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A Concise History of Science in India c9: 5 Chemical Practices and Alchemy

A Concise History of Science in India c9

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English

Contents

5 Chemical Practices and Alchemy

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CHEMISTRY as a branch of modern science is admittedly not very old; for, to be precise, it became systematized only in the latter half of the eighteenth century A.D. mainly because of experimentation and the methodical interpretation of experimental results by Lavoiser (1743–94) and his contemporaries like Joseph Black (1728–99), Henry Cavendish (1731–1810), Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) and Carl Wilhelm Scheele (1742–86). As a candid recognition of our indebtedness to the past, it must be said that chemical practices have been very ancient, and they formed an integral part of the technical skills of antiquity. The practical chemists—potters, brewers, dyers, metalsmiths, glassmakers and the like—contributed a great deal to the growth of technology and in no small measure to the economic welfare of the ancient communities. They were noted for their craftsmanship and experimental skills involving many a chemical transformation both qualitative and quantitative, even though they did not appear to have formulated any theoretical knowledge of the chemical transformations. For example, the beginnings of modern chemical processes, such as fermentation, distillation, fusion and calcination, can be traced to very ancient times despite the fact that the scientifically valid theoretical principles governing them came to be understood only a century or two ago.

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Similar is the case with the use of chemicals when man became the food-producer, and began to lead a settled life. There is no doubt that as man became more and more civilized, he developed varied avenues for the use of a number of chemicals and, in the process, acquired considerable knowledge of their occurrence, preparation and properties even though that knowledge, in point of fact, was not deep and systematized from the point of view of modern chemistry.

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In India, the beginnings of chemistry as practical and purposeful art are noticeable in remote antiquity. Of particular importance is the knowledge as well as the technique concerning the baking of clay and production of pottery, i.e. of objects fashioned from clay and hardened by fire. The use of pottery has an added significance in the history of chemistry. For, besides satisfying the potter’s urge to create forms and paint artistically on them, the use of pottery enabled the ancient practical chemists to develop processes involving prolonged heating, fusion, evaporation and, more importantly, the treatment of minerals. India has been well known for a number of pottery types from the neolithic phase right up to the medieval period. Metal-working, processing of various naturally occurring minerals, slaking of the burnt limestone, compositions of mortar and cement, preparation of fermented juices, extraction of essential oils, use of pigments, and production of different types of glass were among the noteworthy chemical practices in India even in very ancient times. Though it is rather difficult to trace the indigenous origins of these practices, there is no doubt that most of them grew out of the sustained efforts and special technical abilities of the people of the region, and reached peaks of excellence at times.

Pre-Vedic Period (from Prehistoric Times to c. 1500 B.C.)

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*Pottery*

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There is evidence to indicate that in the prehistoric period the technique of pottery-making was known in India. It would appear that the pots were hand-made in that period, the potter’s wheel being unknown. There were also no kilns specially built for firing the pots. Heating was done by raising a small fire around the pots which were placed in circular pits after covering the pots partially with sherds. The common shapes were globular pots of various sizes with round bases and flaring slips. Bowls with several shapes of bases were also in use. Hand-made, coarse and ill-fired redware sherds with microliths have been found in the excavations (late levels) of the prehistoric rock shelters at Lekhahia (Mirzapur district in Uttar Pradesh), and also in Baluchistan, Mundigak, Langhnaj (north Gujarat), Nagarjunakonda (Andhra Pradesh) and Birbhanpur (West Bengal).a Hand-modelled pottery, coarse grey or black burnished and ill-fired, with mat-marked bases has been noticed at Burzahom (Kashmir; about ten miles north-east of Srinagar) in the early neolithic phase (*c.* 2375–1500 B.C.). In the southern Deccan (e.g. Brahmagiri, Sanganakallu, Utnur, Piklihal, Paiyampalli and T. Narasipur) hand-made grey or buff-brown pottery (some having black or red burnished slip) with ring feet and hollow pedestals, and bands of red ochre on the surface, have been found (*c.* 2300–1800 B.C.). The wheel-thrown ware also appeared soon in this region as evidenced by the Black-and-Red painted pottery.b

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b Thapar (3), pp. 87–92; Wheeler (1), pp. 222 ff.; Subbarao (2), pp. 48, 117, 175–76.

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In the history of the wheel-turned pottery, as also of other chemical practices in India, special significance attaches to the Indus Valley Civilization which was by far the largest of the world’s three most ancient civilizations. This great civilization, now referred to as the Harappa Culture, is known to have flourished during the period *c.* 2300–1750 B.C. and its sites have been located in the Panjab, Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, north Rajasthan (former State of Bikaner), Kutch, Saurashtra, central and southern Gujarat, and Baluchistan, covering an area of roughly 840,000 square miles.a

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a Rao (S. R.) (1), p. 20; *IAR*, 1959–60, pp. 5–10.

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In the early occupations at Harappa and other regions, generally designated as the pre-Harappan culture (*c.* 2600–2400 B.C.), wheel-made pots with red wash and black paintings have been found, as also of polychrome styles. The pottery of the pre-Harappan occupation at Kalibangan, a site on the now dried up Ghaggar river in the district of Ganganagar in Rajasthan, is light and thin in fabric, even though the sturdy fabric with incised designs is not wanting. The colour of this pottery is red to pinkish, painted in black, sometimes with white painting over half-slipped dull surface. On the basis of the fabric and decoration, this pottery, which presents a number of motifs, has been classified into six groups—labelled Fabric A to Fabric F.b

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The pottery of the Harappan culture which consists of mainly wheel-made ware, turned in various shapes and sizes out of the well-levigated alluvium of the Indus, comprises the Red, Buff, Black-and-Red, Coarse Grey and the Micaceous Red ware with paintings in black over red.c The colour and the other characteristics of these wares depended obviously upon the composition of the clay used and the techniques of firing under either oxidizing or reducing conditions. Mica, sand and lime were used as tempering materials. The presence of mica in the clay generally helped not only in the working of the pot on the wheel but also in the process of drying of the pottery without cracking. The red shades which developed on the pottery were due to the presence of iron compounds in the clay, which would undergo change in colour in the course of firing as a result of the oxidizing atmosphere in the kiln. Not infrequently the black or chocolate designs painted on the body of the ware were executed using manganiferous haematite compositions. However, the exact information respecting the techniques employed for obtaining the distinctively coloured pottery still appears to be scanty. Decoration of pottery often consisted of several designs, geometrical, plant or animal forms fashioned normally in black paint. The designs included, among others, squares divided into a number of triangles and rectangles, wavy lines, loops, chequers, lattice work, rosettes, forms of peacock, flying birds, deer and fish, *pipal* and palm leaves, and occasionally human forms. The potters were indeed skilled craftsmen of high order as evidenced by the exquisitely executed miniature vessels. ‘The general impression given by the Indus pottery is that of efficient mass production’,d and what is remarkable is the extreme standardization of production.

