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History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c18: 4.1 Mercurial and Metallic Compounds

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c18

Language
English

Contents

4.1 Mercurial and Metallic Compounds

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The present study includes a survey of Vedic literature followed by classical literature of Ayurveda such as Caraka Saṃhitā and Suśruta Saṃhitā, Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya (7th century A.D), Rasa Hṛdaya Tantra (8th/9th centuries A.D), Rasārṇava Tantra (10th century A.D), Cakradatta (11th century A.D), Rasendra Cūḍāmaṇi (12th century A.D), RasaPrakāśa Sudhākara (12th century A.D) and Rasendra Cintāmaṇi (12th century A.D) to assess the development of mercurial and metallic compounds in historical perspective and the technology involved in their pharmaceutical processing and preparation.

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In Vedic period the metals of therapeutic importance are found mentioned, but, their compounds of therapeutic value were not seen. There is no reference of mercury also in Vedic literature. However, in the classical age of Ayurvedic medicine mercury, metals and their compounds are found referred to for external and internal uses though, to a very limited extent only. As regards the technology involved in their pharmaceutical preparation it may be said that it was in developing stage only upto the time of Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya (7th century A.D) and till then no significant progress could be seen.

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From 8th/9th century A.D onwards, the development of Rasa Śāstra (Advanced Ayurvedic Pharmaceutical Science) takes place with regards to the processing and the use of mercury, metals, minerals and many of their compounds for alchemical as well as therapeutic purposes. Many new methods/procedures/techniques for the treatment of mercury, metals/minerals were developed to convert these into pharmaceutically most suitable forms/compounds which are non-toxic, highly absorbable and most effective in therapeutics.

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It is important to mention here that initially the development of Rasa Śāstra was started to achieve the objectives of Lohavedha (alchemy) to remove poverty from the world and in this respect the great Indian alchemist Nagarjuna and his followers - Nandi, Govinda, Bhagavatpāda, Somadeo, Yaśodhara, Nityanātha and Dhundhukantha etc. have contributed much and took this branch of learning and practice to its great heights and developed a number of mercurial and metallic compounds. Incidentally during this period some scholars started to use these compounds for *Deha vedha* (transformation of body tissues) purposes also, considering the *samyatva* (similarity) between *loha* (metal) and *deha* (body) or *loka* (world) and *purūṣa* (man). They observed highly encouraging response in their efforts. In this way the mercurial and the metallic compounds have found their uses in the therapeutics of Ayurveda. Further, in this period, primarily the mercurial and metallic compounds have been used for the promotion of positive health only but slowly these are found highly useful for the prevention and cure of diseases also.

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Further, while using these compounds in the body, the scholars have also felt that still there is a need and scope for the development of more advanced and sophisticated pharmaceutical techniques for removing the toxicity of mercury, metals and minerals and for their conversion into the most suitable compounds of therapeutic value. Besides these in the context of mercury the development of *Mūrcchanā* and *Gandhaka Jāraṇa* also deserves mention. As through these the toxicity of mercury could be reduced to minimum and mercury may be converted to some compound form which may prove to be the most suitable for internal use. It is found mentioned in *Rasendracintāmaṇi* for the first time that through the process of *Mūrcchanā* only the *vyādhighatakatva Śakti* (disease destroying capacity) could be induced in mercury and its compounds. As prior to the development of this process (*mūrcchanā*) mercury is being used internally or externally mixed with metals and herbal drugs either in amalgam form or divided into fine particles form.

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It is worthwhile to mention here that *kajjali* and *parpaṭi* in which mercury converts into black sulphide compound are though, found mentioned in *Cakradatta* (11th A.D) however, their systematic preparation and frequent use in therapeutics could be seen only during 12th century A.D i.e. after the development of *Mūrcchanā* process in Indian Pharmaceutics. Further the *Kūpipakva rasāyanas* (mercurial compounds of red sulphide type) prepared through *Bālukā Yantra* system of heating in *kāca kūpi* (glass bottle prepared specifically) could be prepared only after the development of *Mūrcchanā* process. Besides a few apparatuses and a specific heating system/method is also found referred to in *Rasendra Cintamani* (12th century A.D). The *Rasa Sindura*, *Makaradhvaja* and *Rasa Karpūra* are some of the examples of *Kūpipakva rasāyanas* and deserve mention in this context.

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Thus, in short it may be said that besides eight or eighteen *Saṃskāras* (special processes) of mercury, the *Śodhana*, the *Māraṇa*, the *Sarvapatana*, the *Druti*, the *Jāraṇa*, the *Mūrcchanā* and the *Bhāvaṇa* & *Puṭapāka* etc. are some of the important pharmaceutical processes developed in medieval period for the preparation of mercurial and metallic compounds of therapeutic importance.

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Historically the mention of mercury in literature could only be seen since the time of Classical literature of Ayurveda i.e. *Saṃhitās*. In this period a few mercurial compounds are found referred to specially for external application and one or two for internal uses. But in medieval period many mercurial compounds are being prepared and used in Ayurvedic therapeutics. During this period mercury is also considered to consist of many *doṣas* (impurities) which were recognised to produce many *vikāras*/diseases/bad effects in the body. Hence, before recommending its internal uses in the body ancient scholars have advised to treat mercury with various *saṃskāras* (special processes) to remove its *doṣas* (toxic effects) and to potentiate it further to make it more suitable for internal use in the body for achieving *Rasāyana* (rejuvenating) effect (total positive health) and also remarkable therapeutic effects.

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The metals Gold, Silver, Copper, Iron, Lead and Bell metal (an alloy of metals) are found mentioned in Vedic literature. During Vedic period there is no mention of metallic compounds of therapeutic value for internal use. Of course there are references of some metallic compounds in Vedas to be used for other purposes such as for making utensils, ornaments, war implements and other instruments, etc.

