Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c27.s3: The Orissa Beams
Minerals and Metals in Ancient India v1.c27.s3
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The Orissa Beams
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In the eleventh century AD text Yuktikalpataru, the author king Bhoja mentioned a list of places where swords were manufactured from Indian steel: Sri Lanka, Mysore, Surat, Nepal, Varanasi, Magadha, Anga (Bhagalpur) and Kalinga (Orissa). The Bengal-Bihar-Orissa centres had the benefit of accessibility of good quality iron ores. Orissa particularly specialised in making structural iron pieces such as beams.
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Iron clamps and beams were extensively used in the joining of long projecting cornices and roof-stones of the magnificent temple at Bhubaneśwar, constructed around AD 640. Beams of quite large dimensions have been found in the temple of Jagannath at Puri (built in the 12th century AD) — both in the main and the garden temple (Gundichā Bādi). As many as 239 iron beams have been counted; these range up to 17 ft in length and 6" x 4" or 5" x 6" inches in cross-section.
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The most thoroughly studied beams are from the Koṇārka temple on the seacoast which was built partly in the later half of the ninth century AD (the main temple), and partly in the first half of the thirteenth century AD.
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Out of a large number of iron beams of great dimensions in Koṇārka, some 29 have been counted and studied. (Friend and Thorneycroft, 1924) The largest one has a dimension of 35 ft in length and 7 to 7-1/2 inches in width with a square cross-section. Its approximate weight would be 6000 lbs. There is another beam measuring 23-1/2 ft in length and 11" x 10 1/2" inches in section, which was possibly a part of a much larger one. (Neogi, 1914; Friend et al., 1924)
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The study of the fractured surface of the Koṇārka beams clearly indicates that it was manufactured by forge-welding square rods of small sections. When a small piece of 8 inches square cross-section was hammered, instead of breaking off crosswise, the piece broke longitudinally and appeared to be laminated, being composed of two square pieces joined together. (Ghosh, 1963: 35) Jena and his associates have found traces of lead between two pieces forged together; it seems that a large lead bath might have been used for uniform heating of a bundle of wrought iron bars to the required temperature, before forging them together. (Prakash and Tripathi, 1986: 576) Some de-carburisation took place on the surface during forge-welding.
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Table 19.4
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Chemical Analysis of Koṇārka and Koraput Iron Samples
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| | *Koṇārka Samples* | | | | |
| | *KT/1* | *KT/2* | *KT* | *Analysis by Friend* | *Iron Peg from Jiragora, Koraput, Orissa* |
| C % | 0.27/0.32 | 0.45 | 0.27 | 0.11 | 0.23 |
| Mn % | 0.04 | trace | 0.04 | Nil | Nil |
| S % | 0.008 | 0.006 | 0.015 | 0.024 | 0.006 |
| P % | 0.015 | 0.018 | 0.018 | 0.015 | 0.015 |
| Si % | 0.050 | 0.110 | 0.096 | 0.100 | 0.10 |
| Cu % | — | Not traceable | 0.16 | — | 0.10 |
| Ni % | 0.16 | — | — | — | — |
| Cr % | — | 0.0040 | 0.0025 | — | — |
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Chemical analyses of Koṇārka beam samples were done by Ghosh (1963) and Friend *et al.* (1924). Ghosh selected three separate samples: KT/1, KT/2 and KT. The results are provided in Table 19.4. The similarity in compositions of the ancient Koṇārka samples and a modern tribal sample from Orissa shown in the table is noteworthy.
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The analytical figures show that as in the Delhi pillar, in Koṇārka samples also, the carbon percentage is not negligible. Percentages of Mn, S (as well as P) are low. There is some silicon; the percentages are variable, presumably because forge-welding was done on smaller pieces obtained from diverse source. Micro-structure and hardness values at different regions of the Koṇārka sample were noted by Ghosh (1963: 37), and a summary thereof is reproduced in Table 19.5.
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Table 19.5
Micro-structure and Hardness values of Koṇārka Samples
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| Position in the specimen | Description of the structure | Hardness V.P.N. |
| 1. | Large grains of ferrite with slag inclusions | 80.8 |
| 2. | Medium ferrite grains with slag inclusions | 81.3 |
| 3. | Variable size of grains in a structure approaching that of 0.20 per cent C steel | 96.6 |
| 4. | Slag inclusions in the midst of ferrite and pearlite structure | 106.0 |
| 5. | Overheated structure of about 0.35 per cent C steel | 115.0 |
| 6. | Weld zone showing imperfect welding by forging | 106.0 |
| 7. | The structure of about 0.20 per cent C steel | 86.5 |
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Friend *et al.* (1924) also found the presence of carburized phase in Koṇārka beam, the constituents were found to be ferrite and pearlite. Decarburisation had taken place during the operation of welding. Ghosh (1963: 37) determined the yield point of the Koṇārka beam to be 14.0 tons per sq inch which is much less than maximum stress of 23 tons per sq inch. The two values are not close, and on this count the Koṇārka sample differs from the Delhi Iron Pillar, which is denser, less porous and must have been subjected to better forge-welding and heavier mechanical working.