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a Sankalia (4), p. 155.

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b *IAR*, 1962–63, pp. 20–27.

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c Rao (S. R.) (1), p. 21.

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d Wheeler (4), p. 52.

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The white ash remains of the kilns point out unmistakably that wood or charcoal was used as a source of fuel. At Harappa have been found three types of furnaces, viz. round, cylindrical and pear-shaped pits, with

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FIG. 5.1. Bar-diagram showing the chronological spread of different cultures and wares.a

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or without brick-lining. The art of glazing the pottery was also known. In the production of the glaze on the surface, gums and allied organic substances were used along with the glazing materials which consisted of finely crushed quartz or white sand, a glassy flux (probably obtained by fusing soda with sand) and, if desired, a colouring matter. An analysis of a few specimens of glazed pottery has revealed that the blue shades are due to copper oxide, the greenish blue due to iron oxide in addition, while excess of manganese oxide is responsible for the appearance of dark or maroon colour. Mackay is of the view that the glazed pottery found at Mohenjo-daro was probably the earliest specimen, and according to him the four pieces found at Mohenjo-daro are beyond all doubt the handiwork of a potter who was well acquainted with the process and able to carry it to a high degree of perfection.a It is known now that the practice of glazing the pottery appeared in Mesopotamia about 1,500 years later than in the Harappan culture.

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a Agrawal (D. P.) (2), p. 116. (Reproduced with permission).

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a *ᵃ* Thapar (2), p. 36.

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FIG. 5.2. Map showing the spread of Malwa, Jorwe and Lustrous Red wares. *ᵃ*

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The terracotta craft, another aspect of pottery-making, which included the execution of human and animal forms, dolls and other decorative pieces, was in practice in the Harappan culture. The Harappan figurines, entirely hand-modelled, which have been unearthed speak of the achievements in the terracotta craft.

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A detailed enumeration of the pottery of the post-Harappan cultures of the north, the north-west, central and southern India is not possible in this short account. Suffice it to say that there was a continuity in the potting tradition though some of the Harappan features disappeared and some new decorative motifs appeared. In course of time, there came into use the bright red burnished ware known as the Lustrous Red ware found in sites in Kathiawar and western India. Black-and-Red pottery often with white painted geometrical designs also made its appearance. This type of pottery dominated in what is known as Ahar culture (also called the Banas culture named after the river Banas in the south-eastern Rajasthan (*c.* 2000–1600 B.C.). Cream-slipped ware with remarkable surface paintings and the red-slipped ware also belong to the Banas culture. Besides, during the period under reference the other important pottery assemblages comprise the Malwa ware (Navdatoli, Prakash, Bahal, Eran, Nagda, etc.; its distribution covers the basins of Chambal, Narmada, Tapti and Godavari rivers) which is generally a pale-red-slipped ware decorated with designs painted in purplish to brown-black colour; and the Jorwe ware (Jorwe, Nasik, Nevasa, Daimabad, Chandoli, etc., in the northern Deccan) which has a well-baked core with a metallic ring and a light orange or dull-red matt surface having geometrical paintings in black colour.b c

Metals and Metal-working

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In the field of metals, the pre-Harappan cultures are not noted for an extensive use of metals by them; only at a few places (Mundigak, Nal, Kalibangan and Mehi), there is evidence of the use of copper. But the picture is entirely different in the Harappan culture, the metal-workers of which undoubtedly knew the art of using copper, bronze, lead, silver, gold and electrum—an alloy of gold and silver. Silver might have been obtained from Afghanistan, Armenia and Persia, copper ore from Rajasthan and Afghanistan, and lead from Ajmer area. The Harappan metalsmiths were well aware of the technique of making beads, soldering, sheet-making, rivetting, coiling and *cire perdue* casting (lost-wax metal-casting process, the details of which are given elsewhere in this chapter). Gold was used principally for making ornaments (beads, pendants, armlets, brooches, etc.) and silver for ornaments, vessels and the seals. ‘Much of the Indus gold is of light colour, indicating a high silver content, or rather that it is unrefined “electrum”. This suggests that it originated from the reefs of Mysore rather than from panning, and the possibility is certainly not discouraged by the numbers of neolithic settlements which are reported from Mysore, particularly clustering around the Hatti gold bands.’a,b Copper sheets were shaped into vessels, and bronze was used for casting purposes by the *cire perdue* process. It is generally believed that the small bronze statuette of the ‘dancing girl’ discovered at Mohenjo-daro was fashioned by casting, probably by the lost-wax process, although there is no direct evidence to this effect as yet.c Moulds for casting bronze have not been found yet in the excavations at Mohenjo-daro. This bronze statuette seems to represent the first appearance of the figure in the metal-art of India.

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a Mackay, p. 188.

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b Sankalia (4), pp. 199–200.

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c Thapar (3), pp. 25 ff.; *IAR, 1954–55*; 1955–56; 1957–58; 1958–59.