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Then coming down to the classical age of Ayurvedic medicine again there are references of six metals only i.e. *suvarṇa* (Gold), *rajata* (Silver), *tāmra* (Copper), *kṛṣṇayasa* (Iron), *trapu* (Tin) and *śīsā* (Lead) alongwith *lohamala/mandura* (Rusted iron) or *lohamalas* (slag part of all the later five metals except gold). In this period these are included in *bhauma/pārthiva* group or in *trapvadi* group. Further, in this period number of metallic compounds are found referred to for internal uses to achieve *Rasāyana* as well as therapeutic effects. In this period metals are mostly used for obtaining Rasayana effects and less commonly for therapeutic effects. Their processing methods are also found described in this period though, from pharmaceutical point of view these may not be considered as very suitable in converting metals for internal use and probably for this reason only their uses are found very much limited. In this period the metals could be processed in such a way that these are reduced to collyrium like fine powder form or sometimes to solution form.

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Then coming down to the period (i.e. 8th-9th century A.D and onwards) the ‘*śodhana*’ and ‘*māraṇa*’ processes are developed, through which their toxic effects are reduced to minimum possible level and the metals are converted to an ash form or to a desired compound form through the effect of some chemical reactions taking place during their processing either through grinding with or without liquids/vegetable extractives and/or heating through ‘*puṭa*’ system. In this period innumerable mercurial and metallic compounds are prepared and used for obtaining Rasayana as well as therapeutic effects. Thus, the period between 8th/9th century A.D to 12th century A.D may be considered as the golden period for the development of mercurial and metallic compounds of therapeutic value and their technology.

Mercurial and Metallic Compound in Caraka Samhita

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In *Caraka*, metals/minerals are enumerated under ‘*pārthiva/bhauma*’ group of drugs. The metals gold with five other metals like silver, copper, iron, tin and lead alongwith their mala (mandura/loha kiṭṭa) and in mineral sand, calcium compound, realgar, orpiment, gems, salts, hematite/red ochre and galena are described.

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As regards their uses these are used externally or internally for obtaining Rasayana effects and for curing various diseases. During the period of ‘*Caraka Samhitā*’ the metals are advised for internal use in the form of very fine powder i.e. as fine as ‘*añjana*’ (Collyriums) applicable to the eyes.

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The method of converting iron or other metals into very fine powder form is also found described in Caraka (Ci. 1/3/15-23). Though, initially this method is described with reference to iron only, however, afterwards it is advised to be followed commonly for all the metals (Gold, Silver and Copper etc.) to convert these into fine powder form.

Description of Method

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The pieces of thin iron sheets are made red hot and quenched in cold Triphalārasa, Cow's urine, Kṣāra or Lavana drava, Iṅgudi kṣāra drava and Kiṃśuka kṣāra drava serially for number of times or till their very fine powder like that of Añjana (Collyrium) is made. These powders mixed with honey and āmalaka juice may be kept in an earthen pot anointed with ghee for one year under the heap of barley grains and then be used internally with honey and ghee.

A. Metallic Compounds Consisting Gold

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1. Brāhma Rasāyana (CS. Ci. 1/1/58) is a compound of Gold, Silver, Copper and Iron alongwith Coral powder and indicated for Rasāyana purpose.

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2. Aindra Rasāyana (CS. Ci. 1/3/24-29) is a compound of Gold and contains gold powder in two yava (barley grain) quantity.

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3. Lohādi Rasāyana (CS. Ci. 1/3/15-23) is in fact not a metallic compound rather through this the method of converting metals into Añjanābha (Collyrium like) fine powder form and their method of internal use as Rasayana are described. Though, this method is mainly described for Iron it may also be applicable in case of other metals like Gold, Silver and Copper etc.

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4. Triphalā Rasāyana IV (CS. Ci. 1/3/46-47) is a gold compound or compound of all the other metals (Tin, Lead, Copper, Silver and Iron). In this the metals are used in fine powder form.

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5. Indrokta Rasāyana (CS. Ci. 1/4/22-23) is a compound of Gold, Silver, Copper and Iron. In this fine powder of metals is used in 1/16th part alongwith Coral, Quartz, Pearl, Cat's eye and Conch Shell powder.

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6. Nyāgrodhādi Leha (CS. Ci. 27/30) is a Gold compound and contains gold powder alongwith other drugs and indicated for Urustambha (Stiffness of thigh).

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7. Savarṇīkaraṇa Lepa (CS. Ci. 25/116) is a Gold compound to be applied as paste externally and contains Gold powder and Rasottama (mercury).

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8. Varṇakara Lepa (CS. Ci. 25/117) is a Gold compound and contains Hematite, Copper and Ferrous Sulphate in addition to gold powder.

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9. Hema Cūrṇa Prayoga (CS. Ci. 23/239-240), this Gold powder alone is advised for internal use for nutralising the effect of poisons and also of copper powder.

B. Other Metallic Compounds

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1. Harītaki yoga (CS. Ci. 1/1/77) is an Iron compound in which 1/4th part of iron powder is used alongwith other drugs.

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2. *Nigrahīta rasa* (CS. Ci. 7/72) is a compound of mercury advised for internal use in *Kuṣṭha roga* (leprotic skin lesions) but according to some scholars it is doubtful.

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3. *Madhvāsava* (CS. Ci. 7/73-75) is an Iron compound prepared by fermentation process and indicated in *Kuṣṭha roga*. It contains Iron powder and advised to be prepared in Iron pot.

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4. *Triphalādyariṣṭha* (CS. Ci. 12/39-40) is an Iron compound and contains Iron powder.

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5. *Gauḍoriṣṭha* (CS. Ci. 12/39-40) is an Iron compound and contains Iron powder.

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In these *Asavāriṣṭha* preparations Iron powder is also advised to be mixed from the beginning itself and allowed to remain there till the completion of the process. It may be presumed here that during fermentation process iron added may get dissolved in the liquid by some kind of chemical reaction. thus, this is another kind of method for using metals internally, i.e.in solution form.

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6. *Mahānīla Taila* (CS.Ci. 26/270-272) is an oily iron compound in which *Tīkṣṇa Loha Cūrṇa* is added alongwith *Kāsīśa* (ferrous sulphate).

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7. *Jīvantyādi leha* (CS. Ci. 18/176-177) is an Iron compound - contains iron powder and indicated in *Kāsa*.

