A Concise History of Science in India c15: Chronological Table

A Concise History of Science in India c15

Language: English

Chronological Table

c15.1

| Date | Scientific and Technological Developments | Remarks |
| c. 150000–25000 b.c. | *Early Palaeolithic or Early Stone Age*: Chopper-chopping tool culture. Hand-axe culture. | The Panjaba The Panjab, Peninsular India, barring extreme south Indiaa |
| c. 25000–5000 b.c. | *Middle Palaeolithic or the Middle Stone Age*: predominance of flake tools, scrappers, borers, points, etc. | do |
| c. 5000–3000 b.c. | *Mesolithic or the Late Stone Age*: predominance of microliths, flakes, blades, lunates, borers, scrappers, chisels, trapezoids, triangles, drills, etc. | Gujerat, Maharashtra,a Madhya Pradesh, Mysore, Tinnevelly, (Tamilnadu), Birbanpur (West Bengal), etc. |
| c. 3500 b.c. | *Neolithic Age.* | Baluchistan |
| c. 2300–1750 b.c. | *Flourishing Period of Harappan Culture*: copper-bronze technology, *cire perdue* process; wheel-made decorated and glazed pottery; settled agriculture, wheat and barley; domestication of animals; drainage and public bath, burnt brick and mortar constructions; grid system of town planning; spinning and weaving; measurement and computational techniques. | Sind, Baluchistan, the Panjab, Rajputana and Saurashtra; influenced later settlements also |
| c. 2000 b.c. | Some *Neolithic* settlements; agriculture; cave-drawings and paintings, depicting mainly animals; hand-made and later wheel-made pottery. | Andhra, Karnatak, Kashmir and Bengal regions |
| c. 1800 b.c. | Some *Chalcolithic* settlements; use of copper tools; *Black-and-Red* ware; *Malwa ware* and *Jorwe ware*; spouted vessels. | Saurashtra, Rajputana, central, southern and eastern India |

c15.2

a Sankalia (4), pp. xxi–xxii.

c15.3

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE—*contd.

c15.4

| Date | Scientific and Technological Developments | Remarks |
| *c.* 1700–1000 B.C. | *Ochre-coloured ware*: copper-hoards. | Closed casting of the alloyed and unalloyed metal |
| *c.* 1500 B.C. | The *Ṛgveda*: concept of natural law (*ṛta*); monistic idea concerning water; ‘lunar mansions’ or the *nakṣatra* system of marking the ecliptic, beginnings of calendar system; knowledge of diseases and cure; agricultural practices, use of plough, wheat and barley; fermentation methods; use of horse of superior breed. | The Panjab and Kashmir regions; earliest literary composition of its type |
| *c.* 1000 B.C. | The *Yajurveda*: the whole series of 27 or 28 *nakṣatras* headed by *Kṛttikā*, number-names on the decimal scale up to 10¹²; agricultural practices, mentions rice. | Western U.P.; mentions rice |
| *c.* 1000 B.C. | The *Atharvaveda*: astronomical knowledge; details of *nakṣatras*, method of *intercalation*; more detailed medical knowledge and associated practices; lists of different plants and animals. | Some parts of the *Atharvaveda* seem to be earlier Concept of *prāṇa* as the sustainer of life |
| *c.* 1000–600 B.C. | The *Brāhmaṇas*, *Āraṇyakas* and *Upaniṣads*: astronomical ideas, cosmic cycle; beginnings of mathematical series (both A.P. and G.P.); more physiological and anatomical knowledge; doctrine of the *pañcabhūtas*; further elucidation of the world of the living and non-living. | The idea of cosmic cycle possibly influenced the Greek thinking later |
| | *Painted-Grey ware*: in association with iron. | A *de luxe* pottery mainly in northen and north-western parts of India |
| | Production and use of iron. | In small open-hearth furnaces |
| | Agricultural practices—rotation fallowing method to increase the soil fertility. | |
| *c.* sixth–fifth cent. B.C. | *Northern Black-Polished ware*, associated with the use of iron: making of steel. | Mainly in eastern parts; later spread to central and other parts of India |
| | Glass objects at Taxila. | Bhir mound at Taxila |
| | Codification of medical knowledge into the *Āyurveda*: | |
| | *Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa*: five-year cycle; further elaboration of calendarical science. | *Nakṣatra* system continued to be the basis |