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The specimens unearthed at Mohenjo-daro, of copper-bronze implements or tools and weapons of warfare include axes, daggers, knives, spears, arrow-heads, short swords, chisels, drills, reamers, fish-hooks and metal mirrors. About 70 per cent of the tools excavated are found to be unalloyed as they have in them about one per cent of tin only, while only 14 per cent of them are alloyed correctly (8–12% tin). It would thus appear that the Harappan metalsmiths were not able to maintain the correct proportions of tin while alloying and producing implements on a large scale.d A remarkable metallic tool, though rare, of Harappan culture is the true saw which has the teeth and the adjoining part of the blade set alternatively from side to side. It would seem that this type of arrangement in a saw was unknown elsewhere until the Roman times. According to Mackay, no metal arrow-heads of the type found at Mohenjo-daro have as yet appeared in Egypt, nor in any Sumerian or Elamite sites. Identical arrow-heads, however, were in use at Minoan and Mycenean sites at a later date.e Though copper and bronze were in common use, there are indications that an alloy of copper and arsenic (3–4·5%) was also used in the place of low grade bronze. The Harappan metalsmiths appeared to have a sound knowledge of cold-working and the annealing of metal. Evidently they used crude copper (with considerable sulphur content) for casting plain objects, and refined copper for shaping it into the desired types of vessels. Possibly the vessels were shaped, raised or sunken by hammering. Not un-often open moulds were used for casting purposes. A number of bun-shaped ingots and castings have been found on the sites of Mohenjo-daro and Lothal, and it is not unlikely that the copper ingots (99·46–99·8% pure) which have been found at the latter site were imported from outside, possibly from Mesopotamia. Obviously, smelting operations utilizing the ores were carried out in the neighbourhood of mines and, as Mackay says, the rough ‘metals’ were transported and made available to the workers for refining and subsequent workings. Though the kilns used for these purposes have yet to be found, Mackaya is of the opinion that the ore (possibly with alternate layers of charcoal) was smelted in an open hearth, using charcoal as fuel over a cavity in the ground so that the molten metal would run into the cavity. There is no denying the fact that, in comparison with the other chalcolithic cultures at Ahar, Navdatoli, Chandoli, Nevasa, Jorwe, etc., where a number of copper objects like chisels, bangles and fish-hooks have been found, the Harappan culture was far advanced in the technique of metal-working. This was probably due to the special attention bestowed on the durability, utility and elegance of the metallic tools and implements. However, a fact of special significance is that the metallurgy of iron was unknown to the Harappan metal-workers.

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a Allchin (B. and R.), p. 284.

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b Rao (S. R.), in his Presidential Address to the Conference on Keladi Dynasty, Shimoga, 1969, refers to a large number of neolithic sites near Kolar gold mines also.

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c Reeves, pp. 19–20.

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d Agrawal (D. P.) (2), p. 174; according to Rao (S. R.) the Harappans knew well how to mix tin with pure copper in the proportion they desired for making ornaments. As a peace-loving people, they were not anxious to produce bronze weapons (personal communication).

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e Mackay, p. 461.

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While considering the metal-working and metallurgical practices in the pre-Vedic period, a reference to what is termed as ‘copper-hoards’ is necessary. These copper artifacts, about a thousand in number and many of them found in hoards (hence the name), have been reported from some 34 sites in Uttar Pradesh, Central India, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. The types of copper-hoards include flat axes, shouldered axes, bar-celts, or chisels, harpoon-heads, spearheads, rings, antennae swords and anthropomorphic objects.b The tools, which might have been fashioned by closed casting, are largely of copper and hence the knowledge of alloying might have been unknown to their makers who were probably semi-nomadic metalsmiths. Although the chronological problem relating to the copper-hoards has not been solved satisfactorily yet, their probable date may be *c.* 1700–1000 b.c. There is a view associating the copper-hoards with some pre-Aryan tribal people who inhabited the Gaṅgā basin.c, d A striking feature of the problem of these hoards is that none of them has been found in stratified deposits, nor has any pottery been found so far in direct association with them, although the Ochre-Coloured ware has been noticed in the later excavations at the four copper-hoards sites, viz. Bahadarabad, Bisauli, Safai and Rajpur Parsu. A close examination of the tool types indicates their unique character.

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a Mackay, p. 451.

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b Wheeler (2), pp. 119–24.

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c Lal (B. B.) (1), pp. 20 ff.

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d Gupta (S. P.), pp. 147–66.

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FIG. 5.3. Copper-hoards: some implements and other objects from the Gangetic region.ᵃ 1, antennae sword from Fategarh; 2, ‘anthropomorph’ from Shivarajpur; 3–4, harpoons from Sarthauli and Bisauli; 5, ring from Pandi; 6, double axe from Bhagra Pir; 7, axe from Gungeria; and 8, bar-celt from Gungeria.

Other Chemical Practices

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Extensive archaeological excavations in different sites of the Indus valley have brought to light more details relating to the chemical knowledge and technological practices as far back as about 4,500 years. It would appear that both gypsum and lime were used as plaster materials at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa. Chemical analyses of the samples collected from different places at Mohenjo-daro indicate that mortars were generally made of gypsum, lime and sand. Burnt brick (well-cut, colour ranging from that of straw to bright red) made from ordinary alluvial soil found use in the extensive construction of walls, bathing-pools, drains, wells, etc.

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The remains unearthed at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa reveal that the people of the Indus valley were using a variety of minerals for ornamental, cosmetic and medicinal purposes. Lapis lazuli (beautiful blue stone, principally silicate, stained deep blue by the presence of other minerals), turquoise (hydrous phosphates of aluminium and copper used as a gem), alabaster (pleasing form of stained gypsum or hydrated calcium sulphate used for ornamentation), haematite (ferric oxide), jasper (impure opaque silica), amethyst (either quartz or aluminium oxide used as a semi-precious stone) and agate (crystalline coloured variety of silica) are among a number of mineral objects found in different sites of the Harappan culture. Obviously, the Harappan artisans must have had an intimate knowledge of the processing and properties of these naturally occurring chemical substances. A close examination of the finds indicates that the Harappan craftsmen had developed to a high degree the art of shaping as well as polishing the precious and semi-precious stones which were used generally for the production of beads with great dexterity.

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a Wheeler (2), p. 119; Lal (B. B.) (1), pp. 20 ff.

