govind Sinh, and the bigotry of Aurangzeb, converted the peaceful tenets of Na'nak into a military code, and his speculative disciples into the warlike nation of the Sikhs. It is not, however, in their political capacity that we are now to consider them, but as the professors of a peculiar form of faith, which branches into various sub-divisions, and is by no means restricted to the Punjab. At the same time it is unnecessary to detail the tenets and practices of the Sikhs, as that has been already performed in a full and satisfactory manner.

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The Sikhs, or Nának Shahis, are classed under seven distinctions, all recognising Nának as their primitive instructor, and all professing to follow his doctrines, but separated from each other by variations of practice, or by a distinct and peculiar teacher. Of these the first is the sect of the Udásis.

Udasis

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These may be regarded as the genuine disciples of Nának, professing, as the name denotes, indifference to worldly vicissitudes. They are purely religious characters, devoting themselves to prayer and meditation, and usually collected in Sangats, colleges or convents; they also travel about to places of pilgrimage, generally in parties of some strength. Individuals of them are to be met with in most of the chief cities of Hindustan, living under the patronage of some man of rank or property, but in all situations they profess poverty, although they never solicit alms; and although ascetics, they place no merit in wearing mean garments or dispensing altogether with clothes. On the contrary, they are, in general, well dressed, and, allowing the whiskers and beard to grow, are not unfrequently of a venerable and imposing appearance. Though usually practising celibacy, it does not appear to be a necessary condition amongst the Sikhs to be found in the Gangetic provinces: they are usually the ministrant priests; but their office consists chiefly in reading and expounding the writings of NA'NAK and GOVIND SINH, as collected in the *Adi Granth* and *Das Padshah ki Granth*. The perusal is enlivened by the chaunting, occasionally, of Hindi *Padas* and *Rekhtas*, the compositions of KABI'R, MIRA BHAI, SUR DAS, and others. With that fondness for sensible objects of reverence which characterises the natives of India, the Book is also worshipped, and rupees, flowers, and fruits, are presented by the votaries, which become, of course, the property of the officiating *Udási*. In return, the *Udási* not uncommonly adopts the presentation of the *Prásáda*, and at the close of the ceremony, sweetmeats are distributed amongst the congregation. In some of the establishments at Benares, the service is held in the evening after sunset, and the singing and feasting continue through a great part of the night. Many of the *Udásis* are well read in *Sanscrit*, and are able expounders of the *Vedanta* philosophy, on which the tenets of NA'NAK are mainly founded.

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The *Udási* sect was established by DHARMACHAND, the grandson of NA'NAK, through whom the line of the Sage was continued, and his descendants, known by the name of *Nának Putras*, are still found in the Punjab, where they are treated by the Sikhs with especial veneration.

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The doctrine taught by NA'NAK, appears to have differed but little from that of KABI'R, and to have deviated, but inconsiderably, from the Hindu faith in general. The whole body of poetical and mythological fiction was retained, whilst the liberation of the spirit from the delusive deceits of *Máyá*, and its purification by acts of benevolence and self-denial, so as to make it identical even in life with its divine source, were the great objects of the devotee. Associated with these notions, was great chariness of animal life, whilst with NA'NAK, as well as with KABI'R, universal tolerance was a dogma of vital importance, and both laboured to persuade Hindus and Mohammedans that the only essential parts of their respective creeds, were common to both, and that they should discard the varieties of practical detail, or the corruptions of their teachers for the worship of one only Supreme, whether he was termed *Allah* or *Hari*. How far these doctrines are still professed by the *Nának Sháhis*, may be inferred from the translations in the eleventh volume of the Researches, to which the following may be added as part of the service solemnized at the *Sikh Sangat*, at Benares.

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HYMN.

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Thou art the Lord—to thee be praise.
All life is with thee.
Thou art my parents. I am thy child—
All happiness is derived from thy clemency.
No one knows thy end.
Highest Lord amongst the highest—
Of all that exists, Thou art the regulator.
And all that is from thee obeys thy will.
Thy movements—thy pleasure—thou only knowest.
*Nának*, thy slave, is a free-will offering unto thee.
The Priest then says—
Meditate on the *Saheb* of the Book, and exclaim *Wah Guru*.
The People accordingly repeat—
*Wah Guru*—*Wah Guru kí fateh*.
The Priest.
Meditating on *Rámachándra*, exclaim *Wah Guru*.
The People.
*Wah Guru*—*Wah Guru kí fateh*.

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HYMN.

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Love, and fix thy whole heart upon Him—
The world is bound to thee by prosperity—
No one is another’s.
Whilst prosperity endures many will come,
And sit with thee and surround thee ;

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But in adversity they will fly, And not one will be near thee. The woman of the house who loves thee, And is ever in thy bosom; When the spirit quits the body, Will fly with alarm from the dead. Such is the way of the world, With all on which we place affection; Do thou, *Nának*, at thy last hour, Rely alone upon *Hari*. Priest as before. Meditating on the *Saheb* of the Book, &c. People as before. *Wah Guru*, &c.

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HYMN.

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My holy teacher is he who teaches clemency— The heart is awake within: who seeks may find. Wonderful is that rosary, every bead of which is the breath. Lying apart in its arbour, it knows what cometh to pass— The Sage is he who is merciful;—the merciless is a butcher. Thou wieldest the knife and regardlessly exclaimest— What is a goat, what is a cow, what are animals? But the *Saheb* declares that the blood of all is the same. Saints, Prophets, and Seers, have all passed in death. *Nának*, destroy not life for the preservation of the body. That desire of life which is in the heart, do thou, brother, repress. *Nának*, calling aloud, says—take refuge with *Hari*. Priest as before. Meditating on the *Saheb*, &c. People as before. *Wah Guru*—*Wah Guru kí fateh*.

Ganj Bakhshis

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Of this division of the *Sikhs*, no particulars, except the name, have been ascertained. This is said to have been derived from that of the founder. They are not numerous nor of any note.