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8. *Dārvyādi leha* (CS. Ci. 16/97) is an Iron compound - contains iron powder and indicated in *Kāmalā* and *Pāṇḍu*.

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9. *Pathyādi leha* (CS. Ci. 16/98) is an Iron compound, - contains iron powder and indicated in *Kāmalā* and *Pāṇḍu*.

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10. *Triphalādyava leha* (CS. Ci. 16/99) is an Iron compound, contains iron powder and indicated in *Kāmalā* and *Pāṇḍu*. These are other medias of using iron metal internally. That means through oily and sugar based medias the iron metal was being used in ancient times.

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11. *Kṛṣṇatvakāra lepa* (CS. Ci. 25/115) is an iron paste compound which contains Iron and Ferrous Sulphate.

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12. *Tryūṣaṇādi Cūrṇa* (CS. Ci. 12/42) is an Iron compound indicated for *Tridoṣaja Śopha*.

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13. *Navāyasa Cūrṇa* (CS. Ci. 16/70-71) is an Iron Compound in which 9 parts of Iron powder is used and indicated for *Pāṇḍu* & *Kāmalā*.

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14. *Yogarāja* (CS. Ci. 16/80-86) is an Iron compound and indicated for *Rasāyana* Karma. It contains iron powder alongwith purified Chalcopyrite, *Rupyamala* and *Silajatu*.

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16. *Muktādya Cūrṇa* (CS. Ci. 17/125-128) is a metallic compound and indicated for *Svāsa*, *Kasa* and *Hikkā*. It contains Copper, Iron, Silver and Lead alongwith Pearl, Coral, Cat's eye, Quartz, Conch Shell, Galena, Sulphur and Salts.

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17. *Kṣāra Guḍicā* (CS. Ci. 12/43) is an Iron Compound and indicated in *Śopha*.

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18. *Magadhyādi Rāsāyana* (CS. Ci. 30/150) is an Iron compound indicated for *Rasāyana* Karma.

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19. Sarvākṣiroganut Varti (CS. Ci. 26/246) is an Iron and Copper compound alongwith Conch Shell, Coral and Cat's eye powder. It is indicated for applying in eye lids as Añjana (Collyrium).

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20. Pippalyādi yoga (CS. Ci. 18/74) is an Iron compound and indicated in Śleṣmalā yoni.

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21. Sūkṣma Tāmra rajaḥ prayoga (CS. Ci. 23/239), in this fine powder of Copper is advised for internal use for producing emasis (vomiting) in cases of poisoning due to the ingestion of poisons mixed with food. It is followed by Hema Cūrṇa prayoga.

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22. Kuṣṭhādi lepa (CS. Ci. 7/117-118) is a paste compound prepared in Copper vessel and kept for one week in copper vessel before use. It contains Realgar and Ferrous sulphate.

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23. Saindhavādi lepa & Triphalādya lepa (CS.Ci. 26/280-282) are paste compounds indicated for applying on head and contain Iron powder.

Mineral Compounds

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In Caraka Saṃhitā number of mineral compounds are found referred to. As minerals also contain one or other or more metals as their constituents, hence these may also be taken as metallic compounds and as such are also being described here.

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1. In Caraka Saṃhitā (CS. Ci. 1/3/48-65) a detailed description of Śilājatu (a famous mineral Bituman) obtained from Himalayan mountains as an exudate is found mentioned which consists of its origin, varieties and properties. It is also mentioned in the same context that the varieties of Śilājatu are based on its metallic contents i.e. suvarṇa, raupya, tāmra and loha śilājatu.

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2. Further in Caraka Saṃhitā (CS. Ci. 12/49) Silajatu parayoga is mentioned for Tridoṣaja Śotha. And there are number of other compounds in which Śilājatu is included as one of the constituent.

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3. Makṣika yoga (CS. Ci. 7/70) is a Chalcopyrite compound indicated for Kuṣṭha roga.

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4. Gandhaka yoga (CS. Ci.7/71) is a Sulphur compound indicated in Kuṣṭha roga.

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5. Kanakakṣīrī taila (CS. Ci 7/111-116) is an oily preparation, indicated in skin lesions, contains Orpiment, Copper Sulphate, Zinc ore, Alum and Ferrous Sulphate.

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6. Kuṣṭhādi lapa (CS. Ci. 7/117-118) is a past compound for external application and contains Realgar and Ferrous Sulphate.

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7. Vipādikāhara Taila/Ghṛta (CS. Ci. 7/120) is an oily preparation and contains Copper Sulphate.

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8. Manaḥ Śilādi Ghṛta (CS. Ci. 17/145-146) is a ghrta preparation and contains Realgar.

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⁹ Punarnavā Maṇḍūra (CS. Ci. 16/93-96) and Maṇḍūra Vaṭaka 1 & 2 (CS. Ci. 16/72, 102-104) are the compounds of purified Maṇḍūra(Rusted iron powder)and indicated for Pāṇḍu and Kāmalā

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10. Puṣyānuga Cūrṇa (CS. Ci. 30/90-95) is a Gairika (Hematite) compound indicated in Yonidoṣa and Rajodoṣa.

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11. Kāsīśa Cūrṇa (CS. 30/122) is a compound of ferrous Sulphate and Alum and indicated in Picchilā yoni.

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12. Tāpyādi Cūrṇa (CS. Ci. 16/78-79) is a Chalcopyrite, Bitumen, Ayomala (Maṇḍūra) and Silver compound and indicated in Pāṇḍu roga.

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13. Yogarāja (CS. Ci.16/80-86) is a compound of Chalcopyrite, Śilājatu and Rūpyamala.

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14. Manaḥśilādi ghṛta (CS. Ci. 17/145-146), Viḍaṅgādi leha (CS. Ci.18/52) and certain Dhuma yogas (CS. Ci.18/69-75) are Realgar or orpiment compounds.

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15. Bālaka yoga (CS. Ci. 20/32-33) indicated for Pittaja vami.

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16. Śali Cūrṇa yoga (CS. Ci. 20/39) indicated for Pittaja chardi.

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17. Muktādya Pradeha (CS. Ci. 21/81-82) indicated for Visarpa roga.