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While the remarkable achievements of the Harappan people in the practical chemical arts of pottery, metal-working, use of minerals and the like have come to light, there is little or no information about the speculations or conceptual frame of the people relating to their achievements. Even not much is known of the people of this great civilization. The Harappans had developed a script which has been characterized partially as ‘pictographic’.a So far about 400 distinct signs have been observed and the script is not found to be alphabetic. The letters on the inscribed sherds found at Kalibangan indicate that the direction of writing was from right to left. The script has yet to be deciphered on a rational basis, and only its decipherment would throw light on the thoughts and practices of the Indus valley people; it may also unfold the origin and evolution of these people in a way more authentic than what is presently known.

The Vedic Age

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In the next phase of the early Indian cultural history (*c.* 1500–600 B.C.) we have to consider the chemical knowledge and practices of a new set of people with a new social order, often referred to as the Indo-Aryans who are believed to have settled first in north-western India and gradually extended their settlements over the whole of north India. The probable date of this presumed Indo-Aryan cultural settlement has not been settled yet beyond doubt. Till recently, the chronological range of the Harappan culture was recognized to be *c.* 2500–1500 B.C., while the radiocarbon analysisb of the charcoal remains of this culture-area, points to a date range of *c.* 2300–1750 B.C.a Again the radiocarbon-dating methods have indicated that the distinctive type of pottery known as the Painted Grey ware, which is believed generally to have been used by the Indo-Aryans, might have been evolved by them around *c.* 1000–800 B.C. The old conception that the Aryans might have destroyed the Harappans is gradually losing ground as a result of recent studies; instead, the possibility of flood as also the shifting of courses of ancient rivers, annihilating the flourishing Harappan civilization is increasingly acquiring credence.

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a Majumdar (R. C.), I, p. 181.

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b Carbon-14 (C¹⁴) is a radioactive isotope of carbon (or radiocarbon) with an atomic weight of 14, the normal atomic weight of carbon being 12. The radiocarbon is being produced in nature as a result of the interaction of the fast-moving neutrons (which are themselves produced from primary cosmic rays on entering the earth’s atmosphere) on N¹⁴ atoms of the air. The radiocarbon combines with oxygen forming gaseous carbondioxide (C¹⁴O₂) and the latter gets into the vegetation as a result of plant metabolism and also into the animals which feed on vegetation. When carbon-14 disintegrates, nitrogen is formed and beta particle is emitted. In 5570 ± 40 years, known as the half-life period of carbon-14, half of a given number of atoms of the radiocarbon undergoes radioactive decay and, with the lapse of time, the radioactivity goes on decreasing. It has been calculated that in about 70,000 years, practically all its radioactivity will be lost. The quantity of radiocarbon in contemporary materials is too small and far below the sensitivity limit of an isotope-measurement device such as the mass spectrograph. However, its radioactivity can be measured and, by comparing the radioactivity of a particular carbon remnant (like plant remains, charcoal, marine shells and carbonate deposits) with that of carbon of the present time, the time elapsed in relation to the carbon remnant can be arrived at mathematically. It is generally assumed that all living organisms possess the same proportion of carbon-14/carbon-12 and that the radiocarbon disintegrates at the same rate after their death. These assumptions are not found to be strictly correct and hence a certain amount of error creeps in the reckoning of dates by the radiocarbon method. (For details *see* McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 1960, Vol. II, pp. 291–96).

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Whatever may be the Aryan problem in India—and a discussion on this is beyond the scope of the present account—it would seem that the Aryans, in course of time, might have mixed with the non-Aryans or the early inhabitants, assimilating or giving a new dimension to the cultural, conceptual as well as utilitarian practices of the latter. They followed the sacred hymns, rituals and thoughts which went under the names of the *Vedas*, the *Brāhmaṇas*, the *Āraṇyakas* and the *Upaniṣads*, some of which give a glimpse of a few chemical practices prevalent then.

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The *Ṛgveda Saṃhitā*, the earliest literary composition of this period, mentions the use of metals including gold.b Even though in this text there does not seem to be any plausible account of the metallurgical practices followed by the people of that time, possibly the ore was smelted in small furnaces. The general term used for the metal is *ayas* which might have meant copper, bronze or lead. There is no doubt that later the word *ayas* began to mean iron.c The Vedic people believed that gold possessed supernatural powers (a general belief common to all people of the ancient times). The *Atharvaveda* even speaks of gold as conferring long life on one who wears it.a The metal-workers of the Vedic period doubtless possessed the technical knowledge of using copper and bronze for the production of utilitarian appliances for domestic as well as ritual purposes.

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a The earliest levels of Mohenjo-daro and Lothal for which no carbon-14 dates are available are presumed to go back to 2500–2400 B.C. (Rao, S. R., in a personal communication).

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b *ṚV.*, I. 85.9, 88.5, 167.3; II. 33.9; V. 54.15, 57.1, 60.4; VIII. 7.27–32, etc. Generally gold and silver plates found use at sacrificial rites. Silver was also referred to as white gold.

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c On the basis of the available archaeological evidence a view is coming to the fore that iron was introduced into India by about 1000–800 B.C.

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The Vedic people were well aware of the fermented drinks and the methods of fermentation. *Soma* juice,b as the divine drink of immortality, finds an honoured place in the *Ṛgveda Saṃhitā*. It was obtained by pounding the shoots or stalk of the *soma* plant (*Sarcostema viminalis*) between stones (*adri*) to obtain the juice. The pressed juice was passed through a filter comprising sheep's wool to get a clear juice which was then blended with milk, sour milk or barley. The exhilarating powers of the *soma rasa*, as the juice was called, have been described elaborately in the *Ṛgveda*. It was even called *amṛta* (ambrosia) and, no wonder, the *soma* plant was extolled as being divine. There were also two other fermented liquors in use, viz. *madhu* (a kind of fermented liquor taken as drink during feasts) and *surā* (probably a type of beer brewed using barley grains).