c15.5

| Date | Scientific and Technological Developments | Remarks |
| | *Śulba-sūtras*: beginnings of geometry; anticipation of the Pythagorean theorem; development of the knowledge of the irrational numbers. | As aid to construction of sacrificial altars |
| | *Early ideas of the Vaiśeṣika*; *Sāṃkhya and the Mīmāṃsā*; of the Bauddha, Jaina and the Cārvāka; physical concepts: atomism, space, time, motion and sound. | As part of the respective religio-philosophical position |
| Fourth cent. B.C. to fourth cent. A.D. | The Āyurvedic treatises—the *Caraka* and the *Suśruta Saṃhitās*: the *tridoṣa* theory; physiology; anatomy; pathology; therapeutics; surgical practices. | Emphasis on herbal medicine; skill in rhinoplasty, laparotomy and lithotomy |
| | Development of the orthodox philosophical *sūtras*; the Jaina, the Bauddha schools; extension of the doctrine of five elements, space, time and sound. | Respective epistemological positions defined |
| | The *Arthaśāstra* of Kauṭilya: mining, metal-working, agriculture and irrigation. | |
| | *Bhagavatī-sūtra*; *Tattvārthādhigama-sūtra* of Umāsvātī: atomism, classification of living and non-living. | |
| | Recasting of astronomical ideas; adoption of the zodiacal system; knowledge of the motion of planets. | Possibly some Babylonian and Greek influences |
| | Progress in mathematics; permutations and combinations—*meruprastāra* and the early binomial ideas. | Piṅgala's *Chandaḥ-sūtra* |
| | Increased and widespread use of iron; constructtion of the Sudarśana Lake | Use of bellows for extracting and forging iron |
| | Glass objects at a number of places. | Foreign influences, particularly Roman, at Taxila (Sirkap) and Arikamedu (Tamilnadu) |
| Fifth cent. A.D. | *Nyāyabhāṣya* of Vātsyāyana—atomic ideas further extended; views on vision and propagation of sound; impetus theory; classification of animals and plants. | |

c15.6

| Date | Scientific and Technological Developments | Remarks |
| | *Padārthadharmasaṃgraha* of Praśastapāda; atomism, space, time, motion, sound. | Also known as *Praśastapādabhāṣya*; though a *bhāṣya* on the Vaiśeṣika categories, an independent work |
| Fifth cent. A.D. | *Āryabhaṭīya*: theory of the rotation of the earth, epicyclic theory for the planetary motions; values of π and sines; alphabetical system of expressing decimal place-value notation; extraction of square and cube roots; indeterminate equation of the first order. | Growth of the Indian decimal place-value system |
| | Metal-working; art of jewellery; Iron Pillar now at Delhi. | Made of wrought iron (99·72%) |
| | Copper statue of the Buddha from Sultanganj in Bihar (now in Birmingham Museum). | Cast in two layers |
| | Sophisticated ceramic ware. | Particularly on the Indo-Gangetic plains |
| Sixth cent. A.D. | *Pañcasiddhāntikā* of Varāhamihira—the five *siddhāntas*: *Saura*, *Pauliśa*, *Romaka*, *Brāhma* and *Paitāmaha*; concept of *mahāyuga* (4,320,000 years); notion of the libration of the equinoxes in the *Sūryasiddhānta*. | The *Sūryasiddhānta* considered as the best and the most accurate |
| | *Bṛhat Saṃhitā* of Varāhamihira—a number of chemical processes; plant and animal classifications. | Encyclopaedic work |
| | *Amarakośa*: classification and synonyms of plants and animals, minerals and metals. | Lexicon |
| | Buddhist logic and Jaina views. | Problem of matter elucidated |
| Seventh–eighth cent. A.D. | Brahmagupta—astronomer and mathematician: *Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta* and *Khaṇḍakhādyaka*; lemma for solution of the indeterminate equation of the second order; formula for the sum of *n* terms of Arithmetic progression; rules for the volume of a prism; area of the cyclic quadrilateral, etc. | Both translated into Arabic in the eighth cent. A.D., under the titles *Sindhind* and *Arkand* |