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The rust scales from the Koṇārka beams have been analysed by Ghosh (1963: 41-42) The magnetic portion is about 98 per cent whereas the figures for the Delhi Iron Pillar rust are 80 per cent (above ground) and 99 per cent (underground sample rust). X-ray diffraction analysis showed that the magnetic portion of the rust in the Koṇārka beams mainly consisted of magnetic goethite, and a small proportion of lepidocrocite. There is some quartz in the non-magnetic fraction. The Delhi Iron Pillar rust showed considerable amount of Fe₃O₄ which was not further oxidised to Fe₂O₃.
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Hudson had concluded that the Koṇārka sample, having composition similar to that of the Delhi Iron Pillar, corroded more on account of the moist and salt-laden air of the Orissan sea-coast (1953: 499). The relative humidity of the air at Delhi seldom exceeds the critical value of 70 per cent. Ray (1956: 213) cited Hudson’s work and commented: “This should lay to rest all speculations regarding the alleged intrinsic superiority of the ancient iron, so far as its corrosion resistance is concerned”.
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However, Ghosh (1963: 39-40) was not convinced that the effect of the composition of an iron sample on its corrosion-resistance was absolutely negligible. While Koṇārka ancient beam has corroded more than the Delhi Iron Pillar, yet one has to reckon “that a few modern iron beams lying in the yards of the Koṇārka temple got corroded much more (than the ancient beams on the same spot) tho-ugh they have not been there for more than 50-70 years”. Better corrosion-resist-ance of Delhi Iron Pillar could be not only due to environment but also to the facts that it has more (0.25 %) corrosion-resistance phosphorus (Koṇārka beam assays only 0.015 %), and less porosity on account of heavier mechanical working.
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Ghosh (1963) has extended Hadfield’s (1912) idea that ancient wrought irons being purer are more corrosion-resistant, but this view is not accepted by many modern scholars who attach greater importance to the environmental factors. Wranglén (1970: 767-69) favours the environmental theory and yet strikes a reconciliatory note by commenting that while the environmental factor may cause the variation of the corrosion-rate of similar samples by a factor of 100, there could be tenfold variation in the corrosion rates of different kinds of ferrous materials kept in the same environment. He also cites Evans (1955, 1957, 1960 and 1968) explaining the apparent rustlessness of some of the ancient iron samples in environmental terms. In the ancient eras, the environments were much less polluted with acidic oxides (CO₂ and SO₂), there being more ammonia from the biological waste-products contributing a passivating effect on the samples. “The initial conditions of exposure often determine the life of a metal in the atmosphere, and under favourable conditions, a protective layer of corrosion products is formed that protects the metal when the atmosphere becomes more polluted”.
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We emphasize that apart from their resistance to corrosion, the marvel of the ancient massive iron objects in India is that such structures could be fabricated at all, 800-1600 years ago, with such technical perfection. The precise methods by which forge-welding was done for a huge number of small objects to obtain a large piece of desired size and shape, are yet to be discovered, and shall remain fascinating topics for further investigation.
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In the course of reviewing iron technology in ancient India, Prakash and Tripathi (1986) emphasized on the tribal metallurgical traditions in the sub-continent, a topic reviewed earlier by Elwin (1942), Krishnan (1955), Ghosh (1964), Prakash and Igaki (1984) etc. The topic is indeed fascinating and we would like to consider and include the vast literatures in our forthcoming studies on pre-modern iron technology in India. However, our present studies are restricted up to the period AD 1200, i.e., the ancient period, and we are far from certain regarding the earliest dates of the tribal metallurgical practices in India, observed and reported during the recent past only.
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The roots of the tribal traditions must have been buried deeper in the ancient period, i.e., the traditions must have originated before AD 1200; but the exact dates are problematical to find. We tend to believe that before AD 1200, tribal metallurgy was an integral part of Indian metallurgy. The dichotomy probably arose in the eighteenth/nineteenth century when Indians became aware of and started adopting the modern or Western metallurgical techniques. The discarded indigenous methods remained isolated amongst the tribes.
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During the ancient period, tribal metallurgy was no different from the indigenous metallurgy, then in vogue in the sub-continent. Wrought iron, made and sold by the muṇḍas, was known as mundaloha. 12 to 15 mm diameter rods of 150 mm length was bought by black-smiths and used for manufacturing tools and domestic objects. Some of the black-smiths were employed by the state to manufacture very special objects like the Delhi Iron Pillar, Dhar Pillar of the Koṇārka beams.
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The ancient India had a long tradition of art and aesthetics finding expression through the objects of diverse materials. Ever since the bronze dancing girl statuette was cast in the Harappan era, terracotta artefacts were made, sandstone pillars of the Aśokan era were chiselled to carry Buddha’s message, and various stones, metals and alloys were used to produce art objects. Iron pillars and beams, discussed in this chapter, were dedicated to the temples of worship. Inside the places of worship of all denominations shone idols and art objects made of various non-ferrous alloys which we would discuss in the next chapter.
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