Ramrayis

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These derive their appellation from that of RA'MA RA'YA, the son or grandson of HARI RA'YA, and their distinction from the other *Sikhs* is more of a political than religious complexion. RA'MA RA'YA disputed the succession to the Pontificate with HARI KRISHNA, the son of HARI RA'YA, and was unsuccessful. His followers, however, maintain the superiority of his pretensions, and record many miracles wrought by him in proof of his sanctity. He flourished about A. D. 1660. The *Rámráyis* are not common in Hindustan.

Suthreh Shahis

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These are more often met with than either of the two preceding, and the priests are recognisable by distinguishing marks. They make a perpendicular black streak down the forehead, and carry two small black sticks about half a yard in length, which they clash together when they solicit alms. They lead a vagabond life, begging and singing songs in the *Punjabi* and other dialects, mostly of a moral or mystic tendency.

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They are held in great disrepute, however, and are not unfrequently gamblers, drunkards, and thieves. They look up to TEGH BAHADER, the father of GURU GOVIND, as their founder.

Govind Sinhis

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These form the most important division of the *Sikh* community, being, in fact, the political association to which the name is applied, or to the *Sikh* nation generally.[*] Although professing to derive their national faith from *Nának*, and holding his memory in veneration, the faith they follow is widely different from the quietism of that reformer, and is wholly of a worldly and warlike spirit. *Guru Govind* devoted his followers to steel, and hence the worship of the sword, as well as its employment against both Mohammedans and Hindus. He also ordered his adherents to allow their hair and beards to grow, and to wear blue garments: he permitted them to eat all kinds of flesh, except that of kine, and he threw open his faith and cause to all castes, to whomsoever chose to abandon the institutes of *Hinduism*, or belief in the mission of Mohammed, for a fraternity of arms and life of predatory daring. It was then only that the *Sikhs* became a people, and were separated from their *Indian* countrymen in political constitution, as well as religious tenets—at the same time the *Sikhs* are still, to a certain extent, *Hindus*: they worship the deities of the *Hindus*, and celebrate all their festivals: they derive their legends and literature from the same sources, and pay great veneration to the *Brahmanas*. The impress of their origin is still, therefore, strongly retained, notwithstanding their rejection of caste, and their substituting the *Das Padshah ki granth*,[†] the compilation of *Guru Govind*, for the *Vedas*, and *Puranas*.

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∗ Described by Sir John Malcolm, in the eleventh volume of the Asiatic Researches. The *Sikh* priest to whom he alludes (page 198) as one of his authorities, was afterwards well known to me, and was an individual every way worthy of confidence. His name was *Atmá Ram*, and although advanced in years, he was full of energy and intelligence, combining with them extreme simplicity and kindliness of disposition. The old man was a most favourable and interesting specimen of the *Punjabi* nation and disciples of *Nának*. He died a few years ago in Calcutta.

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† From the succession of Chiefs, *Govind* was tenth teacher in succession from *Nának*, who flourished at the close of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century.

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The other standard authority of the Sikhs, the *Adi Granth*, is a compilation chiefly of the works of *Nának*, and his immediate successors, made by *Arjunmal*, a *Sikh* teacher, in the end of the 16th century. As it is usually met with, however, it comprehends the writings of many other individuals, many of whom are *Vaishnavas*. At a *Sikh Sangat*, or Chapel, in Benares, the Book, a large folio, there denominated the *Sambhu Granth*, was said to contain the contributions of the following writers:—

Nirmalas

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These differ but little from the *Udásis*, and are, perhaps, still closer adherents to the doctrines of the founder, as the name imports: they profess to be free from all worldly soil or stain, and, consequently, lead a wholly religious life. They observe celibacy, and disregard their personal appearance, often going nearly naked. They are not like the *Udásis*, assembled in colleges, nor do they hold any particular form of divine service, but confine their devotion to speculative meditation on the perusal of the writings of NA'NAK, KA'BIR, and other unitarian teachers. They are always solitary, supported by their disciples or opulent individuals, and are often known as able expounders of the *Vedanta* philosophy, in which *Brahmans* do not disdain to become their scholars. They are not very numerous; but a few are almost always to be found at the principal seats of *Hindu* wealth and learning, and particularly at *Benares*.*

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The naked mendicants of the *Sikhs* are said to differ from those of the *Vaishnava* and *Satva* sects, by abstaining from the use of arms, and following a retired and religious life. Except in going without clothes, they are not distinguishable from the *Nirmalas*.

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Nának, Nam Doe, Kábir, Sheikh Feridaddin, Dhana, Rámánand, Pipa, Sena, Jayadeva, Phandak, Sudáma, Praklád, Dhuru, Raidas, Vibhishana, Míra Bái, Kermu Bái.

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∗ An interesting account of the religious service of the *Sikhs*, in their college at Patna, was published by Mr. Wilkins, in the first volume of the Asiatic Researches. I witnessed a similar ceremony at a *Sikh* establishment at Benares, and partook of the *Prasáda* or sweetmeats, distributed to the assistants. Both Mr. Wilkins and Sir John Malcolm notice this eating in common, as if it were peculiar to the *Sikh* faith; but this, as elsewhere observed, is not the case. It prevails with most of the *Vaishnava* sects; but it should be remembered that it is always restricted to articles which have been previously consecrated by presentation to the object of worship, to the idol, the sarcophagus, the sculptured foot-marks, or the book.

Jains

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A satisfactory account of the religion of the *Jains* would require a distinct dissertation, and cannot be comprised within the limits necessarily assigned to this general sketch of the *Hindu* sects. The subject is of considerable interest, as affecting a very large proportion of the population of India, and involving many important considerations connected with the history of the *Hindu* faith : an extended inquiry must, however, be left to some further opportunity ; and in the meantime our attention will be confined to a few observations on the peculiar tenets and practices of the *Jain* religion, its past history, and actual condition.