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18. Kṣārāgada (CS. Ci. 23/78-79) indicated for all types of Viṣas.

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19. Somavalkādi lepa (CS. Ci. 23/220) indicated for Viṣas.

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20. Khadirādi gudikā (CS. Ci. 26/210) indicated for Mukha roga.

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21. Puṣyānuga Cūrṇa (CS. Ci. 30/90-95) indicated for yonidoṣa and rajodoṣa is the compound of Gairika/Suvarṇa Gairika/Lohamṛt (Hematite/Red-ochre) which is also an iron compound and the main source of Iron.

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Thus, in short it may be said that during the period of Caraka Saṃhitā six metals are known. Of these five metals except gold are said to contain some kind of malas (impurity/slag). In malas ‘Ayomala’ Maṇḍūra (Rusted iron/Iron oxide) is given much importance in therapeutics. Besides metals a few minerals were also in common use for therapeutic purposes, such as - Śilājatu, Kāsīśa, Gairika, Tuttha, Kharpara, Haritala, Manāḥsila, Kāṅkṣi, Añjana (Galena), Rasāñjana (Solid extract of Darvikvatha), Suvarṇa Makṣika and Gandhakā.

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Apart from minerals the following gems were also in use in therapeutics, viz. - Mani in general, Muktā (Pearl), Pravāla (Coral), Saugandika Māṇikya (Ruby), Vajra (Diamond), Vaidūrya (Cat’s eye), Sphatika (Quartz) & Śaṅkha (Conch Shell) etc.

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As regards mercury and its compounds it may be said that mercury and mercurial compounds are not commonly referred to in this text, only at one place Nigrahīta rasa prayoga is found mentioned for internal use but it is also doubtful and at one place Rasottama term (may be denoting mercury) is found referred to in a paste yoga for external use. Hence it may be said that in the period of Caraka Saṃhitā mercury is found used for external application only. Further it may be pointed out that this external use of mercury is also found mentioned in the portion redacted by Drdhavala. Thus in this period of caraka the metals are used either in powder form converted to a very fine state of sub- division by heating the metals to red hot and quenching these into cold liquids (decoctions/juices/alkaline liquids) several times and then powdering finely. These metals are also used in solution form by putting iron powder into the liquids of Āsava and Āriṣṭha preparations and keeping it into the contact of liquid through the process (3-4 months) or till its complete dissolution. These (metals) are also used through oily media and sugar base mixed with lehya preparations, and also as paste after rubbing on stone.

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In Caraka Iron is used frequently in number of preparations (compounds) for therapeutic and Rasāyana purposes. Besides Iron, Gold, and Silver are also used in many compounds. Their vessels are also advised to be used for keeping the drugs. And the metals are also used for making the equipments and instruments. Copper is also used but less commonly for the above purposes. The Lead compounds are also found referred to for internal use and external application.

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In minerals, mostly the Iron and Copper containing compounds and also Arsenic containing compounds find frequent uses in therapeutics. The use of lead and zinc containing compounds is less common. In other minerals the use of ‘Silājatu’ is more frequent. The use of Copper powder, in case of poisoning produced by the use of poisons mixed with food materials, for inducing vomitting and doing Hṛdviśodhana is worth mentioning. Here the use of Copper was followed by the internal use of Gold powder to neutralise the toxic effects of copper and also of the other poisons. Both these uses of Copper and Gold by ‘Caraka’ are worth mentioning.

Mercurial and Metallic Compounds in Suśruta Saṃhitā

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The review of this text revealed that there are number of metallic compounds but no mercurial compound suitable for internal use is found referred to in this text. Besides metallic compounds seven metals (gold, silver, copper, bell metal, Iron, tin & lead) are found described under ‘Trapvādigana’ (SS.Su.38/30) This text has also described the common properties of the drugs of ‘Trapvādi’ group. Not only this the properties of each metal (SS. Su. 46/360-365) are also found described here, which are not seen in earlier text (Caraka Saṃhitā). Apart from metals a few minerals and their compounds are also found described under ‘Uṣakadigana’ (SS. Su. 38/18), the drugs of gem group in ‘Manivarga’ (SS. Su. 46/366) and the types of Salts in ‘Lavaṇa Varga’ (SS. Su. 46/343).

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In ‘Uṣakadigana’, Uṣaka (Alkaline earth), Saindhava (Rock salt), Silajatu (Bituman), Kāśīśadvaya (Kasisal Puspaka Sisa) and Tutthaka (Blue Vitriol) are included. In ‘Maṇi group’, Mukta (pearl), Vidruma (Coral), Vajra (Daimond), Indra (Sapphire), Vaidūrya (Cat’s eye) and Sphaṭika (Quartz) are enumerated alongwith their properties. In Lavaṇa group’ - Saindhava, Sāmudra Viḍa, Sauvarcala, Romaka and Audbhida varieties of salt are included alongwith a brief description of each variety (SS. Su. 46/346-351). Further the properties of Ṭaṅkana (Borax (SS. Su. 46/359) are also found described here.

Metal processing method

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In addition to the processing method of metals in general and Iron in particular is also found described in this text by the term ‘Ayaskṛti (SS. Ci. 10/11-14) which is of three types, viz.

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1. Ayaskṛti, 2. Auṣadhāyaskṛti and 3. Mahauṣadhāyaskṛti *Method of Making Ayaskṛti*

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For this thin sheets of *Tīkṣṇa* variety of Iron are first pasted with the paste of different salts and then heated strongly in cow dung fire and quenched in the decoctions of *‘Triphālā’* and *‘Sālasāradi group’* of drugs repeatedly for sixteen times. There after these are heated in *Khadirāngāra* (strong heat) and on cooling these are made into fine powder form by grinding and sieving through a fine cloth. It is known as *‘Ayaskṛti’* and may be used in suitable doses mixed with ghee and honey.

