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History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c20.s4: Colouring Agents

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c20.s4

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English

Contents

Colouring Agents

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Some of the main colouring agents and ingredients that were used in ancient India are as follows:

Vegetable sources

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Indigo has remained a very popular dye ever since the early days to obtain blue colour in different shades. Even in the ancient period, indigo was an important substance of export from India to Egypt, Greece and other countries. Since it is popular and was widely used all over India it is known by several names - nīla, nīlī, nīlikā, etc. In Atharvaveda, we get the terms kāla or ásikni (AV, 1.233.1; 1.24.1-4).

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In the ancient period the plants were thrashed and stored. In course of time the leaves change colour from green to blue grey. Then they were macerated in water and dye was extracted. The modus operandi of extracting dye from indigo vary from place to place.

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Indigo was primarily used for dyeing cloth blue. By adding different colouring materials in different proportions and sequences, different shades were obtained. Generally, turmeric, saffron, lemon, etc. were added to get colours like watery blue, greyish and sky blue, blue-black, dark blue, light blue, purple, lavender, mauve, lilac, emerald blue, blue-green etc.

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Generally the colour was fixed by some mordanting agent like sulphate of iron, carbonate of soda, sugar, etc.

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Mañjiṣṭhā or maddar (Rubia tinctorium) is mentioned often in almost all ancient texts and seems to have been a very popular dye ever since the period of Harappan civilization. It is even known as the dyer's root. This is a perennial plant and the bulk of pigment is contained in the red mass of the fibrous root. The ancient Indians were adept in the technique of removing the colouring material from the roots which is said to be a complicated one. Alum (tuvarī, saurāṣṭrī) was the mordant used to fix the red colour of mañjiṣṭhā on cloth.

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Turmeric or haldī is rich in yellow dye. It has a dull, waxy, resinous fraction and its thick roots when ground produces a bright yellow powder that was used for dyeing. Compounded with other ingredients and mordants, the colour varies from light yellow to orange. The colour remains very fast and produces different shades. In ancient times, as it is now, turmeric is considered to be very auspicious and clothes of the brides and grooms were dyed in this colour. The threads meant for special religious rites were dyed in this colour. Turmeric powder was used (as today) in cooking to give slight colour to the dishes prepared and also in Rangoli.

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Brown colour was also used widely in ancient India. This was obtained from the bark of babul (Acacia arabica), catechu (Acacia catechu) and henna (Mehndī). The babul bark produces shades of brown by simply boiling in water. While the water is still boiling, by adding catechu and lime, a somewhat permanent dye was produced. By adding sulphate of iron, a black dye was produced. Both the bark and leaves of babul tree possess tinctorial properties for which they were frequently used in dyeing industry in ancient and medieval India (Jaggi, I p. 203)

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Safflower (*kusumbha* - *Carthamus tinctorius*) which contains an oil producing seed and a dye which produces a rich shade of rose pink was also widely used all over India. It contains water soluble yellow and water insoluble red components, the two producing an orange hue. When combined with other flowers like *harsingār* (*Nyctanthes arborist*) it gives deep orange, gold orange and salmon colours. Al (*Morinda tinctora*) which is grown extensively in North India has its colouring substance in the bark of the root rather than the stem. It was used for printing designs on textiles, mixed with linseed oil. The bark of the lodhra tree (*Sympolocas racemosa*) which yields a crimson dye was used for dyeing silks. Sappan wood (*Caesalpinia*), a reddish wood yielding red colour was compounded with acid and alkali to obtain yellow and violet colours. *Kusṭha* (*Costus speciosa*) is a well-known plant of the Himalayas. Its leaves which yield a colour of bright gold were used as one of the ingredients in colouring copper (*Dhātuvāda*, 12; Ray, p. 146).

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Besides these colouring materials of plant origin, rinds of pomegranates, pulps of wood apples, flowers of *kiṃśuka*, *aśoka*, *harśiṅgār* (*Nyctanthes arborist*), *dhao* (*Grislea tomentosa*), saffron, seeds of *tun*, tamarind, mango, juice of grapes, *jambu* fruits, molasses, and resins, *dhāk* (*Bhutea frondosa*), burnt coconut shells, burnt twigs of special trees, rice flour, etc. were also widely used in preparing dyes and pigments for various purposes. Extracts of some of them were used as binders, vehicles etc. for the pigments. Extracts of myrobalans, betel leaves, *asana kusuma* and *asana kaṣāya*, *mardayantī*, *kakubhaphalam* (Arjuna), *hiṅgula* (minium), gall nuts, ink nuts etc. may also be added to the list of colouring agents of vegetable origin.