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*Pottery*

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The Indo-Aryans, according to some scholars, seem to have developed and used a type of pottery now designated by the archaeologists as the Painted Grey ware (P.G. ware).c A fact that merits attention is that P.G. ware even at its earliest occurrence in India is of a fully developed type. As some similar ceramic ware has been found outside India in parts of Greece, Iran and Siestan probably dating back to second millennium B.C., it is possible that the settlers on the plains of the Ganga and the Yamuna had a knowledge of this type of ceramic and, utilizing the then existing local ceramic techniques, might have developed the appropriate baking conditions for the production of the P.G. ware. This ceramic, the approximate date range of which is *c.* 1000–400 B.C., is a thin grey *deluxe* ware and mostly wheel made, well burnt, glossy and copiously painted. The decorative motifs on this pottery include bands, criss-cross lines, dots and dashes, circles and swastikas. Generally, the pottery shapes comprise carinated bowls, cups and dishes.d The archaeological evidence indicates, by and large, an extensive western distribution of the P.G. ware (which was first noticed at Ahicchatra) in the valley of the Sarasvati or the modern Ghaggar and also the Gangetic plains. Apart from the Painted Grey ware some other types of pottery like Coarse-Red ware, Fire-Red ware, Plain-Grey ware were also in use then. Later came into use probably in [Figure: 1

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a *AV.*, XIX. 26.

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b See IX *maṇḍala* of *ṚV.*; also VIII. 48; I. 85.10; II. 12.14. The offering of *soma* (the Avestan *haoma*) was an important feature of the Indo-Iranian rites.

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c A pottery, which precedes the P.G. ware and which has been found at Hastinapur, Ahicchatra and Atranjikheda, is known as Ochre-Coloured ware.

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d Sankalia (4), pp. 182–86; Wheeler, pp. 98 ff.

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FIG. 5.4. Sketches of some pottery types: 1, Harappan pottery (Lothal);a 2, Black-and-Red ware (Ahar);b 3, Malwa ware (Navdatoli);c 4 and 7, Painted Grey ware: dish (Ahicchatra) and bowl (Panipat);d 5, Jorwe ware: white stipped pot with designs of elongated and hatched bodies of animals;e 6 and 8, Northern Black Polished ware: painted and incised (Kausambi);f 9 and 10, Black-and-Red megalithic pottery (Brahmagiri);g 11–12, Painted pottery (Rangpurh and Bahali respectively).

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a Sankalia (3), Pls. x (b), xv and xxiii.

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b Sankalia (3), Pls. x (b), xv and xxiii.

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c Sankalia (3), Pls. x (b), xv and xxiii.

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d Lal (B. B.) (2), Pl. LXXIII.

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e Sankalia (4), Pl. xxx.

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f Sharma (G. R.), Pl. 55.

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g Wheeler (2), Pl. CVI.

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h *IAR*, 1954–55, Pl. xii (b).

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i *IAR*, 1956–57, Pl. xx. *a*.

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the region of modern Bihar or eastern Uttar Pradesh, what is designated as the Northern Black Polished ware (N.B.P. ware) to which we shall return later.

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Of particular significance is the fact that a number of iron objects have been discovered in association with all the phases of the Painted Grey ware ceramic in several excavated sites. The occurrence of iron at the P.G. ware levels was first reported from Alamgirpur on the river Hindon in Meerut district. At Hastinapura (which probably affords the earliest evidence of the smelting as well as the use of iron) a couple of slags of iron have been found in the late levels of the Painted Grey ware horizon. Among the iron objects noticed at this place are a barbed and socketed arrow-head, a chisel and a bracelet with unconnected ends. Of the other important sites which have yielded iron objects,b mention may be made of Rupar (Panjab: nails, hooks, bars, spikes, knives, daggers, sickles and spearheads); Nasik (Maharashtra: leaf-shaped arrow-heads, caltrops, choppers, knife-blades, axes, drills, chisels, nails, ladles, etc.); Ujjain (Madhya Pradesh: spearheads, arrow-head, knives, crowbar types, spade, etc.); Nagda (Madhya Pradesh: knives, daggers, chisels, sickles, arrow-heads, hoes, bowls, nails, etc.); Sambhar (Rajasthan: double-edged daggers, sickles, crucibles, clasps, fish plates, braces, rings, pivots, bells, ladles, arrow-heads, spearheads, etc.); Rairh (Rajasthan: sword-blades, lances, spearheads, daggers, knives, sickles, adzes, door-fittings, etc.) and Taxila (bowl, spoons, saucepans, daggers of different types, an elephant goad, axe, adzes, chisel, tongs, anvils, nails, hoes, etc.). Further, Atranjikhera, Alamgirpur, Kausambi and Sravasti (Uttar Pradesh); Sisupalgarh and Jaugada (Orissa), Maheswar, Navdatoli and Tripuri (Madhya Pradesh); Prakash and Bahal (Maharashtra); Sonepur and Rajgir (Bihar); Bairat (Rajasthan); and Purana Quila (Delhi) are among the other sites where several iron objects have been unearthed. The date-range of most of these finds is 600–200 B.C., although the chronological pattern does not seem to be the same everywhere. It is generally believed that the iron objects discovered at Hastinapur, Atranjikhera, Alamgirpur, Kausambi and Ujjain might be earlier. A charcoal sample from an early level of Atranjikhera II gives a date of 1025 ± 110 B.C.c On the basis of stratigraphical evidence, it would appear that the iron objects which include small fragments and shapeless bits might have emerged on the site at Kausambi at a period earlier than that of the Painted Grey ware.d But it is recognized that the latter itself, with its simple painted designs, belongs to a later period at Kausambi. The foregoing illustrates how widespread was the use of iron even about two thousand and five hundred years back in northern as well as central India.

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a Lal, B. B. (2), pp. 97–99.

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b The following account is based mainly upon *Iron Age in India* by Banerji, N. R.

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c This level has yielded a large number of iron artifacts.

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d Sharma (G. R.), pp. 13–14.

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a Lal (B. B.) (2), pp. 98–100.

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b Marshall, III, Pl. 205; Ghosh (A.), Pl. 18.

