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Bharatiya Jyotihshastra (History of Indian Astronomy), translated by R. V. Vaidya v2.c12.s6.t2: Chapter II: Pañcānga

Bhāratīya Jyotiḥśāstra (History of Indian Astronomy), translated by R. V. Vaidya v2.c12.s6.t2

Language
English

Contents

Chapter II: Pañcānga

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(Almanac)

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The calculation of the five elements or parts (aṅgas) of the Almanac (Pañcāṅga) is usually given in the Spaṣṭādhikāra (the chapter on true Places); and hence, the question of the almanac is being taken up in this very chapter. Such matters as the Śaka era, the beginning of the year, the samvatsara (year), the “pūrṇimānta” and “amānta” systems etc. are but integral parts of the almanac; after considering these, therefore, the consideration of the five elements of the almanac, the defferent kinds of almanac etc., will be taken up.

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Astronomical calculations require some moment of time to start with in order to predict future planetary positions. In accordance with this convention, the siddhānta works assume the commencing moment of Mahāyuga or that of some other Yuga and especially that of the Kaliyuga as the starting moment for calculation; and the Karaṇa works assume some particular year of the Śaka era as the commencing year. A Karaṇa works two however, can be found to have adopted Vikram Samvat along with the Śaka era. Thus the Karaṇa work Rāmavinod has adopted Akbar year along with the Śaka year, and the Phatteśāha Prakāśa has adopted the Phatteśāha year coupled with the Śaka year. The Vārṣiktantra (page 167), which is really a Karaṇa work has adopted the commencement of the Kaliyuga for the epoch for calculation, and the author has accordingly classed the work as ‘tantra’. Even than it has brought in some association with the Śaka era.

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A study of different eras

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Our almanacs, in their opening pages which are usually devoted to the study of the “samvatsaraphala” (forecast of the year), refer to six founders of eras for the Kaliyuga, like Yudhiṣṭhira, Vikrama, Sālivāhana and others. Of these, Yudhiṣṭhira and other to lived in the past and the remaining three are yet to be born. The word Śaka, in fact, denotes a certain tribe of people. Bhaṭotpala and others have stated that the era was introduced under the name of Śaka, since the time when Vikrama defeated the Śaka kings. But this does not appear to be reasonable. The Śaka kings themselves may have started the reckoning of the era in their own name. The word Śaka originally denoted a particular tribe, but in compound words like Yudhiṣṭhira Śaka, Vikrama Śaka etc., it signifies time, generally known as ‘Era’ in English and as ‘San’ in Arabic. The word ‘Kāla’ (time) is found to have been used in the sense of era in ancient copper plates. For instance, Śakanṛpa Kāla, Vikrama Kāla, Gupta Kāla (meaning—the era started in the name of Gupta Kings) are some examples of the usage of the word Hence, the word Kāla has been used in the sense of era in the discussion which follows.

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Expired year and current year

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A number of eras like Vikrama era and Śaka era had been and still continue to be, in use in our country. A brief description of them may be given here.

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Before doing so, however, let some idea be given about two types of the year : the expired and the current. In the account of Brahmagupta (page 90) the date of compilation of the Uttara Purana has been stated to be Śaka 820. But the positions of planets, purporting to be true for the year 820, are found to agree with those for what would be Śaka 819, according to the present mode of reckoning. Hence, one begins to doubt whether the real date of compilation of the Purāṇa was Śaka 819 or 820. The Śaka year which is mentioned as "Śaka 1818" by the almanac-makers of this province and of most of the Provinces in our country is found to have been counted as Śaka 1819 in the Tamil and Telegu almanacs and in some of the Kannad ones printed in Mysore. The reason for this difference appears to be this : The positions of planets given in Siddhānta works are true for the initial moment of the first year of the Kaliyuga. Supposing the positions of planets in the beginning of the 11th year of the Kaliyuga are required, they must be found by adding to the original positions the motion of planets for 10 years, since 10 years would have been elapsed from the beginning of the Kaliyuga to the desired moment. In such calculations the number 10 has to be taken instead of 11. The two dates of compilation of the above Purāṇa, viz. 819 and 820 may possibly be accounted for in some such way. In other words 820 is the current year and 819 the expired year in this case.