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Previously, however, to entering upon these subjects, it may be advisable to advert briefly to what has been already done towards their elucidation, and to the materials which exist in the original languages for a complete view. The latter are of the most extensive description, whilst the labours of European writers are by no means wanting to an accurate estimate of the leading doctrines of the *Jain* faith, or to an appreciation of the state in which it exists in various parts of *Hindustan*.

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The first authentic notices of the *Jains* occur in the ninth volume of the Asiatic Researches, from the pens of the late Colonel Mackenzie, Dr. Buchanan, and Mr. Colebrooke. The two first described the *Jains* from personal acquaintance, and from their accounts, it appeared, that they existed, in considerable numbers and respectability, in Southern India, particularly in *Mysore*, and on the *Canara Coast*; that they laid claim to high antiquity, and enumerated a long series of religious teachers, and that they differed in many of their tenets and practices from the orthodox Hindus, by whom they were regarded with aversion and contempt. A further illustration of their doctrines, and a particular account of their deified teachers, was derived by Mr. Colebrooke from some of their standard authorities, then first made known to Europeans.

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Little more was published on the subject of the *Jains* until very lately, with exception of numerous but brief and scattered notices of the sect in the *Peninsula*, in Buchanan’s Travels in Mysore. Some account of them also occurs in Colonel Wilks’ Historical Sketch of the South of India, and in the work of the Abbè Du Bois. Mr. Ward has an article dedicated to the *Jains*, in his account of the Hindus; and Mr. Erskine has briefly adverted to some of their peculiarities in his observations on the Caves of *Elephanta*, and the remains of the *Bauddhas* in India, in the Proceedings of the *Bombay Literary Society*. It is, however, to the Transactions of the *Royal Asiatic Society* that we are indebted for the latest and most detailed accounts, and the papers of Mr. Colebrooke, Major Delamaine, Dr. Hamilton, Colonel Franklin and Major Tod,* furnish many interesting particulars relative to the doctrines and past or present condition of the *Jains*. Some valuable illustrations of the latter subject is to be found in the *Calcutta Quarterly Magazine* :† some historical notices obtained from the inscriptions at *Abu*, occur in the last volume of our *Researches*, whilst a novel and rather comprehensive view of *Jain* literature is contained in the Catalogue of Manuscripts collected by the late Colonel Mackenzie.‡

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From this latter authority, we learn that the literature peculiar to *Jainas*, comprises a number of works peculiar to the sect, the composition of their own writers, and on a variety of subjects.§ They have a series of works called *Puranas*, as the *Adi* and *Uttara Puranas*, *Chámunda Ráya Purana*, and *Chaturvinsati Purana*;|| but these are not to be

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* On the Philosophy of the Hindus, part IV. by Mr. Colebrooke, vol. I. On the *Sráwaks*, or *Jains*, by Major Delamaine, vol. 1, 418. On Inscriptions in Jain Temples, in Behar, by Mr. Colebrooke, Dr. Hamilton, and Colonel Franklin, vol. 1, 520. On the *Sráwaks*, or *Jains*, by Dr. Hamilton, vol. I, 531. On the Religious Establishments in Mewar, by Major Tod, vol. 2.

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† Particularly in the Journal of a Native Traveller from Calcutta, and back again through Behar. The traveller was a learned *Jain*, in the service of Colonel Mackenzie. There is also an interesting account of a visit to the temple of PA'RSWANA'TH, at Samet Sikhar.

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‡ Vol. 1, page 144, &c.

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§ The List comprises 44 Works—

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| *Puranas*, | .... | 7 |
| *Cheritras* and Legends, | .... | 10 |
| Ritual, Prayers, &c. | .... | 18 |
| Medicine, | .... | 1 |
| Grammar, | .... | 2 |
| Arithmetic, | .... | 2 |
| Miscellaneous, | .... | 4 |

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|| Hamilton says, the *Digambaras* have twenty-four *Puranas*, twenty-three giving an account of each *Tirthankara*, and the twenty-fourth, of the whole; but this seems to be erroneous. The actions of the twenty-four *Tirthankaras*, are described in a single *Purana*, but the section devoted to each is called after him, severally as the *Purana* of each, as *Rishabha Deva Purana*, one section of the *Chámunda Ráya Purana*. In the *Adi* and *Uttara Puranas*, forming, in fact, but one work, the *Adi*, or first part, is appropriated to the first *Tirthankara*, whilst the *Uttara*, or last portion,

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confounded with the *Puranas* of the *Hindus*; as, although they occasionally insert legends borrowed from the latter, their especial object is the legendary history of the *Tirthakaras*, or deified teachers, peculiar to the sect. The chief *Puranas* are attributed to JINA SENA SCHA'RYA, whom some accounts make contemporary with VIKRAMA'DITYA; but the greatest number, and most consistent of the traditions of the South, describe him as the spiritual preceptor of AMOGHAVERSHA, king of *Kanchi*, at the end of the ninth century of the Christian era. Analogous to the *Jain Puranas*, are works denominated *Cheritras*, their subject being, in general, the marvellous history of some *Tirthankara*, or some holy personage, after whom they are denominated; as the *Jinadatta Raya Cheritra*, *Pujyapada Cheritra*, and others. They have a number of works explanatory of their philosophical notions and religious tenets of the sect, as well as rituals of practice, and a grammatical system founded on the rules of SA'KATA'YANA, is illustrated by glosses and commentaries. The *Jains* have also their own writers on astronomy and astrology, on medicine, or the mathematical sciences, and the form and disposition of the universe.

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This general view of *Jain* literature is afforded by the Mackenzie Collection, but the list there given is very far from including the whole of *Jain* literature, or even a considerable proportion. The works there alluded to, are, in fact, confined to Southern India, and are written in *Sanscrit*, or the dialects of the *Peninsula*; but every province of Hindustan can produce *Jain* compositions, either in *Sanscrit* or its vernacular idiom, whilst many of the books, and especially those which may be regarded as their scriptural authorities, are written in the *Prakrit* or *Magadhi*, a dialect which, with the *Jains*, as well as the *Bauddhas*, is considered to be the appropriate vehicle of their sacred literature.