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*Ausadhayāskṛti*

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For *‘ausadhāyaskṛti’* strongly heated pieces of thin Iron sheets are quenched in the decoction of *Tṛvrit* etc. drugs, kept in a boat shaped tub made of *Palāśa* wood repeatedly for twenty one times. There after Iron pieces should be kept in a *thālī* (wide mouth vessel) with the above liquid and heated over cow dung fire till the liquid reduces to 1/4th part and filtered. This filtrate may again be used for quenching hot iron sheets pieces repeatedly. In the end mix *Pippalyādi* powder one part, ghee and honey two parts each with the treated Iron in an Iron pot and keep it in secret place for sometimes. It is known as *‘Auṣadhāyaskṛti’*.

v1.c18.s2.t1.6

*Mahauṣadhāyaskṛti*

v1.c18.s2.t1.7

For *‘Mahauṣadhāyaskṛti’* strongly heated pieces of thin iron sheets are quenched in the decoction of *Śālasārādi-gaṇa* drugs kept in a boat shaped palāśa wood tub for twenty one times. On cooling so treated iron pieces are ground to a fine paste from with the above decoction. Now mix 1/4th part of above decoction with it and fill it in an already prepared earthen pot. Add *Pippalyādi Cūrṇa* in a quantity sufficient to develop a pungent taste of the liquid or equal to Iron paste or in double amount. Keep it in a calm place for one month or as required. It is known as *‘Mahauṣadhāyaskṛti’* similar to *Āsavāriṣṭha* preparation.

v1.c18.s2.t1.8

Besides different methods of making *‘Ayaṣkṛties’*, another method of using Iron internally is also found described in Susruta in the context of *‘Lohāriṣṭha’* (SS. Ci. 12/11).

v1.c18.s2.t1.9

In this context small pieces of thin *Tīkṣṇa* loha scats, obtained after strong heating are advised to be added with the liquid of *‘Lohāriṣṭha’* since the beginning of the fermentation process and is allowed to remain in contact with the liquid for 3-4 months (i.e. till the completion of the fermentation process) or till complete dissolution of thin Iron pieces is achieved in the liquid and on developing a specific taste of the liquid it may be taken for use.

v1.c18.s2.t1.10

It means during samhita period (classical age-1000 BC - 500 BC) Iron was also advised to be used in solution form through *Āsavāriṣṭha* preparations. Not only this the Iron and Copper powders were also advised for internal use mixed with *leha* (liking) type of compounds. The *Śālasārādi leha* (SS. Ci. 12/9) deserves mention in this context.

Metallic Compounds

v1.c18.s2.t2.1

A. Gold Compounds

v1.c18.s2.t2.2

The number of gold compounds are referred to in this text in different contexts, viz. -

v1.c18.s2.t2.3

1. *Bilva Suvarṇa yoga* (SS. Ci. 28/9-10) is a gold compound recommended for removing *Alakṣmī* (misfortune).

v1.c18.s2.t2.4

2. *Padma Bījādi yoga* (SS. Ci. 28/13) is a gold compound, recommended to remove *Alakṣmī* (misfortune) and misery.

v1.c18.s2.t2.5

3. *Nīlotpalādi yoga* (SS. Ci. 28/14) is a gold compound, recommended for removing *Alakṣmī* (misfortune) and misery.

v1.c18.s2.t2.6

4. *Vacābilvādi yoga* (SS. Ci. 28/16) is a gold compound, recommended for improving *Medhā* (intelligence) and *Āyu* (longevity).

v1.c18.s2.t2.7

5. *Gopayas Madhūcchiṣṭadi yoga* (SS. Ci. 28/15) is a gold compound recommended for *Rasāyana Karma*.

v1.c18.s2.t2.8

6. *Madhvamalaka yoga* (SS. Ci. 28/19) is a gold compound recommended for destroying *Āriṣṭha Lakṣaṇas* in severe diseases.

v1.c18.s2.t2.9

7. *Śatāvarī ghṛta prayoga* (SS. Ci. 28/20) is a gold compound to make the kings under control.

v1.c18.s2.t2.10

8. *Gocandanādi yoga* (SS. Ci. 28/21) is a gold compound recommended to produce *Saubhāgya* (fortune).

v1.c18.s2.t2.11

9. *Padma Nīlotpala Sarpi* (SS. Ci. 28/22) is a gold compound recommended to prolong *Āyu* (longevity).

v1.c18.s2.t2.12

10. *Mahākalyāṇaka Ghṛta* (SS. Utt. 39/118-119) is a gold and gem compound indicated in *Jwara*.

v1.c18.s2.t2.13

B. Iron Compounds

v1.c18.s2.t2.14

1. *Navāyasa Cūrṇa* (SS. Ci. 12/10) is an Iron compound in which nine parts of iron powder (equal to nine herbal drugs) is mixed.

v1.c18.s2.t2.15

2. *Mārkavādiyoga* (SS. Ci. 19/20) is an iron and copper compound indicated for *upadaṃśa* (Gonorrheal type infection).

v1.c18.s2.t2.16

3. *Śala Sārādi leha* (SS. Ci. 12/9) is an Iron and Copper compound and indicated in all types of *Pramehas*.

v1.c18.s2.t2.17

4. *Lohariṣṭha* (SS. Ci. 12/11) is a fermented liquid preparation, in which strongly heated thin Iron pieces are added and allowed to remain in the solution till these get dissolved in the solution. It is indicated in *Meha*, *Pāṇḍu* diseases etc.

v1.c18.s2.t2.18

C. Mineral Compounds

v1.c18.s2.t2.19

As almost all the minerals contain some or the other metals in them hence their compounds are also being described here.

v1.c18.s2.t2.20

1. *Saurāṣṭryadi Cūrṇa* (SS. Ci. 19/19) indicated for *upadaṃśa*, contains hematite, Copper sulphate, white iron sulphate, Galena, orpiment, Realgar, Alum and Rock Salt etc. minerals.

v1.c18.s2.t2.21

2. *Gundrā bhasma yoga* (SS. Ci. 19/20) indicated for *Upadaṃśa* contains orpiment and Realgar.

v1.c18.s2.t2.22

3. *Tuttha Kāsīsādi Cūrṇa* (SS. Ci. 19/20) indicated for *Vraṇa* and *Visarpa* contains copper and Ferrous Sulphate, Realgar and Rasanjana etc. minerals.