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Similar examples are found in copper plate and other inscriptions. It has been pointed out above that the Śaka year which is numbered 1818 in these parts is counted as 1819 in some almanacs of the Madras Presidency : But there is doubt if the people of that region are really aware of the difference between the expired and current years and if it is taken into account at all for practical purposes. Now-a-days the Tamil almanacs compiled by Anna Ayyangar of Tanjore District, are in general use in Tamil country of the Madras Presidency. The author has procured a number of such almanace for the last several years. Among these, the almanac for the last Sarvajit samvatsara mentions the corresponding Śaka year to be 1809, while the almanac for the very next year, known as Sarvadhāri, compiled by the same author gives 1811 as the Śaka year. These year were counted as 1809 and 1810 in other provinces. It seems that the almanac-makers themselves do not clearly understand the distinction between the expired year and current year ; how can we then expect others to understand it ? On enquiries made of the well-known Natesh Sastri of Madras and the eminent scholars Sundareshwar Shrotri and Vyankateshwar Dikshit, from Tiruvadi in Tanjhore District, the author has learnt that the year described as "current" above is not at all in vogue in those parts at present.

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Hence, there is reason to believe that the distinction between the expired and current years must be merely imaginary and that it arose when two different numbers might have been applied by the same year by mistake. If any such distinction exists at all it can possibly be true only with respect to the Kali era and Śaka era which are in use in works on astronomy ; and of these two, the distinction can be applied with greater clarity to Kali era. The Vikrama and other eras are not in use in astronomical works and no such distinction can be found in their case. However, examples are found in which two different numbers are applied to the same year of the Vikrama era ; but it must be the result of an error. In short, on full consideration, the author is led to believe that, as a matter of fact, there is no such distinction as expired and current year. All years are only current years. For example, the present year (when the author is writing this chapter) named Durmukh (Śaka 1818) is actually 'current'. Later on, in the study of different eras, figures denoting corresponding years have been given —and compared, and in so doing the system used for reckoning the year number is the same as the one prevalent in most parts of India. In some places the terms ‘current’ and ‘expired’ have been used; but they have been used for differentiation in the case of only those years, to which two different numbers are likely to be applied. Let us now consider the different eras.

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The KALI Era

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The Kali era is used for calculating time in astronomical works and in alamancs. Its years are both *Caitrādi* (luni-solar, beginning from Caitra) and Meṣādi (Solar, beginning from Aries Ingress). The almanacs mention sometimes the current year of this era, sometimes the expired year and sometimes both. It is not met with very often in epigraphical records. This era is not at all used for civil purposes at present. Some almanacs in the Madras Presidency, however, state the year only according to Kali era. The year (expired) according to Kali era is obtained by adding 3179 to the Śaka year.

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The SAPTARṢI Era

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This era is at present in use in Kashmir and the neighbourhood. It seems that it was in use in Kashmir, Multan and some other parts at the time of Albiruni (Śaka 952). The Rāja-Taraṅgiṇī has described all historical events only in terms of the years of this era. The era is sometimes known as “Laukika Kāla” (civil time) or the Śāstra Kāla, (scientific time). This system of measuring time originated in the supposition that the Saptarṣi stars (the Great Bear) have motion, that they take 100 years to pass through one nakṣatra and that they revolve through the zodiac once in 2700 years; thus a cycle of 2700 years has been adopted for reckoning time. But in practice the century figure is usually left out. When 100 years are completed, the counting begins afresh as the first year, second, and so on. According to the astronomers in Kashmir, the Saptarṣi era began from the first lunar day of the bright half of Caitra, in the current Kali year 27. In order therefore, to find the corresponding year of the Śaka era, one has simply to add 46 to the Saptarṣi year, neglecting the centuries; and similarly if 24-25 added one gets the year according to Christian era. The “Saptarṣi” years are Caitrādi. Dr. **Kielhorn finds that the years in this system are ‘current’ and the months ‘pūrṇimānta’ (full moon ending***).