c15.7

| Date | Scientific and Technological Developments | Remarks |
| | *Nyāya-vārtika* of Udyotakara; further elucidation of atomic views. | |
| | *Rugviniścaya* of Mādhava; emphasis on diagnostic methods. | Also called *Mādhava-nidāna*; translated into Arabic under the title *Badon* |
| | Use of the Persian water-wheel (*araghaṭṭa*) | |
| | *Aṣṭāṅgahṛdaya* of Vāgbhaṭa; an authoritative compilation of the Āyurvedic knowledge based on the earlier works. | Rendered into Arabic under the title *Astan-kar* |
| Ninth–tenth cent. A.D. | *Gaṇitasārasaṃgraha* of Mahāvīra—operations involving zero and summation of *n* terms of Geometrical Progression. | Flourished in Mysore |
| | *Kṛṣi-Parāśara* and *Vṛkṣāyurveda*. | Manuals on agriculture and botany |
| | Alchemical practices; *Rasahṛdaya* of Govinda Bhagavat. | As part of tantrik practice |
| | *Siddha* system of medicine. | Mostly followed in Tamilnadu; use of mainly mineral medicines |
| | Muñjāla’s elucidation of the precession of equinoxes. | As against the earlier libration concept |
| Eleventh–twelfth cent. A.D. | Śrīdhara’s method of solving quadratic equations. | |
| | *Siddhāntaśiromaṇi* of Bhāskara II: astronomical and mathematical work in four parts; *cakravāla* method for rational integral solutions of the indeterminate equation of the second order; geometric proof of the Pythagorean theorem; root idea of differential calculus; further elaboration of epicyclic-eccentric theories for planetary motions; analysis of the motion of the sun by considering longitudinal changes. | Influenced later astronomers and mathematicians; a number of commentaries followed; represents the height of Indian astronomy and mathematics |
| | *Mānasollāsa* of Somadeva; alchemical ideas; iron-casting; perfumery. | Encyclopaedic work |
| | Knowledge of paper-making. | Derived possibly from Nepal and Arabia |

c15.8

| Date | Scientific and Technological Developments | Remarks |
| | *Yūnāni Tibb*. | Incorporation of Persian, Arabic medical and Āyurvedic knowledge from Central Asia |
| | Metal stirrup; introduction of paper. | |
| Thirteenth–fifteenth cent. A.D. | *Śārāṅgdhara Saṃhitā*: opium in its materia medica, urine and pulse examination for diagnostic purpose. | Foreign influences |
| | *Rasaśāstra* texts: *Rasārṇava*, *Rasaratnākara*; *Rasaratnasamuccaya*, etc.; classification of alchemical and iatrochemical substances, details of experimental techniques. | Skill in complex chemical processes |
| | Nārāyaṇa Paṇḍita: further refinement of arithmetic and algebraic operations. | |
| | Parameśvara, a prolific commentator on earlier astronomical and mathematical works. | Belonged to Kerala family of astronomers |
| | Nīlakaṇṭha Somasutvan: elucidation of astronomical ideas. | Of the *Āryabhaṭīya* school |
| | Pyrotechnics. | Production centres in the south |
| *c.* sixteenth cent. A.D. | Gaṇeśa Daivajña, astronomical and mathematical commentator; Divākara family of astronomers and mathematicians. | Maharashtra school |
| | More *Rasaśāstra* texts; use of mercurial and non-mercurial compositions as internal medicine becomes widespread. | Iatro-chemistry became established |
| | *Bhāvaprakāśa*: extensive materia medica; treatment of syphilis. | |
| | Gunpowder and guns. | Largely used during the Mughal period |
| | *'Āīn-i-Akbarī*: astronomical ideas; crafts; agriculture and animal husbandry; perfumery; pyrotechnics. | |
| | Advent of the Portuguese physician Garcia da Orta, introduction of new economic plants. | Publication of Garcia's *Colloquies* (1565) |