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The course of time, and the multiplication of writings, have probably rendered it almost impossible to reduce what may be considered as the sacred literature of the *Jains* to a regular system. They are said to have a number of works entitled *Siddhantas* and *Agamas*,* which are to

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contains the accounts of all the other deified Sages. There are several collections, comprehending what may be termed twenty-four *Puranas*; but it does not appear that there are twenty-four distinct works so denominated.

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∗ Hamilton enumerates eight works, as the *Agamas* of the Digambara sect, the *Trailokya Sara*, the *Gomatisara*, *Pungjiraj*, *Trailokya Dipika*, *Kshepanasara*, *Tri-

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them what the *Vedas* are to the Brahmanical Hindus, and this appears to be the case, although the enumeration which is sometimes made of them is of a loose and popular character, and scarcely reconcilable with that to be derived from written authority.*

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*bhangisara*, and *Shatpawar*, attributed to the pupils of *Mahavira*. He states also, that the *Swetambaras* have forty-five, or as some allege, eighty-four *Siddhantas*, amongst which he specifies the *Thánángi Sútra*, *Gnyánanti Sútra*, *Sugorangi Sútra*, *Upasakadesa*, *Mahapandanna*, *Nandi Sútra*, *Rayapseni*, *Jirabhigam*, *Jambudwipa-pannati*, *Surapannatti*, *Chandrasagarapannatti*, *Kalpa Sútra*, *Katantraobhrama Sútra*, *Shakti Sútra*, and *Sangrakani Sútra*. Some of these are incorrectly named, and others inaccurately classed, as will be seen from what follows in the text.

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* The following Works are either in my possession or in the library of the Sanscrit College of Calcutta :—Compositions descriptive of the tenets or practices of the Jain religion. *Bhagavatyangam*. This is one of the eleven primary works, and is entitled also in Prakrit, *Viváha Pannatti*, in Sanscrit, *Viváha*, or *Vivádhá Prájnapti*. Instruction in the various sources of worldly pain, or in the paths of virtue. It consists of lessons given to GAUTAMA by MAHA'VI'RA, and is in *Prákrit*. It contains 36,000 stanzas. *Bhagavtyanga Vritti*, a Sanscrit Commentary on the preceding (defective.) *Thánánga Sútra*,—also one of the eleven Angas. *Kalpa Sútra*, the precepts of the Jain faith—these are originally 1250; but they are interspersed with legends of the *Tirthankaras*, and especially of MAHA'VI'RA, at the pleasure of the writer, and the several copies of the work therefore differ. *Prákrit*

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| *Kalpa Sútra Bálabodha*, a sort of abridgment of the preceding. *Prakrit.* | *Mahamuni Swadhyaya.* |
| *Kalpa Sútra Siddhanta*, the essence of the *Kalpa Sútra*. *Prakrit.* | *Pragnasúkta Muktavali.* |
| *Dasavaikalika Sútra*. *Prakrit.* | *Aradhana Prakara.* |
| *Ditto. Tika.* | *Parswanatha Gita.* |
| *Rayaprasna Sútra Siddhanta*. *Tika.* | *Uttaradhyayana Gita.* |
| *Gautamaprashtha*. *Prakrit.* | *Sadhusamachari.* |
| *Sangrahini Sútra*. *Prakrit.* | *Sravakaradhana.* |
| *Laghu Sangrahini Sútra.* | *Jnyanapúja.* |
| *Nava Tatwa Sútra*. *Prakrit.* | *Dikshamahotsava.* |
| *Nava Tatwa Prakarana*. *Prakrit.* | *Barah Vrata.* |
| *Nava Tatwa Bálabodha*. *Prakrit.* | *Saptavinsati Sadhu Lakshana.* |
| *Karma Grantha.* | *Katribhojana Nishedhu.* |
| *Jiva Vichara*. *Sanscrit.* | *Sadhwapashana Vidhi.* |
| *Jiva Vinaya.* | *Dwisashti Vakya.* |
| *Smarana Sútra*. *Prakrit.* | *Kshetrosamasa Sútra.* |
| *Vriddhatichara*. *Prakrit.* | *Samyaktwadhyayana.* |
| *Sindúraprakara Tika*. *Sanscrit.* | *Prishnottara Retnamala.* |
| *Ekavinsati Sthana*, *Bhasha.* | *Navakúrúnsa Bálabodha.* |
| *Dasakshapanavratavidhi*. *Bhasha.* | *Asahyana Vidhi.* |
| *Upadesa Mala*. *Prakrit.* | *Santaraka Vidhi.* |
| *Pratikramana Vidhi*. *Prakrit.* | *Atmánusásana*. *Bhasha.* |
| *Pratikramana Sútra*. *Bhasha.* | *Panchástikáya*, according to the *Digam-bara faith.* |
| *Chaturdasa Gunasthana*. *Bhasha.* | *Jinapratima Sthapana Vidhi.* |
| *Chaturdasa Gunanamani.* | *Jalakshalana Vidhi.* |
| *Pakshi Sútra*. *Bhasha.* | *Sudopakara Muktavali.* |
| *Shattrinsat Kermakatha*. *Bhasha.* | *Moksha Marga.* |
| *Dhermabuddhi Chatushpadi*. *Bhasha.* | *Nitisangraha.* |
| *Balavibodha*. *Bhasha.* | *Vicharumanjari.* |
| *Upadhanavidhi*. *Prakrit.* | *Parswanatha Dasabhavavisaha.* |
| *Ashtahnikamahotsava*. *Prakrit.* | *Sataviasbhava.* |
| *Ashtahnikavyakhajana.* | *Anandasravaka Sandhi.* |
| | *Rohinitapa.* |