Dyes of Animal Origin

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Among the dyes of animal origin, lac dye (*lakṣā*) was widely used. It is a resinous incrustation formed on the bark of trees by lac insect (*Tachardia lacca*). Two types of lac dyes are shell lac and stick lac.

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Bee wax (*madhucchiṣṭam*) was also used as a vehicle of medium for different dye-stuffs. Cochineal is an insect which produces red dye. Kermes (*Coccus*) which have been yielding a scarlet dye was widely in use in ancient India. This insect is known as *rudhirakrimi* because it originates in blood, particularly human blood. The insects are squeezed with some auxiliaries to produce dye substances for colouring textile fabrics.

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Conch shells and even corals were powdered and mixed with some glue for preparing white colours or pigments for painting. Elephant hides, buffalo hides were used to prepare *vajralepa*, a vehicle to carry the pigments. *Madhu* (honey), oils, resins, *guggula* (a fragrant gum resin) etc. were used as ingredients in the compounds of metal solvents and also as binders.

Mineral Substances

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Among mineral substances red ochre (*gairika*) which produces red colour for dyeing was well-known in ancient India. Two types of red ochres are mentioned. *Pāṣāṇa gairika* is a hard copper coloured substance while *svarṇa gairika* is a softer one of the deep red colour (*Siv. R. VI. 23.108-109*). This is grouped under the uparasas. Red ochre was the most widely used mineral pigment. The term ochre refers to a large class of natural pigments with colours varying from red to yellow, consisting essentially of hydrated iron oxides, often diluted with clay.

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Haritāla or yellow orpiment was used for obtaining yellow colours. This is also a uparasa according to the ancient texts on Alchemy. It is of two kinds, of leafy structure and in the form of balls or cakes and is of golden colour (Śiv. R. VI.23.110-111).

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Kāsisa (sulphate of iron) is of two kinds vālukā and puspa. The former is of green variety and used in dyes, particularly in hair dyes. Manahśilā (Realgar) is of three kinds śyāmala of dark red colour, karavīraka of golden colour, manda in the form of powder of deep red colour. Sasyaka is a mineral found in five varieties of colours and is said to impart colour to minerals.²⁰

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Añjana or collyrium is also of five kinds sauvīrāñjana, rasāñjana, śrotāñjana, puṣpāñjana and nīlāñjana. The extracts of these añjanas were used as cosmetics to the eyes (Śiv. R. VI,23; 115.116).

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The process of manufacturing sindūra is given and four types of sindura are mentioned in some texts. Vasanta kusumākara sindūra has the colour of campak with some fragrance, is soft and delinquescent. The other three types are rājamṛga, bhūpati, pūrṇacandrodaya with the shades of brhati flower, atasī flower and pomegrenate flower respectively.

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Giri sindūra (red lead) is described as found in the form of crest of anthills and when broken, has a tinge of blue lotus and on rubbing it yields red colour²¹. It is found in mountainous regions and is a sort of powder or dust found inside stones (Śiv. R. VI.23.112,113). For using sindūra as colouring matter it was treated with Realgar (manaḥśilā).

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Some of the other mineral substances that were used in ancient and medieval India for dyeing and colouring purposes were rājāvarta (Lapis Lazuli), rasaka (calamine), ferric oxide (minium), sudhā (lime), yellow ochre, trapu (lead), kankuṣṭha, blue vitriol, etc. Three kinds of hingula (vermilion) are mentioned as useful in medicine, in colouring metals and in colouring mercury. The three kinds are: camara of very deep colour, śukatuṇḍa of slightly yellowish tinge and haṃsapāda of the colour of birth red jāpakusuma and this type is considered the best.²² Rajāvarta is slightly red at centre with a bluish tinge.

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In texts like Rasaratnasamuccaya, Rasasiddhāntaśāsanam also we get information about mineral substances used for dyeing and colouring.

Linked texts (3)