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The VIKRAMA Era

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This era is at present in use in Gujerat and the whole of northern India except Bengal. The people of these parts have migrated to other provinces but they have carried the use of the era with them. The year of this era is Caitrādi in Northern India. (In other words, the Samvat begins from Caitra). The months are pūrṇimānta. But in Gujerat the year is Kārtikādi and the months are amānta. In some parts of Kathiawād and Gujerat the Samvat year is Āṣāḍhādi and the months are amānta. Prof.****Kielhorn has examined

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*Caitrādi means “beginning from Caitra”; Kārtikādi,, “beginning from Kārtika”; Meṣādi, “beginning from Sun’s entry into sidereal Aries”. (R.V.V.) ** Indian Antiquary, XX, page 149 ff XX. *** The amānta and pūrṇimānta systems are discussed later on. **** Indian Antiquary, XX, p. 398 ff.

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150 ancient inscriptions bearing dates of the Vikrama Samvat (year) 898 to 1877 and has arrived at the following conclusions :—(1) In the case of this era, the expired year is ordinarily in use. Sometimes * the current year is used. (2) In the beginning, the Vikrama era was Kārtikādi, but it seems that owing to the increasing influence of the Śaka era, it gradually changed over to Caitrādi reckoning on the north side of the Narmadā. In the fourteenth century of this era, both kinds of years, the Caitrādi and the Kārtikādi, could be met with in the same tracts of country, the Kārtikādi type being more prominent. (3) The months in the ‘Kārtikādi’ kind used to be both pūrṇimānta and amānta. The Caitrādi year generally consisted of pūrṇimānta months, but there does not appear to be any hard and fast rule followed in this respect.

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The era used to be called the Mālava era from 450 A.D. to 850 A.D. The earliest inscription containing the word Vikrama belongs to Vikrama Samvat 898 ; but even in that inscription it is not clear if the word Vikrama has been used to indicate the name of King Vikrama. The earliest reference of this type in clear terms is found in a poem written in Vikrama Samvat 1050. The Vikrama era is at present known as Vikrama Samvat or simply as Samvat. The word ‘Samvat’ is really the corrupt form (abbreviation) of the word, ‘Samvatsara’ and it has been used indiscriminately in that sense in a number of words like Śaka samvat, Simha samvat, Valabhisamvat etc. Some almanacs of Madras and the neighbouring regions give the current year of the Vikrama era along with that of the Śaka era. For example, the year which is numbered as Śaka 1818 in these parts is mentioned in those almanacs as Śaka year 1819, and Vikrama Samvat 1954. The Kārtikādi Vikrama year is obtained by adding 134/135 to the Śaka year, and the Caitrādi Vikrama year by adding 135.

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The CHRISTIAN Era

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This era has come into vogue only since the establishment of the British rule in our country. The year of this era is Sāyana Saur (tropical solar). It begins from the 1st of January. At present, the month of January begins in the ‘amānta Mārgaśīrṣa or Pauṣa**. But it used to begin in amānta Pauṣa or Māgha before 1752 A.D. when the ‘New Style’ was adopted in England. The year of the Christian era is obtained by adding 78 or 79 to the Śaka year.

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The ŚAKA Era

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The astronomical Karaṇa works use this era almost exclusively. It has lasted so long only because it has been espoused by astronomers ; otherwise it would have fallen into disuse long ago like the Gupta era, the reignal era of Śivājī and several such other eras. The era is, at present, exclusively used for civil purposes in the whole of South India, except in Tinnevelli and part of Malabar. It is used in addition to local eras in other parts of India. The year of this era is both lunar and solar. The solar year is used in the Tamil country and Bengal, and the lunar year is followed in other provinces. The lunar year is ‘Caitrādi’ and the solar year is ‘Meṣādi’. The (lunar) months of this year are pūrṇimānta in the North and “amānta” in South India.

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∗ But refer to the statement above regarding expired and current years.

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∗∗ The original gives here “ Pausha or Magh ”, which is probably a printer's error. (R.V.V.)

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THE CEDI OR KALCURI ERA

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This era is not in use at present. Prof. Kielhorn examining the dates contained in ten copper plates and other inscriptions of this era from 793 to 934, has come to the conclusion that the first lunar day of the bright half of Āśvina, in the ‘Caitrādi’ Vikrama Samvat 305, (i.e. Śaka year 170 or 248-49 A. D.) is the first day of the first year of the Cedi era. Consequently years of this era are Āśvinādi and they are used as current years and months are ‘pūrṇimānta. The Śaka year is obtained by adding 169-70 to the Cedi year, and the year of the Christian era, by adding 247-48 to it. The era was used by the Kalcuri kings of Western and Central India, and it appears to have been in use in that part of India in still earlier times. The author thinks that the first lunar day of the dark half of the pūrṇimānta Āśvina or the same day of the amānta Bhādrapada was the first day of the Cedi year.

