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History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c34.s1: Early historic jewellery

History of Technology in India, Vol. I: From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. v1.c34.s1

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English

Early historic jewellery

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The Buddhist monuments at Bharhut, Sāñcī, Bodhgayā and Amarāvatī, which are attributed to the Sunga and Sātavāhana phase of Indian history, provide ample evidence on Indian jewellery through their intricate stone carvings. The jewellery, as noticed through the carvings of the figurative sculptures, is important for two significant reasons, viz; firstly the forms of jewellery have been continued throughout the ages with little or no change and secondly, the identification of various ornaments worn by the male and female figures at Bharhut can easily be made with the help of ancient literature of India. Another important fact which can be brought out by studying early sculptural art of India is that the trait of wearing beautiful jewellery was common with the male and female sections of the society. Further, the jewellery was worked in precious and semi- precious metals and the same was encrusted with the pearls and glittering gems for the royal use.

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A careful scrutiny of the Sunga and Sātavāhana art would reveal that a large variety of ornaments to be used on the head, ears, neck, arms, waist and feet had come in vogue. The forms, motifs and designs of ornaments were drawn either from Nature or the sectarian symbols. For example, the ear-rings are very often shaped like a full blown lotus flowers and petals. The numerous animal motifs, such as the snout of a crocodile, lion’s head and coil of a serpent have been imitated to shape the numerous ornaments of the *Śātavāhana* period. At Bharhut, the famous Buddhist symbol, *Tri-ratna*, is very often found depicted in the personal jewellery of male and female figures.

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Again, the ornaments, like ear-rings, necklaces, armlets and bracelets, seem to have been commonly worn by both the male and female members of the society. However, the forehead ornaments, long necklaces, girdles and anklets were worn only by the fair sex. The males probably used an embroidered cloth, *saṣ* or *pataka* to tighten the waist. The nose-ring is probably a later addition to Indian jewellery.

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*Forehead ornament*: The female sculptures from Bharhut are invariably shown wearing a star-shaped ornament just below the parting of the hair on the top of the forehead. The term, *Lalāṭikā*, as used in ancient Sanskrit literature, has been interpreted as a jewelled ornament on the forehead (Sivaramamurti 1956). Similarly, the gem *Cūḍāmaṇi* or the *Makarika* (crocodile gem) are found adorning the foreheads of the female sculptures of Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda (Sivaramamurti, 1956).

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*Ear ornaments*: Ear rings were used by men and women both. Sometimes, the ear-rings are shaped as *Tri-ratna* symbol. Even today, the Christians wear the cross as ornament. Cunningham has described a special type of ear-rings used at Bharhut, wherein the middle portion was formed of two spiral tubes and ending with a four petalled flower (Cunningham, 1962). Agrawala has identified them with *Prakaravapra Kuṇḍalas*, as mentioned in the Virata Parva of *Mahābhārata* (Agrawala, 1965). The crescent- shaped *kuṇḍalas* (*mṛṣṭakuṇḍalas*), which find mention in the *Jatakas*, are found represented in Amaravati sculptures (Cunningham, 1962).

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The actual specimens of this kind of *Kuṇḍalas* were excavated from Taxila by Marshall (Marshall, 1902-3). The *Vallikā*, as mentioned in the *Cullāvagga*, has been identified with modern *Ballikās* or *Bālā* (Sivaramamurti, 1956).

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*Necklaces or Kaṇṭha-bhuṣaṇa*: The necklace seems to have been the most popular ornament amongst men and women in ancient India. The necklaces were made of gold, beads, pearls and other precious stones. Kauṭilya in his *Arthaśāstra* has mentioned a large variety of necklaces, including their characteristics and names (Shamasastry, 1923-24). The necklaces were generally composed of numerous strings, popularly, known as *Yaṣṭi* and the central part of it was adorned with a large gem, called *nāyakamani*. A necklace comprising of gold coins was named as *Niṣka*, which was also the name of a gold coin (Apte, 1965).

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The necklaces used to be both, short and long. The short necklaces were known as *kaṇṭhi* or *kaṇṭha*, a name which is still retained in Indian vernacular. In the Bharhut sculptures, the short necklaces are broad and flat, going around the neck. They might have been made of plain gold. The other varieties of necklaces were probably made of gold beads, pearls and precious gems. The necklaces were made either of one string (*ekāvalī*) or more than one string. If the central gem is large sized pearl, the necklace was called *śīrsak*. A necklace composed of alternating pearls and gold globules was termed as *apavaritaka*. *Ratnāvali* was a variegated necklace composed of gems, pearls and gold globules (Kauṭilya’s *Arthaśāstra*, Shamasastry, 1923-24).

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Another notable variety of necklace used in Maurya and Sunga age is the *Phalakahāra* which comprised of three or five slab like gems, rectangular in shape and set at regular intervals of pearls. It consisted of numerous strings as noticed from the sculptures of Bharhut and Amaravati (Sivaramamurti, 1956).