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∗ The following Works are either in my possession or in the library of the Sanscrit College of Calcutta :—Compositions descriptive of the tenets or practices of the Jain religion. *Bhagavatyangam*. This is one of the eleven primary works, and is entitled also in Prakrit, *Viváha Pannatti*, in Sanscrit, *Viváha*, or *Vivádhá Prájnapti*. Instruction in the various sources of worldly pain, or in the paths of virtue. It consists of lessons given to GAUTAMA by MAHA'VI'RA, and is in *Prákrit*. It contains 36,000 stanzas. *Bhagavtyanga Vritti*, a Sanscrit Commentary on the preceding (defective.) *Thánánga Sútra*,—also one of the eleven Angas. *Kalpa Sútra*, the precepts of the Jain faith—these are originally 1250; but they are interspersed with legends of the *Tirthankaras*, and especially of MAHA'VI'RA, at the pleasure of the writer, and the several copies of the work therefore differ. *Prákrit*

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The author of the *Abhidhána Cyintámani*, a useful vocabulary, HEMA-CHANDRA, is well known as a zealous and able propagator of the *Jain* doctrines in the twelfth century. He was no doubt well versed in the peculiarity of the system which he taught, and may be regarded as a safe guide. In his vocabulary he specifies what appear to be the *Jaina* scriptures, at least in the estimation of the *Swetámbara* sect, to which he belonged, and in a valuable Commentary on his own work he has further particularised the works named in his text. From this it appears that the principal authorities of a sacred character were termed *Angas*, and were eleven in number, or with a supplementary division, twelve. They are thus enumerated and described; *Acháránga*, a book teaching sacred observances after the practice of *Vasishtha* and other saints.

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| *Siddháchala Pújá.* | *Parswanath Stava.* |
| *Pújápaddhati. Bhasha.* | *Parswanath Stuti. Prakrit.* |
| *Silopadesa Mala.* | *Neminatha Stava.* |
| *Snana Vidhi.* | *Ashanta Stava. Prakrit.* |
| *Navapattatapa Vidhi.* | *Ajitasánti Stava.* |
| *Amritashtamitapa.* | *Bhaktamaya Stotra.* |
| *Dévapúja.* | *Kalyána Mandira Stotra Sanskrit.* |
| *Baranbhavanasandhi. Bhasha.* | *Chaturvinsati dandakastava.* |
| *Panegyrics of the Jain teachers, &c.* | *Sádhubandana.* |
| *which are not unfrequently repeated in* | *Satrunjaya Stava.* |
| *the temples.* | *Párswanath Namaskára.* |
| *Sánti Jina Stava. Bhasha.* | *Champaka Stavana.* |
| *Vrihat Sánti Stava. Sanskrit.* | *Upasergahara Stotra.* |
| *Mahavira Stava. Bhasha.* | *Guru Stava.* |
| *Laghu Sánti Stava.* | *Karmma Stava.* |
| *Rishabha Stava.* | |

Legendary Tales and Histories

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| *Padma Purana. Bhasha.* | *Kalikacharya Katha.* |
| *Mahávira Cheritra, which is called by* | *Samyaktwa Kaumudi.* |
| *others a portion of the Trisashti Salát-* | *Vastradana Katha.* |
| *ka Purusha Cheritra, or Legend of* | *Meghadutapada Samasya.* |
| *the sixty-three personages, most emi-* | *Avantisakumara Cheritra.* |
| *nent in Jain Tradition. Sanskrit.* | *Retanchuropakhyana.* |
| *Nemirájarshi Cheritra.* | *Mrigavati Cheritra.* |
| *Salabhadra Cheritra. Bhasha.* | *Retnachura Muni; Chaupai. Bhasha.* |
| *Chitrasena Cheritra. Prakrit.* | *Mrigavati Chaupai. Bhasha.* |
| *Gajasukumara Cheritra. Bhasha.* | *Sadhu Charitra.* |
| *Chandraraja Cheritra. Bhasha.* | *Satrunjaya Mahatmya.* |
| *Bhaktamara.* | *Gajasinha Charitra.* |
| *Sripala Cheritra. Bhasha.* | *Dasadrishtanta Katha.* |

Miscellaneous

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| *Vriddhayavana, Astronomy. Sanskrit.* | *Namavali.* |
| *Chaturdasaswapanavichara.* | *Patavali.* |
| *Trailokya Dipika.* | *Many of these are of small extent, but* |
| *Setunjoddhar.* | *others are exceedingly voluminous, as* |
| *Pathanarámbhapithika.* | *the Bhagavatyanga, Padma Purana,* |
| *Hastarekhavivurana. Prakrit.* | *Satrunjdya Mahatmya, and others.* |

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*Sútrakritángam*, a work on acts imposed by positive precepts. *Sthánángam*—On the organs in which life abides, or the ten acts essential to purity. *Samavayángam*—On the hundred *Padárthas* or categories. *Bhagavatyangam*—On the ritual, or rules for worship. *Jnyátadhermakathá*—An account of the acquisition of knowledge by holy personages. *Upásakadasá*—Rules for the conduct of *Sráwakas*, or secular Jains, apparently in ten lectures. *Antakriddasa*—On the actions of the *Tirthakaras*, in ten lectures. *Anuttaropatikadara*—On the principal or final births of the *Tirthakaras*, in ten lectures. *Prasnavyakaranam*—Grammar of questions, probably on the Code of the Jains. *Vipákasrutam*—On the fruits or consequences of actions.

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With these are connected inferior *Angas* or *Upángas*, the names of which are not specified—whilst the *Drishtabáda*, the twelfth *Anga*, which seems to be a supplementary authority, is divided into five portions, entitled; *Parikermma*—On moral acts; *Sútra*—Precepts for conduct and life; *Púrvánuyoga*—On the doctrines and practice of the *Tirthakaras* before attaining perfection; *Púrvagata*—On the same after perfection! *Chúliká*—On doctrines and practice not comprised in the two preceding.

