Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c10.s2: Mundigak
Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c10.s2
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- English
Contents
- v1.c10.s2.t1 Lithic Artefacts — 5 parts
- v1.c10.s2.t2 Gem Minerals — 29 parts
Mundigak
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The site of Mundigak is situated in the valley of the Kushk-i-Nakhud Rud near Kandahar in South Afghanistan. Here excavations have brought to light the remains of seven major occupational periods. Chronologically these periods represent the time-span of approximately 3000 years, starting from the ceramic Neolithic (fifth millennium BC) to the Harappan period. During this period, Mundigak developed from a small agricultural village to an important urban centre; it was abandoned in the early iron age.
Lithic Artefacts
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Stone artefacts have been recorded from all the occupational Periods I to IV. Amongst them rectangular milling stones, rectangular to oval hard-stones or ground-stones and large trapezoidal holes retouched for hafting are worth noting. The milling stones or saddle querns, sometimes with one raised end, were made from a medium to coarse grain basalt. Hard-stones or pestles were manufactured from a medium to fine grain basaltic pebbles and had grinding scars on one or both surface. Another important type worth mentioning is a large knife-like scraper made of large cortex flakes, which has been found through the entire sequence at Mundigak. These flakes were usually retouched along one edge and were occasionally polished through use.
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The tools of Period I were still in use in Period II. Flint blades and points were used in Period II for the first time. These blades are large and have triangular and trapezoidal cross-sections. Bifacially flaked lanceolate flint point found in Period II continues throughout the sequence.
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The main lithic artefacts remained unchanged through different periods. Stones with a long axes groove appeared in phase III and increased in later periods. In phases V and VI microlithic blades were introduced in quantity and then continued through the remaining periods of occupation.
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Technological activities increased, tanged lozenge shaped point was located along with luxury items e.g., copper pins with flat ends and twisted shafts. Utilitarian objects like small curved knives or sickles and chisels have also been recorded. Besides these, two socketed axes and one adze were the important metal objects. Of the artefacts from Period III which were analysed, only the axes and adze had a composition approaching that usually associated with low grade bronze. These artefacts had a tin content of nearly 5 per cent, the highest recorded at Mundigak. Other artefacts had lower tin content. By Period III, the differential characteristics of various alloying compositions had been clearly understood by the smiths, and metallurgy was led into a new phase of sophistication and specialization.
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The types of spindle whorls prevalent in Periods I and II were changed in Period III. Conical types are found replaced by disc-shaped whorls, both of terracotta and steatite.
Gem Minerals
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At Mundigak, materials made out of gem minerals are available from the Period I. 3-II yielded a limited quantity of beads. These are simple discs, tabular trapezoidal, cylindrical, bio-conical and lozenge shaped. Various stones have been used for these — white limestone, lapis lazuli, jade, quartzite, and even shell and pottery. It is again noticed in the Period IV where beads of lapis lazuli, carnelian, shell and bronze were found. One etched carnelian bead with figure 8 has also been reported.
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Simple alabaster bowls with straight angular sides were very popular with the people. It was first noticed in Period I.2, and it continued on a large scale till Period IV.
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Period I.2 at Mundigak has yielded the first metal artefact — a flat blade like instrument. Period I.4 has given simple type of bronze point or punch with a circular cross-section which was found throughout the habitation. Metallurgy started in Period I.5 where one bronze artefact was found. It has been chemically analysed: 1 per cent tin; 0.5 per cent iron and rest copper.
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Period II yielded the same material as was found in the late levels of Period I. It shows the continuity of culture. However, these levels represent the chalcolithic settlement which was advancing in technology, trade and other aspects of culture growth. It is evidenced by the finding of somewhat complicated metal tools, seals and luxury items.
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The metal tools in this period were lanceolate in shape with elliptical cross-section; this type became increasingly frequent in later period. The first example of luxury type metal artefacts were located in phase II.3. There were pins, one with a double volute and the other with a flattened and perforated end. The most frequent metal artefact of the Mundigak sequence is a bronze point or punch with circular cross-section. An oval shaped tanged point, a large lance head, a knife, sickles, and chisels were reported in Period IV. The greatest number of variety of luxury items was found in phase IV.1. These included mirrors, handles for mirrors, double spiral headed pins and a buckle.
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No radio-carbon date is available for Period IV. Still, cultural evidence suggests that late Mundigak III.6 and IV might have encompassed the entire third millennium BC.
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Other Pre-Harappan sites West of Indus
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Figs. 2.1-2.3 show how the nuclear zone around Mehargarh propagated itself during 5000 to 2500 BC, heralding the advent of the Mature-Harappan civilization.