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c *AI*, 5, p. 92.

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d *IAR*, 1956–57, Pl. 35.

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FIG. 5.5. Sketches of some ancient iron objects found at Hastinapura,[^a] Taxila,[^b] Sisupalgarh and Ujjain.[^c] 1, door ring; 2, fragment of a chain; 3, miniature bell (Hastinapur); 4, staple from a looped head; 5, ringed chain; 6, circular piece of iron with a nail rivetted into it; 7 slightly convex iron disc with perforation; 8, lower portion of an iron axe (Taxila);[^b] 9, spike of square section (Sisupalgarh);[^c] and 10, spearhead (Ujjain).[^d]

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In south India, a number of iron objects have been discovered in the megalithic burials, and the finds include flat axes, tanged daggers, wedgeshaped blades, spears, arrow-heads, horse-bits, sickles or bill-hooks, varieties of flanged spade, hoe and pick-axe, chisels, tripods, tridents, knives and saucer hook-lamps. The megalithic burials (which may also be called the Iron Age burials) are found distributed in most parts of peninsular India as well as in Khandesh and Nagpur. The probable date of the advent of iron in south India is supposed to be between 1050 and 950 B.C.a as indicated by the radiocarbon dating of the finds at Hallur in Dharwar district of Mysore State, i.e. nearly just at the same time in the north or perhaps a little earlier still, although the mode of introduction of iron into south India is yet to be established on sound evidence.b It is interesting to note that almost identical iron tool types have been found at various sites extending from Adichanallur in Thirunelveli district in the Madras State to Nagpur in the Maharashtra—places which are separated by a distance of almost 900 miles.

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A question that naturally arises is: from where was obtained the knowledge of iron-smelting by those who brought it to India? It would appear that the production of iron from the naturally occurring ores was known in the Near East, and the earliest smelting operations of iron can be dated as far back as the second millennium B.C. and in the region of Asia Minor or the Caucasus. It has been recognized that between 1800 and 1200 B.C. the Hittitics were well known for the smelting of iron. By about 1000 B.C. there was extensive use of iron in the Near East even though iron could not replace copper and bronze which had established themselves as metals in the service of man and which quantitatively were in greater use than iron.

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Presumably the Indian iron metal-workers might have become acquainted with the iron metallurgical practices of the Near East, and it might have taken some time for them to adapt those practices depending upon the availability as well as quality of the iron ore occurring in India. In course of time, however, they appear to have excelled themselves in the art of smelting and forging iron objects. It may therefore be surmized that by about 1000–800 B.C. the iron-smelting operations were in vogue in India and, in the next four to five centuries, the Indian iron and steel objects earned the admiration of the western world.

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Reference has already been made to the Ṛgvedic word *ayas* which gradually began to acquire the connotation of iron.c The process for extracting iron, as indicated in the *Ṛgveda*, has been construed to mean by some scholars in terms of ‘shining stones’ (ores), medicinal plants (carbonaceous material as fuel), 'fans of geese feather' (bellows).a It is reasonable to suppose that the small furnaces employed for the extraction of iron might have been of an open hearth type.

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a Allchin (B. and R.), pp. 227–230.

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b Wheeler (2), p. 146.

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c *ṚV.*, IV. 2.17; V. 30.15; VI. 62.7; VI. 3.5; VI. 47.10; VI. 75.15; X. 99.8, etc.

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Among the earliest foreign accounts of the use of iron in India is the one by the Greek historian, Herodotus (fifth century B.C.), who mentions that the Indians in the Persian army used cane arrows tipped with iron.b Ktesiasc speaks of two swords of Indian steel presented to him in the Persian Court. Later it has been recorded by Quintus Curtisd that in the gifts which Alexander the Great received from Porus of Taxila (326 B.C.) were 100 'talents' of steel. These facts illustrate beyond any doubt that by the fifth or fourth century B.C. the Indian metal-workers had attained a high degree of perfection in the techniques of producing iron and steel. Even in later times there is enough evidence to show that the Indian iron and steel had become famous, particularly in the early centuries of the Christian era. Pliny refers to swords of good quality made of Indian steel. The Romans were fascinated by the Indian steel which they imported to produce fancy cutleries and armours.e

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Yet there is practically no recorded information of value to the understanding as well as evaluation of the metallurgical practices of India in the ancient period. Obscurity hangs over the actual methods which were adopted by the ancient ironsmiths for winning the metal from its ores. The difficulty is minimized, if not completely overcome, by the reconstruction of the remote past on the basis of some primitive methods which are adopted by tribal ironsmiths even now in certain parts of the country. There is no doubt that some of the metallic objects which have been still in existence withstanding the ravages of clime bear eloquent testimony to the ancient metallurgical practices. These will be dealt with later.

The Post-Vedic Period and the Classical Age

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The post-Vedic period and later the Classical Age of India (*c.* 600 B.C.–A.D. 740) afford substantial evidence which testifies to the Indian chemical knowledge and practices of far greater import. Discernibly the chemical knowledge became refined and practices culminated in notable feats of excellence during this period. They include the production of glass and pottery, fermentation methods and dyeing techniques. Recent archaeological evidence sheds fresh light on the new achievements in glass and ceramic ware as well as metallurgical operation. There are a number of literary sources belonging to this period giving information of value on various chemical practices. Of them, particular mention may be made of the *Arthaśāstra* by Kauṭilya, the two Āyurvedic classics, the *Caraka* and the *Suśruta Saṃhitās* (original compositions may belong to the early centuries before the Christian era though the extant ones are later), and the *Bṛhatsaṃhitā* by Varāhamihira. What follows is but a brief account, based on the archaeological and literary evidence, of some of the well-known chemical practices.

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a *RV.*, X. 72.2; Banerjee (M. N.), pp. 432 ff.

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b Forbes, p. 239.

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c Warmington, pp. 257–58.

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d Forbes, p. 239.

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e Op. cit., pp. 239–40.

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*Glass*

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The term glass covers a wide range of substances which may differ in chemical composition and some physical properties but which possess the essential characteristics of having cooled from a state of fusion to a solid state without crystallization (under-cooling). Chemically glass is regarded as a mixture of silicates.