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These different works profess to be derived from the oral instructions of MAHA'VI'RA himself to his disciple, especially to GAUTAMA; but besides these a class of works is enumerated by HEMACHANDRA, entitled *Púrvas*, because they were drawn up by the *Ganadharas* before the *Angas*.¹ There are fourteen of them treating of the chief tenets of the sect, apparently sometimes controversially, as the *Astipraváda*, the doctrine of existence and non-existence. *Jnyánapraváda*, the doctrine of holy knowledge—*Satyapraváda*, discussion of truth—*Atmapraváda*, investigation of spirit—*Pránaváya*, nature of corporeal life—*Kriyávisála*, consequences of acts, and others.² They are held to be the works of MAHAVÍRAS *Ganas*, or of that *Tirthakára* and his predecessors, or to have emanated from them originally, although committed to writing by other hands. Some of them still exist, it appears,³ although in

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¹ * सूचितानिगणधरैरङ्गेभ्यः पूर्वमेवयत् । पूर्वाणीत्यभिधीयन्तेतैनैतानिचतुर्दश ॥ Máha Cher. Section 5.

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² † A similar enumeration of these Works occurs in the Mahavira Cheritra.

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³ ‡ Thus the Thánángisútra and Upasakadesa, of Hamilton, are no doubt the Sthanánga and Upasadasa, of Hemachandra's text, and the Bhagavatyanga is in the Sanscrit College Library.

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* सूचितानिगणधरैरङ्गेभ्यः पूर्वमेवयत् ।
पूर्वाणीत्यभिधीयन्तेतैनैतानिचतुर्दश ॥ Máha Cher. Section 5.

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general their places have been assumed by a list of more recent compositions.

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From this brief statement it will be evident that there is no want of original authorities with regard to the belief, the practices, or the legends of the *Jaina* sect. There is indeed more than a sufficiency, and the vast extent of the materials is rather prejudicial to the enquiry, it being impossible to consult any extensive proportion of what has been written, and it being equally impossible without so doing to know that the best guides have been selected. For such accounts as are here given, the Vocabulary of HEMACHANDRA, with his own Commentary, the *Mahávira Cheritra* of the same author, the *Kalpa Sútra*, the *Avasyakavrihad Vritta*, the *Bhagavatyanga Vritta*, *Nava Tatwabodha*, and *Jiva Vichára* have chiefly been consulted.

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The leading tenets of the *Jains*, and those which chiefly distinguish them from the rest of the *Hindus*, are well known—they are, first, the denial of the divine origin and infallible authority of the *Vedas*; secondly, the reverence of certain holy mortals who acquired, by practices of self-denial and mortification, a station superior to that of the gods; and thirdly, extreme and even ludicrous tenderness for animal life.

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The disregard of the authority of the *Vedas* is common to the *Jains*, and the *Buddhas*, and involves a neglect of the rites which they prescribe: in fact, it is in a great degree from those rites that an inference unfavourable to the sanctity of the *Vedas* is drawn, and not to speak of the sacrifices of animals which the *Vedas* occasionally enjoin; the *Homa*, or burnt offering, which forms a part of every ceremonial in those works, is an abomination; as insects crawling amongst the fuel, bred by the fermented butter, or falling into the flame, cannot fail to be destroyed by every oblation. As far, however, as the doctrines they teach are conformable to *Jain* tenets, the *Vedas* are admitted and quoted as authority.

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The veneration and worship of mortals is also common to the *Jains* and *Buddhas*, but the former have expanded and methodised the notions of the latter. The *Buddhas*, although they admit an endless number of earthly *Buddhas* to have existed, and specify more than a century of names,[*] confine their reverence to a comparatively small number—to seven. The *Jainas* extend this number to twenty-four for

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[*] *Asiatic Researches*, vol. XVI. pages 446 to 449.

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a given period, and enumerate, by name, the twenty-four of their past age, or *Avasarpini*, the twenty-four of the present, and the twenty-four of the age to come. The statues of these, either all or in part, are assembled in their temples, sometimes of colossal dimensions, and usually of black or white marble. The objects held in highest esteem in *Hindustan* are *Pa'rswana'th* and *Maha'vira*, the twenty-third and twenty-fourth *Jinas* of the present era, who seem to have superseded all their predecessors.

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The generic names of a *Jaina* saint express the ideas entertained of his character by his votaries. He is *Jagatprabhu*, lord of the world; *Kshinakermmá*, free from bodily or ceremonial acts; *Sarvajna*, omniscient; *Adhiswara*, supreme lord; *Devádideva*, god of gods; and similar epithets of obvious purport; whilst others are of a more specific character, as *Tirthakára*, or *Tirthankara*, *Kevali*, *Arhat*, and *Jina*. The first implies one who has crossed over, (*Tiryate anena,*) that is, the world, compared to the ocean; *Kevali*, is the possessor of *Kevala*, or spiritual nature, free from its investing sources of error: *Arhat* is one entitled to the homage of gods and men, and *Jina* is the victor over all human passions and infirmities.*

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Besides these epithets, founded on attributes of a generic character, there are other characteristics common to all the *Jinas* of a more specific nature. These are termed *Atisayas*, or super-human attributes, and are altogether thirty-six; four of them, or rather four classes, regard the person of a *Jina*, such as the beauty of his form, the fragrance of his body, the white colour of his blood, the curling of his hair, its non-increase, and that of the beard and nails, his exemption from all natural impurities, from hunger and thirst, from infirmity and decay: these properties are considered to be born with him. He can collect around him millions of beings, gods, men, and animals, in a comparatively small space, his voice is audible to a great distance, and his language, which is *Arddha Màgadhi*, is intelligible to animals, men and gods, the back of his head is surrounded with a halo of light, brighter than the disk of the sun, and for an immense interval around him, wherever he moves, there is neither sickness nor enmity, storm nor dearth, neither plague portents, nor war. Eleven *Atisayas* of this kind are ascribed to him. The remaining nineteen are of celestial origin, as the raining of flowers and perfumes, the sound of heavenly drums, and the menial offices rendered by *Indra* and the gods.