v1.c18.s2.t2.23

Thus, in *Suśruta Saṃhitā* more advancement in the knowledge of using metals in metallic compounds could be seen.

v1.c18.s2.t2.24

A. In this text the metals and minerals are described under different groups depending upon their nature and types. Such classification of the drugs of mineral origin is not seen in ‘*Caraka Saṃhitā*’. The *Trapvādigaṇa*, *Uṣakadigana*, *Manivarga* and *Lavanavarga* etc. deserve mention in this context.

v1.c18.s2.t2.25

B. The common properties of the drugs of these groups and the specific properties of individual metals and minerals included in these groups have also been found described in this text for the first time.

v1.c18.s2.t2.26

C. Further this text has used the term ‘*Ayaskṛti*’ for the first time for the method through which metals are converted into the pharmaceutical form suitable for internal use.

v1.c18.s2.t2.27

D. Three methods for making ‘*Ayaskṛties*’ mentioned in this text indicate that further modification in the processing method of metals has taken place with a view to make them more suitable for internal use.

v1.c18.s2.t2.28

E. In addition to ‘*Ayaskṛti*’, a form of metals advised for internal use, the other method of using metals internally (solution form) is also found mentioned in this text, while describing the *Āsavariṣṭha* preparations.

v1.c18.s2.t2.29

F. The iron etc. metals were also advised to be used in oily media and in *Avaleha* media in this text.

v1.c18.s2.t2.30

G. For increasing *Medhā*, *Āyu*, *Ārogya* and Fortune and to prevent *Alakṣmī* (misfortune) and diseases nine gold compounds preparations are found mentioned in this text.

v1.c18.s2.t2.31

H. No mercurial compound suitable for internal use is found referred to in this text.

Mercurial and Metallic Compounds in Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya

v1.c18.s3.1

‘*Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya*’ (7th century A.D.) is also an important text of Ayurvedic Medicine written by Vāgbhaṭṭa Junior in about 7th century A.D. though, it is a compilation of the ideas and subject materials dealt with by ‘*Caraka*’ and ‘*Suśruta*’, it has described the important aspects of Ayurvedic medicine in a very concise form. In this text metals and minerals are not found described under the heading of any group.

v1.c18.s3.2

From the historical point of view it may be considered as a land mark (last limit) for using the metals in *Rajas/Cūrṇa* (powder) form. In this text Mercury (*Pārada*)

v1.c18.s3.3

is also found referred to by the terms ‘Pārada and ‘Rasottama for both internal and external uses mixed with other drugs.

Mercury Compounds

v1.c18.s3.t1.1

It is evident from the study of Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya that in this period (7th century A.D.) the mercurial compounds have found place in the therapeutics for both internal and external uses.

v1.c18.s3.t1.2

Mercurial Compounds for Internal Use

v1.c18.s3.t1.3

1. Śilājatvadi rasāyana (Ast Hr. Utt. 39/161) is a compound of mercury, iron and a few other minerals indicated for internal use for obtaining rasāyana effect and to provide nourishment to the weak body tissues.

v1.c18.s3.t1.4

2. Mañjiṣṭhādi taila (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 32/31) is again a mercury compound advised for internal use in cases of Nīlaka and Vyanga of the diseases of face. In addition to mercury it contains Red Ochre, Realgar, Orpiment and a few herbal drugs.

v1.c18.s3.t1.5

Mercurial Compounds for External Use

v1.c18.s3.t1.6

1. Kālīyākādi lepa (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 25/61) is a compound of mercury used as paste for applying externally on skin. It is also known as Savarnakara lepa and recommended for making color of the skin of affected part similar to the healthy skin. In this compound the term ‘Rasottam’ is used for denoting mercury.

v1.c18.s3.t1.7

2. Nayanāmṛtāñjana (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 13/36) is also a compound of mercury and lead and recommended for using as Añjana (Collyrium) in the Timira roga of eyes.

Metallic Compounds

v1.c18.s3.t2.1

A. Gold Compounds - In this text number of gold compounds are found mentioned and these are advised for using in newly born children to elderly persons.

v1.c18.s3.t2.2

Gold compounds for children

v1.c18.s3.t2.3

1. Tapta Rajata-Tapanīya Nimajjita Koṣṇa Jala (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. I/7). It is a slightly hot water prepared by quenching red hot gold and silver sheets in water. It is advised for using the same for the bath of newly born child.

v1.c18.s3.t2.4

2. Vacādi Cūrṇa (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. I/7) is a gold compound prepared by mixing gold leaves/powder with prescribed herbal drugs and recommended for use in newly born child for improving its Bala and Medhā.

v1.c18.s3.t2.5

3. Hemadhātri Cūrṇa (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. I/9) is a gold compound prepared by mixing gold with Dhātri (Amalaka) Cūrṇa. It is recommended for internal use in newly born child.

v1.c18.s3.t2.6

4. Vacādi, Arkapuspyādi, Matsyakṣādi and Kaidaryādi prasa (Ast.Hṛ. I/47-48) are the four gold compounds advised for internal use in children upto one year for increasing their strength, body tissues, complexion and intelligence.

v1.c18.s3.t2.7

5. Tāpyasuvarṇa leha (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 35/56) is a gold compound of leha type. In this gold and chalcopyrite powders are mixed with honey and sugar for making as leha. It is recommended for use in Sarvayogajavisa.

v1.c18.s3.t2.8

6. Hemaprayoga (Aṣṭ.Hṛ.Su 7/27-27). In this the use of gold powder is advised after doing Hṛdviśodhana by the use of copper powder to neutralise the effect of poisons used with foods in general and Garaviṣa in particular and to prolong life span.

v1.c18.s3.t2.9

7. Triphalā Rasāyana (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 39/42-43) is a gold compound alongwith five other metals and recommended as rasayana.

v1.c18.s3.t2.10

8. Pancaravinda rasāyana (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 39/48) is a gold compound and contains other drugs also, it is recommended for rasayana purpose.

v1.c18.s3.t2.11

9. Catuṣkuvalaya ghṛta (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 39/49) is a gold compound containing gold leaves with other drugs and recommended for rasayana karma.

