A Concise History of Science in India c15.4

c15.4

| Date | Scientific and Technological Developments | Remarks |
| *c.* 1700–1000 B.C. | *Ochre-coloured ware*: copper-hoards. | Closed casting of the alloyed and unalloyed metal |
| *c.* 1500 B.C. | The *Ṛgveda*: concept of natural law (*ṛta*); monistic idea concerning water; ‘lunar mansions’ or the *nakṣatra* system of marking the ecliptic, beginnings of calendar system; knowledge of diseases and cure; agricultural practices, use of plough, wheat and barley; fermentation methods; use of horse of superior breed. | The Panjab and Kashmir regions; earliest literary composition of its type |
| *c.* 1000 B.C. | The *Yajurveda*: the whole series of 27 or 28 *nakṣatras* headed by *Kṛttikā*, number-names on the decimal scale up to 10¹²; agricultural practices, mentions rice. | Western U.P.; mentions rice |
| *c.* 1000 B.C. | The *Atharvaveda*: astronomical knowledge; details of *nakṣatras*, method of *intercalation*; more detailed medical knowledge and associated practices; lists of different plants and animals. | Some parts of the *Atharvaveda* seem to be earlier Concept of *prāṇa* as the sustainer of life |
| *c.* 1000–600 B.C. | The *Brāhmaṇas*, *Āraṇyakas* and *Upaniṣads*: astronomical ideas, cosmic cycle; beginnings of mathematical series (both A.P. and G.P.); more physiological and anatomical knowledge; doctrine of the *pañcabhūtas*; further elucidation of the world of the living and non-living. | The idea of cosmic cycle possibly influenced the Greek thinking later |
| | *Painted-Grey ware*: in association with iron. | A *de luxe* pottery mainly in northen and north-western parts of India |
| | Production and use of iron. | In small open-hearth furnaces |
| | Agricultural practices—rotation fallowing method to increase the soil fertility. | |
| *c.* sixth–fifth cent. B.C. | *Northern Black-Polished ware*, associated with the use of iron: making of steel. | Mainly in eastern parts; later spread to central and other parts of India |
| | Glass objects at Taxila. | Bhir mound at Taxila |
| | Codification of medical knowledge into the *Āyurveda*: | |
| | *Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa*: five-year cycle; further elaboration of calendarical science. | *Nakṣatra* system continued to be the basis |