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∗ तीर्थतेसंसारसमुद्रोऽनेनेतितीर्थं तत्करोतीतीर्थकरः। सर्व्वथावरुणविलयेचेतनस्वरूपा विर्भावःकेवलं तदस्यास्तिकेवलिन् सुरैद्रादिकृतापूजामर्हत्यर्हन्जयतिरागद्वेषमोहानिति जिनः॥ These Etymologies are from Hemachandra's Commentary.

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Notwithstanding the sameness of the general character and identity of generic attributes, the twenty-four *Jinas* are distinguished from each other in colour, stature, and longevity. Two of them are red, two white, two blue, two black, the rest are of a golden hue, or a yellowish brown. The other two peculiarities are regulated with very systematic precision, and observe a series of decrement from *Rishabha*, the first *Jina*, who was five hundred poles in stature, and lived 8,400,000 great years to *Mahávira*, the 24th, who had degenerated to the size of man, and was not more than forty years on earth. These peculiarities have been detailed by Mr. Colebrooke, in the ninth volume of the Researches, and he draws a probable inference from the return to reason in the stature and years of the two last *Jinas*, that they alone are to be considered as historical personages. The rest are the creatures of fiction. The notion of decreasing longevity, like that of the existence of human beings, superior to the gods, is common to the *Bauddhas*.*

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There is also great similarity in the general tenor of the legends related of each of the *Jinas*. They are all born a number of times, and in a variety of characters, before they arrive at the state of a *Tirthankara*: after which, as their attainment of divine knowledge is the work of self-denial and ascetic meditation, we need not expect much varied

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* A comparison of the Jain and *Bauddha* series suggests strong confirmation of the opinion, that the Jain legends are only *Bauddha* notions exaggerated. The ages of the seven *Buddhas* run thus—
*Vipaswi*, . . . . . 80,000 years.
*Sikhi*, . . . . . 70,000 ditto.
*Viswabhú*, . . . . . 60,000 ditto.
*Krakuchchanda*, . . . . . 40,000 ditto.
*Kanaka*, . . . . . 30,000 ditto.
*Kasyapa*, . . . . . 20,000 ditto.
*Sákya*, . . . . . 100 ditto.
A. R. vol. XVI. p. 453. The last *Jina* but one, or *Parswanath*, lived like *Sákya*, 100 years.

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incident in their adventures, a sketch of the life of MAHA'VI'RA, from the *Mahávira Cheritra*, will convey some notion of their ordinary history, whilst further illustration may be derived from an abstract of the *Párswanáth Cheritra*, or life of PA'RSWANA'TH, in the Royal Asiatic Society's Transactions.

Life of Mahavira

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The twenty-fourth *Tirthankara* MAHA'VI'RA's first birth, which occurred at a period indefinitely remote, was as NAYASA'RA, head man of a village, in the country of *Vijaya*, subject to SATRUMERDDANA. His piety and humanity elevated him next to the heaven called *Saudherma*, where he enjoyed happiness for some oceans of years. He was next born as MARICHI, the grandson of the first *Tirthankara* RISHABHA, then transferred to the *Brahmaloka*, whence he returned to earth as a worldly-minded and sensual *Brahman*, the consequence of which was his repeated births in the same caste, each birth being separated by an interval passed in one of the *Jain* heavens, and each period of life extending to many *lakhs* of years. He then became VISWABHU'TA, prince of *Rajagriha*, and next a *Vásudeva*, named TRI'PRI'SHTHA, from having three back bones : his uncle and foe in a former life, Visabhanandi, was born as his *Protagonist*, or *Prativásudevá*, named ASWAGRIVA or HAYAGRIVA, and was, in the course of events, destroyed by the *Vásudeva*, a palpable adaptation of the Pauranic legend of VISHNU and HAYAGRIVA. TRI'PRI'SHTHA having put his chamberlain cruelly to death, was condemned to hell, and again born as a lion : he migrated through various forms, until he became the *Chakravertti* PRIYAMITRA, in the division of the world, *Mahavideha*. After a victorious reign of eighty-four *lakhs* of years, he became an ascetic for a further period of a hundred *lakhs*, and was then translated to one of the higher heavens. Thence he returned to earth in the *Bharata* division, as NANDANA, the son of JITASATRU, he adopted a life of devotion, and diligently adored the *Jinas*. After an existence of twenty-five *lakhs* of years, he was raised to the dignity of king of the gods in the *Pushpottara* heaven, in which capacity he preserved his ancient faith, offering flowers to, and bathing daily the one hundred and eight images of the *Arhats*. Such exalted piety was now to meet with its reward, and the pains of existence to be terminated in the person of the *Tirthankara*, MA'HA'VI'RA, or VERDDHAMA'NA.

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On the return of the spirit of NANDANA to earth, it first animated the womb of the wife of a *Brahman*, but MAHENDRA disapproving of the receptacle as of low caste, transferred it to the womb of TRISALA', wife of SIDDHA'RTHA, of the family of *Ikshwaku*, and prince of Pavana, in *Bharatakshetra*. MA'HA'VI'RA was born on the thirteenth of the light fortnight of *Chaitra*: the fifty-six nymphs of the universe assisted at his birth, and his consecration was performed by SAKRA, and the other sixty three *Indras*. The name given by his father was VERDDHAMA'NA, as causing increase of riches and prosperity, but SAKRA gave him also the appellation of MA'HA'VI'RA, as significant of his power and supremacy over men and gods.

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When arrived at maturity, MA'HA'VI'RA was prevailed upon by his parents to marry YASODA', daughter of the prince SAMARAVI'RA. By her he had a daughter, PRIYADERSANA', who was married to JAMA'LI, a prince, one of the saint's pupils, and founder of a schism. SIDDHA'RTHA and his wife died when their son was twenty-eight years old, on which MA'HA'VI'RA adopted an ascetic life, the government devolving on his elder brother NANDIVERDDHANA. After two years of abstinence and self-denial at home, he commenced an erratic life, and the attainment of the degree of a *Jina*.