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Though it is not clear when and where the invention of glass occurred first in the old world either in Mesopotamia or Egypt, it is now recognized that the specimens of blue glass found at Tell Asmar (in Mesopotamia) are attributable to a period *c.* 2700–2600 B.C. The cemeteries of Ur III (*c.* 2100 B.C.) and also at Assur under the Ziggurat (*c.* 1800 B.C.) in Mesopotamia have yielded glass beads. It would appear that not only glass was known in Egypt by about 2000 B.C. at the time of the XII Dynasty but even there were real glass factories there by about the fifteenth century B.C. at the time of the XVIII Dynasty in the reign of Amenhotep II (1448–1420 B.C.). Remains of a glass house and fragments of glass in several stages of manufacture have been found at the city of Tell el Amarna (1450–1400 B.C.).a, b

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In India the Mohenjo-daro and Harappan sites have not given clues to the effect that the use of glass was known there; only glazedc beads of steatite or faience have been largely found. A few early objects of glass in the form of beads have been noticed at Maski, a chalcolithic site in the southern Deccan, pointing to the fact that glass was known in India at least at the beginning of the first millennium B.C.d But in the succeeding centuries, the glass industry steadily gained momentum and began to show signs of technical excellence which seemed to have manifested itself to a remarkable degree in the early centuries of the Christian era, as evidenced by the archaeological finds in over 30 sites. The glass objects (beads, bangles, ear-reels, eye-beads, etc.) unearthed at these sites are in various colours such as blue, green, red, white, yellow, orange and purple. In a few places some tiles and broken parts of vessels have also been found.

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Of the most important sites, mention may be made here of Hastinapur, Taxila, Ujjain, Maheswar, Nasik, Bhita, Ahicchatra, Kopia, Nalanda, Nevasa, Ter, Kolhapur, Kondapur, Prakash, Brahmagiri and Arikamedu.e At Hastinapura have been found beads of black and brownish colour (hardness: 5–6; sp. gr.: 2·55; probably belonging to *c.* 800 B.C.). They are mainly of soda-lime-silicate composition with traces of phosphates and potassium, and their colour is due to the varying amounts of iron compounds in them. At Taxila,b the Bhir Mound has yielded at the sixth–fourth centuries B.C. levels a number of glass beads of several shapes and colours (blue, green, red, orange, amber and black), ear-reel (dark green) with a floral design on it, ‘eye-beads’, glass bangles and seal. As one of the outposts of the north-western frontier of the Mauryan Empire then, Taxila was prone to receive and assimilate foreign influences in the technique of glass production. That this was so has been illustrated amply by the glass objects found later (first century B.C.–first century A.D.) at the new city of Sirkap at Taxila. The foreign glass found at this place has been recognized as lace glass, ribbed ware, swirled glass, blue and white cameo, mosaic and millefiori glass.c The last, it may be noted, which is known for its floral and cellular structure, was commonly produced by the Roman glass technologists, particularly those at Venice. Three glass flasks (sea- and jade-green in colour) and an upper portion of a glass bottle which have been found at Sirkap seem to be Mediterranean in origin, while the glass objects of local manufacture comprise sealings, beads of composite glass, rings, intaglios, discs, lense-like objects and large tiles. Certain specimensd from Taxila have been analysed chemically and, as a result, it has been noticed that the red opaque glass and strips of haematinum contain a very large percentage of lead, while the white opaque and the turquoise blue samples have significant amounts of antimony. The green-blue tiles have a high percentage of silica which confers on them the necessary hardness, and also an appreciable percentage of potash which gives them the desired durability.

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a Forbes, pp. 120 ff.

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b Dikshit (M. G.), pp. 1–2.

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c Glass and glaze, though produced and used differently, are similar from the chemical point of view in the sense they contain soda or some other alkali as a constituent. Glaze is applied generally to the base of some other material. Both glaze and glass are isotropic, e.g., they do not change the colour of light when tested in a polariscope.

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d Thapar (1), pp. 107–109.

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e For a comprehensive treatment of the subject see *History of Glass* by Dikshit, M. G., Bombay, 1969.

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Excavations at Ujjaine have brought to light some beads, ear-reels and bangles in stratum II (*c.* 500–200 B.C.), and those at Maheswar,f an annealed black glass seal which depicts an elephant in a lively posture (*c.* 400 B.C.) and ear-reels of amber colour. At Nasikg have been found ear-reels (*c.* 200 B.C.), gold-foil beads and rings. Bhita and Ahicchatra are the other places where gold-foil beads have also been found along with a number of beads of different colours. Particular mention should be made of the fact that some sites like Kaundinyapura, Ahicchatra, Ujjain, Sravasti and Sirkap have also yielded what are known as ‘stratified eye-beads’,h the technical know-how of which seems to have been borrowed from outside.

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A large number of glass objects which seem to be indicative of the remains of an ancient glass factory (*c.* third century B.C.–third century A.D.) have been observed at Kopiai on the bank of the river Anoma in the Basti district of Uttar Pradesh. They are generally of soda-lime glass (sp. gr.:

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a Lal (Dr. B. B.), pp. 13–23.

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b Beck, pp. 24–28; Ghosh (A.), (1), pp. 41–80.

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c Dikshit (M. G.), pp. 29–31; Marshall, pp. 688–89.

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d Sana Ullah, p. 125.

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e *IAR*, 1956–57, p. 27.

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f Sankalia, Subbarao and Deo, pp. 218–20.

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g Sankalia and Deo, pp. 96–101.

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h Dikshit (M. G.), pp. 17–22.

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i Dikshit (M. G.), p. 39.