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Period I of the mound of Kile Gul Mohammad, located about 3 km north-east of Quetta city can be dated as seventh-sixth millennium BC. During that time the nomadic people used ground-stone tools and chipped flints and also blades of chert, jasper and chalcedony. Period III (fourth millennium BC) shows the first chalcolithic culture. Damb Sadaat situated 13 km west of Quetta town has produced radio-carbon dates between 3630-2630 BC. Period II shows a stone blade industry, mainly of chert and alabaster bowls. Clay seals as well as copper artefacts such as dagger, knife etc. were found.
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It is evident from Table 2.1(and figs. 2.1-2.3) that Mehargarh must have been the nuclear zone for propagating the neolithic and chalcolithic culture towards [Figure: SOUTH ASIA CHALCOLITHIC (5000 BC - 3200 BC) 50 0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETRE INDIA TO SOVIET CENTRAL ASIA TO SHAHR - 1 SOKHTA MUNDIGAK KILE GUL MOHAMMAD GUMLA PERIANO GHUNDAI RANA GHUNDAI DABAR KOT MEHRGARH DAMB SADAA T ANJIRA NAL AMRI BALA KOT ARABIAN SEA]
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Fig. 2.1: Map of South Asia showing Chalcolithic Sites (5000-3200 BC). (Asthana, 1985 : 61)
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[Figure: SOUTH ASIA EARLY BRONZE AGE (3200-2500 BC) 50 0 100 200 300 400 KILOMETRE POTWAR SITES SARAI KHOLA LEWAN RAHMANDHERI GUMLA BANNU BASIN SITES ZHOB-LORALAI SITES PERIANO GHUNDAI MUNDIGAK NUCLEAR ZONE KILE GUL MOHAMMAD MEHRGARH QUETTA SITES ANJIRA NAL KULLI KULLI SITES NINDOWARI AMRI MOHENJO-DARO KOT DIJI SIND SITES ARABIAN SEA TO PERSIAN GULF INDIA SARASWATI SITES SOTHI JALIL PUR RAVI BASIN SITES HARAPPA KALIBANGAN SISWAL MITATHAL]
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[Figure: Fig. 2.2 : Map of South Asia showing early Bronze Age Sites (3200-2500 bC). (Asthana, 1985 : 68)]
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Fig. 2.3: Map showing important Pre-Harappan Sites. (Asthana, 1985 : 80)
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the north-west. Mundigak and other Afghanistan sites may be considered to belong to this nuclear zone of the Indian sub-continent, Mundigak’s culture has been noted earlier. The cultural sequence of Deh Morasi Ghundai, located on the edge of the great desert of South-West Afghanistan, may be equated with those of Mundigak. In Period II, milling stones, and pestles, angular walled alabaster bowls and steatite seals were used. Copper tube samples have been recovered from this stratum.
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Said Qala Tepe, 100 km south-east of Mundigak, near Kandahar city also exhibits Mundigak culture of the third millennium BC. Beads of semi-precious stones such as steatite, alabaster, marble, carnelian, rock crystal, lapis lazuli and terracotta have been reported from the habitational levels II-IV. Angular walled alabaster vessels have also been found. Bronze artefacts such as sickle blade fragments, lanceolate or lozenge tanged point with circular cross-section, double spiral head pins, etc. were found in the same structure.
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Mehargarh culture distinctly spread towards the north and the north-east. Clear continuity has been observed in the sites of Sur Jangal and Rana Ghundai of the fifth and fourth millennium BC. Further north, the site of Rehman Dheri is located about 23 km north of Dera Ismail Khan on the Gomal Plains. This is clearly a proto-urban site of the fourth millennium BC, which has its initial settlement in 3500 BC when Amri and Kot Diji settlement appeared in Sind. Apart from Kot Dijian pottery, the site exhibits chert blades, stone tools etc. One drill was found intact in an unifinished carnelian bead. A number of unifinished beads in lapis lazuli, turquoise, carnelian, agate and the lumps of raw material reveal the evidence of its being a manufacturing centre. It might have acted as a trading centre. An ivory seal with depiction of animals and special markings on it are clear precursors of the Harappan tradition and writing.
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The site of Gumla which is 8 km south of Rehman Dheri was a rural extension of the proto-urban complex. It specialised in fine painted wheel-turned pottery terracotta and shell bangles, bronze tools such as antimony rod, nail parer, etc. Barrel-shaped jasper beads were found.