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During the first six years of his peregrination, MA'HA'VI'RA observed frequent fasts of several months duration, during each of which he kept his eyes fixed upon the tip of his nose, and maintained perpetual silence. He was invisibly attended by a *Yaksha*, named SIDDHA'RTHA, who, at the command of INDRA, watched over his personal security, and where speech was necessary acted as spokesman. At *Nálándá*, a village near *Rájagriha*, MA'HA'VI'RA acquired a follower named GOSA'LA, so called from his birth in a cow-house, a man of low caste and vulgar propensities, and who acts as a sort of buffoon.* He is involved in repeated difficulties, and not unfrequently receives a beating, but when free from fault, the Yakshas, who attend on SIDDHA'RTHA, come to his aid, and destroy with fire the houses and property of his assailants. Amongst other enemies he provokes the followers of VERDDHANA SU'RI, the disciple of CHANDRA-A'CHA'RYA, a teacher of the Jain faith, according to the doctrines of PA'RSWANA'TH. In the course of the dispute it appears that the followers of PA'RSWANA'TH wore clothes, whilst MAHA'VI'RA was indifferent to vesture, and the latter consequently belonged to the division of the Jains called Digambaras, or those who go naked, whilst PA'RSWANA'TH's disciples were Swetámbaras, dressed in garments.* During the six years expended in this manner, MAHA'VI'RA visits a number of places, most of which appear to be in Behar and the adjacent provinces, as Rájagriha, Srávasti near Oude, Vatsáit, which is identified with the capital of Behar, and others.

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∗ Some curious and unintelligible things are related of this individual, which suggest a suspicion that the author had in view some of the oriental legends relating to *Mani* or *Manes*. The birth of GOSA'LA, in a cow-house, may or may not refer to

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Proceeding on his peregrinations, MAHA'VI'RA voluntarily exposed himself to be maltreated by the Mlechha tribes of Vajrabhúmi Suddhibhúmi, and Lát, or Lár the countries apparently of the Gonds, who abused and beat him, and shot at him with arrows, and baited him with dogs, to all which he offered no resistance, and indeed rejoiced in his sufferings, for, however necessary to personal purification, it is not the duty of a Jain ascetic to inflict tortures upon himself—his course of penance is one of

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Christianity; but it is also observed that his father and mother carried about a Chitra Pattika, a painted cloth or picture, which GOSA'LA stole from them, and that when he adopted the service of MAHA'VI'RA, he abandoned the heresy of the picture, चित्रफलक पाषण्ड विहाय self-denial, fasting and silence, and pain however meritorious its endurance, must be inflicted by others, not himself. At the end of the ninth year, MAHA'VI'RA relinquished his silence in answer to a question put by GOSA'LA, but continued engaged in the practice of mortification and in an erratic life. His squire having acquired from him the possession of the Téjalesya, or power of ejecting flame, and having learned from certain of the disciples of PA'RSWANA'TH, what is technically termed the Maha-nimitta of the eight Angas, intending probably their scriptural doctrines, set up for himself as a Jina, and quitted his master.

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∗ They reply to GOSA'LA's enquiry: निर्ग्रन्थाः पार्श्वशिष्याः वयं “We are the pupils of PA'RSWA, free from restrain”—to which he rejoins कथन्तुयूयंनिग्रन्था वस्त्रादिग्रन्थधारिणः। केवलं जीविकाहेतो रियं पाषण्ड कल्पना॥ वस्त्रादि संगरहितो निरपेक्षोवपुष्यपि। धर्माचार्य्याहि यादृग्मेनिर्र्ग्रन्था तादृशा खलु॥ “How can you be free from restraint encumbered with clothes and the like, these heretical practices are adopted merely for a livelihood: wholly unfettered by clothes and such things, and disregarding the body, the followers of such a teacher as mine is, are the only persons exempt from restraint.” Further confirmation of MAHA'VI'RA and his followers being Digambaras, occurs in various places, especially in a passage where GOSA'LA gets beaten, and almost killed by the women of a village in Magadha, because he is a naked Sramana, or mendicant.

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INDRA having declared that MAHA'VI'RA'S meditations could not be disturbed by men or gods, one of the inferior spirits of heaven, indignant at the assertion, assailed the Sage with a variety of horrors and temptations, but in vain. MAHA'VI'RA'S pious abstraction was unbroken. He then wandered about and visited Kausámbi, the capital of Satánika, where he was received with great veneration, and where his period of self-denial ended in perfect exemption from human infirmities. The whole of the time expended by him in these preparatory exercises was twelve years and six months, and of this he had fasted nearly eleven years. His various fasts are particularised with great minuteness, as one of six months, nine of four months each, twelve of one month, and seventy-two of half a month each, making altogether ten years and three hundred and forty-nine days.

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The bonds of action were snapped like an old rope, and the Kevala, or only knowledge attained by MAHA'VI'RA on the north bank of the Rijupáliká, under a Sál tree, on the tenth of the light fortnight of Vaisákha, in the fourth watch of the day, whilst the moon was in the asterism Hasta. INDRA instantly hastened to the spot, attended by thousands of deities, who all did homage to the saint, and attended him on his progress to Apápápuri, in Behar, where he commenced his instructions on a stage erected for the purpose by the deities, a model of which is not uncommonly represented in Jain temples. The following is the introductory lecture ascribed to MAHA'VI'RA by his biographer.

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"The world is without bounds, like a formidable ocean; its cause is action (Karma,) which is as the seed of the tree. The being (Jiva) invested with body, but devoid of judgment, goes like a well-sinker, ever downwards, by the acts it performs, whilst the embodied being which has attained purity, goes ever upwards, by its own acts, like the

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