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2·33–2·68) with rather a high percentage of aluminium oxide (7–8%) and some iron oxide. Blocks of glass, some of which weigh as much as 120 pounds and measure 18″×12″×9″, have also been discovered

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FIG. 5.6. Sketches of some ancient glass specimens.*a* 1, ear-reel from Taxila; 2–4, seals (Taxila, Maheswar and Patna respectively); 5–6, eye-beads (Bhir Mound, Taxila); 7, bead (Sirkap, Taxila); 8, bead (Ahicchatra); 9, fragment of a blue finger-ring (Ter); 10, wine flask (Taxila); 11, flask in branded agate style (Ter); 12, Roman glass bowls (Arikamedu); 13, bangle piece (Taxila); 14, spirally wound glass bangle (Nevasa); 15, millefiori glass (Arikamedu); and 16, blue glass amulet made in imitation of the *triratna* symbol (Ter).

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at Kopia. Nalanda, an important seat of Buddhist learning in the ancient period, has yielded opaque, blue and green glass objects.

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a Dikshit (M. G.), pp. 4, 11, 19, 30, 35, 42, 45, 50 and 51.

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In the site at Nevasa have been observed beads of different colours including the gold-foil ones as well as small glass vessels in green and blue colours. At Ter have been found beads, finger-ring and a flask of agate-banded type which seems to be of Mediterranean origin. From the excavations at Brahmapuri on the outskirts of the city of Kolhapur have been reported a number of oblate beads of green, blue and yellow colour, and from Kondapur, beads of blue or blue-green glass with copper or cobalt as the colouring agent. The finds at Prakash include opaque as well as polychrome glass bangles and beads.a

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Brahmagirib in the southern Deccan has yielded a number of glass bangles, some of which are black while the others have yellow strips over a grey-coloured base (first–fourth centuries A.D.). At Arikamedu,c an early historical site on the eastern coast south of Madras, have been noticed a number of glass objects both locally produced and imported. The former comprises a number of beads in blue, green and copper-red colour. Of the latter, the noteworthy are the fragments of glass bracelets, beads (sp. gr.: 2·51–2·91; hardness: 5.7) and bowl of whitish iridescent glass and a bluish glass bowl full of bubbles and striae which indicate their Roman origin. It may be noted that there was extensive commercial contact between this region and the Roman world in the early centuries of the Christian era.

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In the Sanskrit texts the term used for glass is *kāca*. Among the well-known literary works which contain references to *kāca* are *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa*,d *Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra*,e *Caraka Saṃhitā*,f *Hitopadeśa*g and *Bṛhatsaṃhitā*.h Notwithstanding the fact that both the literary works and the archaeological finds shed light on the use of glass in India over a long time, the origin of glass production in India has not been established beyond doubt. Even so there does not seem to be any doubt that the glass industry in India had made headway in the first quarters of the first millennium B.C., and that the glassmakers were skilful in controlling the temperature of fusion, moulding, annealing, blotching and gold-foiling. The different glass objects found in some 17 sites have been analysed chemically.i The following tables (5.1–5-4) give an insight into the chemical compositions of glass objects found at Taxila, Kopia, Nalanda and Arikamedu.

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*Ceramics*

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Mention has already been made of the Northern Black Polished ware. Bowls, dishes, lids and *handis* (carinated jars) are the general shapes of the N.B.P. ware, sometimes with decoration, which have been found in different

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a Dikshit (M. G.), pp. 43 ff.

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b Wheeler (1), pp. 263–67.

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c Wheeler, Ghosh and Krishna Deva, pp. 96 ff.

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d *Śat. Br.*, XIII, 2.6.8.

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e *Aś.*, 2, 11.35, 13.41, 14.44, 14.60; 3, 3.8; 5, 2.23, etc.

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f *CS. Ci.*, 17, 125.

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g *Hitopadeśa*, 42, 68.

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h *Brh. S.*, 42, 8 and 10.

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i Lal (Dr. B. B.), pp. 17–27.

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TABLE 5.1

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*Chemical analysis of glass specimens (in percentage) from Taxila*a

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| Specimen | SiO₂ | Fe₂O₃ | Al₂O₃ | PbO | SnO₂ | Sb₂O₃ | MnO | Cu | CuO | Cu₂O | CaO | MgO | Na₂O | K₂O | H₂O |
| Red opaque glass .. | 37·09 | 3·16 | | 34·85 | — | Nil | 0·11 | — | — | 7·20 | 6·46 | 0·70 | 10·33 | 0·87 | — |
| White opaque glass .. | 61·32 | 1·70 | | Nil | — | 5·08 | 0·26 | — | — | Nil | 9·74 | 1·64 | 20·26b | | — |
| Thin drawn strips of haematinum | 39·79 | 2·45 | | 38·93 | 0·22 | — | ? | 5·31 | — | — | 2·81 | ? | 10·02 | 0·57 | — |
| Green blue glass tile .. | 70·57 | 1·60 | 2·46 | — | — | — | 0·05 | — | 0·55 | | 4·60 | 2·68 | 14·99 | 2·65 | — |
| Turquoise blue powder of decomposed glass .. | 67·48 | 3·64 | — | — | 2·42 | — | — | — | 3·63 | | 4·92 | 1·80 | 2·48 | 0·55 | 14·15 |
| Fragments of a light green flask .. | 68·34 | 1·20 | 1·67 | — | — | — | 0·34 | — | — | | 8·44 | 1·44 | 17·76 | 0·94 | 0·43 |
| Green blue glass tile .. | 71·01 | 1·84 | 3·74 | — | — | — | 0·05 | — | 0·24 | | 3·73 | 2·32 | 14·99 | 2·65 | — |
| Amethyst glass .. | 58·12 | 1·74 | 8·75 | — | — | — | 0·17 | — | — | | 8·85 | 4·01 | 16·74 | 4·83 | — |
| Brown glass fragments .. | 53·81 | 8·47 | 1·51 | — | — | — | 0·08 | — | — | | 6·27 | 4·50 | 23·52 | 2·35 | — |
| Thin curved fragments of light blue glass .. | 70·69 | 0·81 | 2·88 | — | — | — | 0·01 | — | — | | 7·05 | 0·50 | 12·86 | 4·85 | — |
| Blue glass bangle .. | 68·11 | 2·27 | 2·22 | — | — | — | — | — | 0·44 | | 4·91 | 3·74 | 19·10 | — | — |

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