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*Bracelets*: The armlets or bracelets were commonly worn by men and women of the Sunga period. They seem to have been made of gold and encrusted with precious gems. The bracelets were known as *Valayas*. According to the *Gāthāsaptaśati*, the *valayas* were considered as a symbol of auspiciousness for the ladies whose husbands were alive. The bracelets seem to have been named after the material employed and sometimes even after the workmanship. For example, the *Ratnavalayas* (*Mūdrārākṣasa*, Act IV, 5 p. 192) were the bracelets set with precious stones and cerals, the *Saṅkhavalayas* were made of conch and the *Jalavalaya* (*Gāthāsaptaśati*, I, 80) were the bracelets showing perforated workmanship. The bracelets made of ivory were also in vogue. The most elaborate bracelets, as worn by the Yaksa, Yaksis and Naga figures at Bharhut, consist of spirals of ten coils each, with a jewelled plate on the outside of the wrist and on the inside a curious arrangement of four perpendicular wires attached to a loop, for keeping the spiral closed (Cunningham, 1962).

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Like bracelets, the armlets were also known as *Valayas* due to their ring-like shape. The various shapes, based on the creeper and *makara* motifs, of armlet are mentioned in ancient Sanskrit literature (Sivaramamurti, 1956).

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*Girdles*: There are numerous references to female girdles in early Sanskrit and Pali literature. The various names of female girdles seem to have been based on the number of strands in the ornament or the tinkling sound produced at the time of movement. The names, such as *Mekhalā*, *Kāñci*, *Saptakī*, *Rasanā* and *Sārasanā*, which are found mentioned in *Amarakośa*, are said to have signified the number of strands composing the girdle (Sivaramamurti, 1956). For instance, the term, "*Saptakī*" denotes a girdle with seven strings. "*Rasanā*" is probably the tinkling girdle with small bells suspended downwards. Sivaramamurti believes that the *Rasanā* or *Rasanākalapa* probably resembled a *mekhalā* but was fashioned like a cord or chain with numerous links composing it (Sivaramamurti, 1956). Similarly, the names *Kāñci* or *Kakṣa*, as Cunningham suggests, denote the specific girdles composed of brilliant red seeds of *Guñja* or *Abrus Precatorious* (Cunningham, 1962). The same scholar, on the basis of early Buddhist literature, takes the term *Mekhalā* as being "set with gems in newly burnished gold and silver" (Cunningham, 1962). The other names of girdles, such as the *Maddavīna*, *Kalābuka*, *Muraj* and *Deddubhaka* had their special characteristic qualities (Cunningham, 1962). The *Maddavīna* type of girdle had a rich, jewelled border. The *Kalābuka* was composed of many strips plaited together. The *Muraj* had drum-shaped knobs and the *Deddubhaka* had knobs in the form of a water snake.

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Initially, the girdles seem to have been composed of beads, including those of gold and silver. The same might have been followed by chains of gold and silver with jingling bells, specially used by the dancing girls. This is how, as Cunningham takes it, the lady's girdle assured the elaborate and costly form of five, six and seven strings of gold beads (Cunningham, 1962). These girdles are found worn by the various female figures of the Bharhut stupa. The most elaborate girdle, worn by the goddess, Sirima, represents similar motif and design in construction.

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*Anklets*- Anklets were popularly worn by the ladies of the Sunga and Sātavāhana periods. The most common variety appears to be formed of spiral coils, piled one over the other (Cunningham 1962). The various names, such as Mañjīra Tulākoṭi, Nūpura, Pādangada, Haṃsaka and Pālipada in Sanskrit and Pali languages would suggest a large variety of anklets in ancient India (Sivaramamurti, 1956). However, the popular form of anklets noticed at Bharhut can be identified with the ancient term, Mañjīra, which are supposed to resemble the coiled strings of the churning stick (Sivaramamurti, 1956). Sometimes, the anklets were embedded with small bells, Kinkiṇīs to produce the jingling sound. In the temptation of the Buddha, some of the dancing Apsaras are said to have, “tinkled the bells on their feet” (Cunningham, 1962).

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*Finger Rings*: The Finger rings or Aṅguliyaka are found worn by the female figures at Bharhut. However, the same are not to be noticed at Amaravati in its earlier phase. The finger rings appear at Amaravati only during the 3rd century, A.D. (Sivaramamurti, 1956).