v1.c18.s3.t2.12

10. Brāhmī rasāyana (Aṣṭ. Hṛ, Utt. 39/50) is a gold compound and contains gold powder in yava quantity alongwith other herbal drugs.

v1.c18.s3.t2.13

11. Cūrṇānjana (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 13/45) is an Anjana type gold compound in which silver, quartz, gems, lead compound (Srotonjaña) copper, Iron, Red Ochre and Conch shell are included in addition to gold. It is recommended for all types of eye diseases for applying in eyes.

v1.c18.s3.t2.14

B. Iron Compounds

v1.c18.s3.t2.15

1. Navāyasa loha (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Ci. 16/14-15) is an iron compound in which Ayorajas (Iron powder) is used in nine parts (equal to all the herbal drugs) and indicated for Pāṇḍu and Kāmalā.

v1.c18.s3.t2.16

2. Triphalā rasāyana (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 39/42-43) is an Iron compound contains Iron alongwith other metals and indicated as rasayana.

v1.c18.s3.t2.17

3. Vākuci rasāyana (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 39/107) is an iron compound contains Loha Cūrṇa (iron powder) alongwith herbal drugs and indicated as rasayana.

v1.c18.s3.t2.18

4. Śilājatvādi rasāyana (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 39/161) is an Iron compound and also contains mercury and other minerals and indicated as best rasayana.

v1.c18.s3.t2.19

5. Nāra Siṃgha Ghṛta (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 39/169-173) is an Iron compound indicated for rasāyana and Vājīkaraṇa purposes, contains Iron pieces and advised to be prepared in iron vessel.

v1.c18.s3.t2.20

6. Maṇḍūra Vaṭaka (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Ci. 16/16-19) is a compound of maṇḍura (Rusted iron), also contains Tāpya (Chalcopyrite) and indicated for Pāṇḍu.

v1.c18.s3.t2.21

7. Tāpyādi Cūrṇa (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Ci. 16/20-22) is a compound of silver and Rusted iron, also contains Tapya and Śilajatu indicated in Pāṇḍuroga.

v1.c18.s3.t2.22

8. Dhātryādi leha (Aṣṭ.Hṛ.Utt. 39/149) is an Iron compound indicated to preserve youthfulness.

v1.c18.s3.t2.23

9. Ayoraḥ prayoga (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 34/55) is an Iron compound indicated in Picchilā yonī.

v1.c18.s3.t2.24

10. Loha Viḍaṅga leha (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 39/150) is an Iron compound indicated for making the man youthful with black hairs.

v1.c18.s3.t2.25

11. Tāmra rajaḥ prayoga (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Su. 7/27) here copper powder mixed with honey is advised for internal use for Hṛdviśodhana in cases of food poisoning for producing vomiting. And it is followed by hema curna prayoga for neutralising the effect of poisoning of Copper and also of Garavisa and to prolong life span.

v1.c18.s3.t2.26

C. Mineral Compounds

v1.c18.s3.t2.27

Just like Caraka and Śusruta saṃhitā there are many mineral compounds found referred to in this text of Aṣṭāṅga Hṛdaya. These are being mentioned here on account of their metal content. The important minerals referred to are śilājatu (Bituman), tāpya (Chalcopyrite), haritāla (Orpiment), manaḥśilā (Realgar), gairika (Hematite), añjana (Galena), tuttha (Blue Vitriol), kāśīśa (Green Vitriol) and kārkṣī (Alum) etc.

v1.c18.s3.t2.28

1. Śilājatu rasāyana (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 39/130-142). Here Śilājatu is described in detail mentioning its place of origin, varieties, properties, Sodhana method, the method of its uses, dose schedule and its superiority in therapeutics than the other drugs. It is considered best for achieving rasayana effect.

v1.c18.s3.t2.29

2. Candrodaya Agada (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 35/24) is compound of Galena, Orpiment and Realgar and indicated as anti poisonous agent.

v1.c18.s3.t2.30

3. Mañjiṣṭhādi taila (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 32/31) is a compound of Alum, Orpiment, Realgar, Hematite and Copper Sulphate and indicated for improving the complexion of the face.

v1.c18.s3.t2.31

4. Kāśīsādi yoga (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 34/55) is a compound of Alum and Green bitriol indicated for cleansing yoni.

v1.c18.s3.t2.32

5. Tutthakādi lepa (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 34/4-5) is a compound of Copper Sulphate, Ferrous Sulphate, Orpiment, Realgar, Heamatite, Rasanjana, Alum, and common salt and indicated in Upadaṃśavraṇa.

v1.c18.s3.t2.33

6. Pearl yoga (Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 37/27) is a compound of Pearl in the form of paste and applied in burning sensation caused by poisons.

v1.c18.s3.t2.34

7. Anti-poisonous Gem Compound(Aṣṭ. Hṛ. Utt. 36/90) In this group of gems is indicated for destroying the effect of Snake poison. The gems are - Karketana (Ruby), Marakata (Emerald), Vajra (Diamond), Gajamuktā (Pearls obtained from elephant), Vaidūrya (Cat's eye), Gardabha Maṇi (Gem obtained from donkey) and Serpamaṇi (Gem obtained from snake).

v1.c18.s3.t2.35

*A few more mercurial and metallic compounds:*

v1.c18.s3.t2.36

1. In this text many mercurial compounds are found referred to for both (internal and external) uses. The mercurials for internal use are not found mentioned in earlier texts.

v1.c18.s3.t2.37

2. In this text gold and its commpounds are frequently and commonly found indicated for the use in newly born child to improve its bala (resistance), growth and intelligence.

v1.c18.s3.t2.38

3. For Rasayāna purposes and increasing the Āyu (life span) number of gold compounds are found referred to in Medhāyus kāmīya rasāyanādhyāya.

v1.c18.s3.t2.39

4. More number of metallic and mineral compound could be seen referred to in this text.

v1.c18.s3.t2.40

5. Various precious stones are found referred to in this text and were recognised for their anti-poisonous effects.

Description of Mercurial and Metallic Compounds

v1.c18.s4.1

(from 8th century A.D. to 12th century A.D.)