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Further north is the site of Sarai Khola, which is about 2 km south-west of the Bhir Mound, the earlier city state of Taxila. Period II here marked the use of Kot Dijian pottery and use of carnelian, lapis lazuli and agate blades, and of faience bangles. Copper was used; antimony rods, pins, bangles, needles, nail parers and spearheads have been found.
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South of Mehargarh, the neolithic-chalcolithic tradition spread through Anjira and Nal. Although Anjira shows only stone tools and no metal or gem mineral, the cemeteries at Nal (near Sohr Damb) exhibit a large number of protourban culture objects. This Pre-Harappan third millennium BC site contained semi-precious stones and beads of agate, carnelian, lapis lazuli and paste. Copper and silver objects were found in the necropolis. Copper was used to make long narrow flat axes, chisel, other tools and weapons, beads and seals; silver was used for fabricating ceremonial spearheads, finger ring etc. There is the evidence of lead-alloying.
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The pre-historic sites of Kulli is one of the largest single culture sites in the South Baluchistan area. The temple complex contained black-on-red potteries, painted bulls, female figurines. The rooms also contained fragments of copper, lapis lazuli beads, bone bangles etc.
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In southern Baluchistan, the number of copper objects found even in the trenches is comparatively very large. Kulli has produced a copper awl and a small copper fragment, whereas Mehi has yielded apart from copper bowls, discs and bangles (some bronze) also a new type: copper/bronze mirrors, some with elegant handles. (Stein, 1931; Piggott, 1950)
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The site of Balakot is near the sea-coast, 88 km north-west of Karachi. The Pre-Harappan phase I exhibits lithic objects such as chert/flint blades, edge tools, chipped stone tools etc. and beads of lapis lazuli, shell, paste etc. Period II (Mature-Harappan phase) showed copper-bronze objects, native lead and a shell bangle industry. Apart from utilizing the fish and mollusc, shells were used for manufacture of bangles and also probably inlays for wooden furniture. Working floors were covered with large quantities of shell bangles in all stages of manufacture.
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Amri and Kot Diji developed distinct Pre-Harappan cultures on the banks of the Indus. Amri is situated 130 km south of Mohenjo-Daro, on the western bank of the Indus and opposite Chanhu-Daro. Pottery witnessed evolutionary stages through the stages IA to ID. Apart from scraps of copper, shell bangles, chert blade flakes and cores were found in great abundance, during the Period IC. Evidently there was a big craftsman establishment.
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About 160 km north-east of Amri, on the left bank of Indus and 25 km south of Khairpur lies Kot Diji. Its cultural sequence confirms the views that the original settlers of Kot Diji were the non-Harappan people who manufactured a thin and light type of pottery with short everted rim and broad bands in different shades at the neck on the pinkish slip. Some of the settlers at Kot Diji might have come from Amri in the South, and some from northern Baluchistan sites such as Periano Ghundai.
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The defensive mud-brick wall at Kot Diji was constructed on undressed limestone blocks used as foundation. As in Periano Ghundai, a very large variety of stone objects such as micro-blades, knife blades, arrowheads were found indicating well-developed technical know-how over centuries. Beads, shell bangles and mother-of-pearl shells have been reported. The metal objects include fine axe, arrowheads, chisels of copper and some bronze bangles.
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The Pre-Harappan Kot Dijian culture was brought to an end probably by the Harappan onslaught. The end of Period IV at Gumla in the north which was associated with the Kot Dijian culture and pottery-style appears to be violent as testified by a thick layer of ash, charcoal and bone. The walls of a building in the Phase ID of Amri had been burnt red as if the house had collapsed in flames. The IIIA Phase at Kot Diji, intervening between the lower Kot Dijian and the upper Harappan level is a burnt one.
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The number of Pre-Harappan sites on the Indus and west of the river extending up to Afghanistan is large indeed; we have referred only to the more outstanding ones. It is clear from the literature that the Harappan civilization was not built by any invader in vacuum. The cultural sequences in many Pre-Harappan sites continued through several millennia before and after the Harappan era of the late third and early second millennium before Christ.
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The most outstanding evidence is from Mehargarh which shows a copper bead in the early eighth millennium BC and copper metallurgy in the early fifth millennium BC. These dates are well before the earliest Iranian dates from Tepe Yahya and Tal-i-Iblis. These evidences have resulted in a complete ‘collapse of the earlier Irano-centric view’ stating that the chalcolithic culture diffused from Iran to the Indus Valley in India. (Asthana, 1985: 16-82) The diffusion of chalcolithic culture seems to be from the nuclear zone of Mehargarh towards Mundigak and further west and also towards the north, north-east and south of Mehargarh extending up to the Indus valley and ultimately resulting in the ‘Indus Valley’ or the Mature-Harappan civilization.