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The foregoing description of Indian jewellery would reveal that the Indians, both male and female, had great love for ornaments right from the Indus Valley period. In the initial stages, the beads of semi-precious stones in different shapes and sizes were used as an aid to personal beauty. The beads of gold and silver were sparingly used by the rich people. The advances of metallurgy in Vedic era, made it possible to use largely gold and silver for fashioning of intricate jewellery. At the same time, the other materials, like ivory, wood, clay and terracotta were also used to fashion jewellery for the poor section of the society. Coming to Maurya-age, the major parts of the country were united under one paramount rule. The vast resources of the country and intimate relations of the Maurya emperors with west Asian monarchs might have introduced some new traits and traditions of west-Asian origin in Indian jewellery. Some of the ancient jewellery found from Taxila would suggest such a cultural blending.

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The beginning of the Christian era is full of political turmoil and confusion in Indian history. The various nomadic tribes, such as the Bactrian Greeks, Sakas, Parthians and the great Kuṣāṇas had crossed the Indian borders and established their kingdoms in whole of the north-western regions of the country. This provided a further opportunity for the west and central Asian cultural norms and traditions to penetrate into Indian soil. Again, the opening of sea-routes led to the development of Indian foreign trade with the Roman empire as its chief customer.

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The huge quantity of Roman gold was coming to India every year as a result of the brisk trade. The art of jewellery and work in precious stones were attaining unprecedented heights. However, the scant archaeological material is hardly adequate to form an idea of the alien forms or techniques, if any, introduced in Indian jewellery due to the cultural contact with west and central Asian world. Some of the jewellery pieces from central India, presently kept in the National Museum, New Delhi, are akin to the jewellery found from Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. Thus, the north-western regions seem to have preserved the ancient modes and traditions for the last two thousand years. However, the Buddhist motifs, floral designs and animal and bird forms in these ornaments might suggest the Indian influence which might have travelled along with the migration of Buddhism to central Asian regions. The forms like, belt buckles, amulets and medallions are definitely of central Asian origin and the lavish use of semi-precious stones, like ruby, turquoise, coral and lapis lazuli bespeak of the characteristic quality of that region.

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The jewellery found at Sirkap and Bhir, the two notable centres of the Taxila region, comprises of necklaces, pendants, earrings, bracelets, clasps, rings and hairpins, etc. The necklaces, made of many pieces strung together by thread or wire, can be attributed to Indo-Parthian and Kuṣāṇa period. The gold beads are usually hollow with small holes to be filled in with lac. In one of the elaborately made necklaces, “the larger pieces are centered with oval medallions of crystal cut-en-cabochen in a beaded border enclosed by two fish, facing one another with minute circlets of inlaid white cells between their heads and tails” (Jamila B.B., p.48). This probably indicates the beginning of ‘Kundan’ work which later found much favour with the Mughals in India. The metals i.e. gold, silver and copper have been used to fashion the ancient forms of jewellery from Taxila. The falling down festoons from the necklaces and ear-pendants are made of thin entwined wire and are also sometimes studded with semi- precious stones, like the garnet, amethyst and corals. The various manufacturing techniques, like the filigree, repousse, moulding, heating, soldering and encrusting of stones are found employed in making the ornaments. The delicacy and boldness of design, accurate and precise modelling and the perfect finish of ornaments from the Taxila excavations would suggest that the art of jewellery had been fully evolved there.

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The art-motifs employed in the jewellery pieces from Taxila are varied indeed. They exhibit a fine blending of the Hellenistic and Indian traditions.

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The figures of Eros and Psyche riding the sea-lions in one of the gold pendants found from ancient Taxila might suggest “the traces of important and strong Greek influence which are not found in Southern and Eastern parts of India” (Jamila, B.B. p.53). Ofcourse, the Greek motifs are blended with the Indian lotus, crescent, lotus buds and other flowers. The Greek motifs in Indian jewellery must have been introduced by the Indo-Greek and Parthian rulers of Taxila.

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The religious motifs, like the *Cakra* or Wheel, *Triratna* and *Svastika* are also noticed. The other motifs represented are the rosettes, the creepers and the circles. Sometimes, the pendants are shaped in forms of a ‘crescent’, ‘tiger’s claw’ and the ‘peepal leaves’.

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In South India, the jewellery of the Ikṣvāku period from Nagarjunakonda is somewhat plain and simple as compared to that of the Taxila region. A necklace and ear-rings made of gold, along with the Buddhist caskets, were recovered from the Nagarjunakonda excavations in the Krishna Valley. The technique employed to fashion the Nagarjunakonda jewellery, datable to 2nd century A.D., is confined to Filigree. The beaten gold wires are fastened together and soldered to produce ornaments. The notable discovery of goldsmith’s entire stock-in-trade, which included moulds of various designs and crucibles etc., from the Site 58 at Nagarjunakonda, is a positive evidence to show that the craft of jewellery had fully come into vogue in the Deccan of Ikṣvāku period (Sarkar & Misra 1972). Similarly, the gold necklace from the Stupa-site at Gummadidurru, with fifteen beads including spacers, would further strengthen the above statement (Sarkar & Misra 1972).

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