v1.c18.s4.2

For collecting mercurial and metallic compounds of medicinal importance following source materials or texts have been studied:

v1.c18.s4.3

| 1. | Rasa Hṛdaya Tantra | Govinda Bhagavatpada | 8/9th AD |
| 2. | Rasārṇave Tantra | Unanimous | 11th AD |
| 3. | Cakradatta | Cakrapāṇi | 11th AD |
| 4. | Rasendra Cūḍāmaṇi | Somadeva | 12th AD |
| 5. | Rasa Prakāśa | Sudhākar Yaśodhara | 12th AD |
| 6. | Rasendra Cintāmaṇi | Dhuṇḍhuka Nātha | 12th AD |

1. Rasa Hṛdaya Tantra (8/9th century. A.D)

v1.c18.s4.t1.1

This text is written by Shri Govinda Bhagavatpāda in about 8/9th century. A.D. The major portion of this text is devoted to describe Pārada Saṃskāras (18 special processes of Mercury).

v1.c18.s4.t1.2

The 19th chapter of this text had dealt about the internal uses of Mercury. It is clearly mentioned here that if mercurial compounds for achieving Rasāyana effects are used without subjecting with kṣetrikaraṇa procedure then these neither produce desired effects in the body nor prove beneficial to the human tissues, instead produce various kinds of doṣas (toxic effects) all over the body.

v1.c18.s4.t1.3

Forms of Mercury Recommended for internal use

v1.c18.s4.t1.4

It is also mentioned in 19th Chapter of this text that Mercury may be used internally either in ‘ Āroṭa’ (Purified form) or in Bhasma (ash) or Baddha (solidified forms).

v1.c18.s4.t1.5

Mercurials for Internal Use

v1.c18.s4.t1.6

1. Kalkīkrta Sūtayoga I (RHṛ. 19/19) Here purified Mercury mixed with Māksika (Chalcopyrite), Śilājatu (Vitumen), Loha Cūrṇa (Iron powder partially converted to Iron Oxide), Haritakī Cūrṇa, Bibhitakī Cūrṇa, Vidāṅga Cūrṇa, Ghee and Honey made into paste form may be used internally to prepare body suitable for mercurial therapy.

v1.c18.s4.t1.7

2. Kalkīkrta Sutayoga II (RHṛ. 19/20) Here purified mercury is mixed with Ghana (Mica), Kānta loha (Magnetic Iron), Ghee and Honey made into paste form is advised for internal use to achieve Amaratva (immortality) and Kṣetrikaraṇa effect.

v1.c18.s4.t1.8

3. *Ghana Satvādi Baddha Pārada yoga I (RHṛ 19/34)*

v1.c18.s4.t1.9

Here Mercury made solid by mixing and consuming ¼ part of Abharaka Satva & Kānta loha and equal part of Tīkṣṇa Loha is recommended for internal use to obtain Kṣetrikaraṇa effect.

v1.c18.s4.t1.10

4. *Ghana Satvādi Baddha Pārada Yoga II (RHṛ. 19/35)*

v1.c18.s4.t1.11

Here Mercury made solid by mixing and consuming Abhraka Satva, Kāntaloha bhasma and Suvarṇa bhasma and triturated with Satavari juice is advised for internal use alongwith Ghee & Honey.

v1.c18.s4.t1.12

5. *Mrta Rasendra Yoga (RHṛ 19/37-38)*

v1.c18.s4.t1.13

Here Mercury is made to consume Abhraka, Sasyaka, Makṣika, Rasaka, Darada, Vimala, Vajra, Śilājatu, Vaikrānta, Kānta, Tīkṣṇa, Suvarṇa, Rajata, Pittala and Tāmra and then reduced to ashes is recommended for internal use.

v1.c18.s4.t1.14

*Doses of Mercury for internal Uses (RHr 19/40)*

v1.c18.s4.t1.15

It is mentioned in this text that Mercury which has consumed and assimilated various metals and minerals, may be used internally in 1 guñjā to 1 māsa dose.

v1.c18.s4.t1.16

*Compounds of Mercury & Metals*

v1.c18.s4.t1.17

1. *Amara Sundarī Guṭikā (RHṛ 19/65-66)*

v1.c18.s4.t1.18

It is a compound of Kānta Loha, Abhraka Satva, Gold, Silver, Copper and Mercury and advised for internal use.

v1.c18.s4.t1.19

2. *Mrta Sañjīvanī Guṭikā (RHṛ 19/67-72)*

v1.c18.s4.t1.20

It is a compound of mercury, lead, gold, magnetic iron and metallic contents of Chalcopyrite and Mica.It is made into Guṭikā form (pills) and advised for internal use.

v1.c18.s4.t1.21

3. *Vajriṇī Guṭikā (RHṛ 19/73-74)*

v1.c18.s4.t1.22

It is a compound of mercury, Kānta loha satva, Abhraka satva, Copper, Gold, Silver and Diamond and made into Guṭikā form and advised for internal use.

v1.c18.s4.t1.23

4. *Khecarī Guṭikā (RHṛ 19/75-76)*

v1.c18.s4.t1.24

It is a compound of mercury and of superior precious stones. It is made into Guṭikā form and advised for internal use.

v1.c18.s4.t1.25

Besides mercurial processes and compounds the metals and minerals found useful in mercurial processes, have been classified in different groups and described as follows:

v1.c18.s4.t1.26

*Metals*

v1.c18.s4.t1.27

In this text nine substances are described as metals and have been classfied in two groups, viz. 1. Sāraloha and 2. Pūtiloha groups. In Sāraloha group - Gold and Silver are included. In Pūtiloha groups - Copper, Brass, Steel iron, Magnetic iron, Cast Iron, Tin and Lead are included.

v1.c18.s4.t1.28

It is also mentioned in this text that the metals included in *Pūtiloha* group needs *Śodhana* (purification).

v1.c18.s4.t1.29

*Minerals*

v1.c18.s4.t1.30

Sixteen mineral drugs are described and classfied in the following two groups, viz. *Mahārasa* group and *Uparasa* group. Each group consists of eight drugs. In *Mahārasa* group :

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