c15.9

c15.10

c15.11

c15.12

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE—*concld.*

c15.13

| Date | Scientific and Technological Developments | Remarks |
| 1884 | Centenary of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. | In its publications over 500 papers in mathematical and physical sciences, 560 in zoology, 320 in botany were published (1788–1882) |
| 1890 | Imperial Bacteriological Laboratory at Poona. Botanical Survey of India formed. | Later shifted to Mukteswar (1893) George King, the first Director |
| 1895 | Foundation of the Solar Physics Laboratory at Kodaikanal. J. C. Bose’s first scientific paper on the polarization of electric waves by double refraction. | Started working from 1900 In *JASB* |
| 1896 | Plague Research Laboratory at Bombay with Haffkine as its Director. P. C. Rây’s work on mercurous compounds. Recommendation of the Royal Agricultural Commission emphasizing research on agriculture. | In 1906, the name was changed to the Haffkine Institute Preliminary note appeared in *JASB* Establishment of Imperial Agricultural Research Institute at Pusa (Bihar) in 1903 |
| 1897 | J. C. Bose’s lecture at the Royal Institute, London, with his own apparatus. | |
| 1900 | J. C. Bose’s paper, ‘On the Generality of the Molecular Phenomena produced by Electricity on Living and Non-living Substances’. P. C. Rây’s analyses of a number of rare Indian minerals to discover in them some of the missing elements in Mendeleef’s Periodic Table. | Read at the International Congress in Physics, Paris Published in the *Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India* |

Cites (40)

Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā — Vāgbhaṭa, Sanskrit
Carakasaṃhitā — Agniveśa (Āyurveda) & Caraka, Sanskrit
Suśrutasaṃhitā — Suśruta & Nāgārjuna (siddha/alchemist), Sanskrit
Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Rasaratnasamuccaya — Vāgbhaṭa (alchemist), Sanskrit
Gaṇitasārasaṅgraha — Mahāvīra (mathematician), Sanskrit
Bṛhatsaṃhitā — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit
Śārṅgadharasaṃhitā — Śārṅgadhara (physician), Sanskrit
Mādhavanidāna (Rugviniścaya) — Mādhavakara, Sanskrit
Rasārṇava — Sanskrit
Sūryasiddhānta — Maya, Sanskrit
Bhāvaprakāśa — Bhāvamiśra 1550, Sanskrit
Yajurveda — Sanskrit
Chandaḥsūtra — Piṅgala, Sanskrit
Padārthadharmasaṅgraha — Praśastapāda, Sanskrit
Kṛṣiparāśara — Parāśara, Sanskrit
Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta — Brahmagupta, Sanskrit
Nāmaliṅgānuśāsana (Amarakośa) — Classical Tibetan
Āryabhaṭīya — Āryabhaṭa, Sanskrit
Ārcajyotiṣa — Lagadha, Sanskrit
Śulbasūtra
Ṛgvedasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Brāhmaṇa — Sanskrit
Āraṇyaka — Sanskrit
Viyāhapannatti — Sudharman, Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit
Atharvavedasaṃhitā — Atharvan & Aṅgiras, Sanskrit
Sultânganj
Sirkap
Samrāṭsiddhānta — Jagannātha Samrāj 1707, Sanskrit
Mānasollāsa (Abhilaṣitārthacintāmaṇi) — Someśvara III, Sanskrit
Mādhavacikitsā — Mādhava Bhaṭṭa, Sanskrit
Rasaratnākara — Sāḷva, Kannada
Pañcasiddhāntikā — Varāhamihira, Sanskrit
Rasahṛdaya — Govinda, Sanskrit
Rekhāgaṇita (Jagannātha Samrāṭ) — Jagannātha Samrāṭ 1720, Sanskrit
Khaṇḍakhādyaka — Brahmagupta, Sanskrit
Upanishads — Sanskrit
Tattvārthasūtra — Umāsvāti, Sanskrit
Siddhāntaśiromaṇi — Bhāskara II, Sanskrit
Vṛkṣāyurveda — Surapāla, Sanskrit