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THE GUPTA ERA

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This era is also not in use at present. Dr. Fleet has treated it at great length.* After examining the inscriptions from the year 163 to 386 of the Gupta era, he was led to conclude that its years are ‘current’, and Caitrādi, the months are pūrṇimānta and the epoch is Caitra Śukla Pratipadā of Śaka 242. When 241 is added to the Gupta year, one gets the Śaka year, and when 319-20 is added, the corresponding year of the Christian era is obtained. The era was in use in Central India and Nepal, and was used by the Gupta kings.

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THE VALABHI ERA

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This is merely a continuation of the Gupta era with its name changed into Valabhi. It was introduced in Kathiawad in its fourth century, and at that time its year used to begin from Caitra. But the day of beginning receded five months when it was shifted to the preceding Kārtika Śukla Pratipada.

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Its year is ‘current’ and Kārtikādi. Its months are both ‘pūrṇimānta’ and ‘amānta’. If 240-41 is added to the Valabhi year, the Śaka year is obtained and if 318-19 is added one gets the year of the Christian era. The inscriptions so far discovered which are dated in the Gupta and Valabhi era range from the year 82 to 945 of that era.

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HIJRĪ ERA

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This era originally belonged to Arabia. It was imported into this country under Muslim rule. The word ‘Hijrā,’ means flight. Muhammad the prophet fled from Mecca to Madina on Thursday night (Friday night according to Muslim reckoning), the first lunar day of the bright half of Śrāvaṇa of Śaka 544, i.e. on 15th July 622 A. D. Hence, this era is called the Hijrī era; and the date of flight is taken to be the date of its beginning. The months of this era, Muharram etc., are lunar; and as it is not customary to insert an intercalary month, the year is strictly lunar, consisting of 354 or 355 days; and hence, the advance of the year number of this era, compared with the advance of the year number of any solar era, shows an increase of one, every 32 or 33 solar years.

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∗ Corpus Inscrip. Ind. Vol. III, Gupta Inscriptions. Indian Antiquary, Vol. XX p. 376 ff.

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The month begins on the first or second lunar day of the bright half, from the moment of the heliacal rising of the moon. Instead of numbering the days of the month as the first day, the second day etc. they call them as the first moon, the second moon, and so on. Such ‘moons’ (i.e., days or dates) number 29 or 30 during the month. The day of the week and the date begin from sunset. Hence, what is a Thursday night to us is a Friday night to the Muslims. During day time the name of the day is the same for both.

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THE BENGALI SAN

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This is in use in Bengal. Its year is solar and it begins from ‘Meṣa Saṃkrānti’ i. e. the Sun’s entry into Aries. The names of the months are lunar and they are Caitra, Vaiśākha etc. The month which begins from ‘Meṣa Saṃkrānti is called Vaiśākha (The same month is called Caitra in Tamil country). The year 1300 of the Bengali san is equivalent to Śaka year 1815 and A. D. 1893-94. The Śaka year is obtained by adding 515 to the Bengali year : and the A. D. year by adding 593-94.

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THE VILAYATI SAN

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This era is in use in parts of Bengal and chiefly in Orissa. Its year is solar : but the months have lunar names and the year begins on the Kanyā (Virgo) Saṃkrānti day. In Bengal, the month begins from the second or third day after the saṃkrānti ; but the month of the Vilayati San begins on the saṃkrānti day itself*. The Śaka year is obtained by adding 514-15 to the Vilayati year and the A. D. year by adding 592-93.

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THE AMLI ERA

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This era is thus described in Giriśa Candra’s “Chronological Tables” : “The Amli commences from the birth of Indradyumna, Rājā of Orissa, on Bhādrapada Śukla 12th, and each month commences from the moment when the Sun enters a new sign.” It appears that its months are solar, but the year is lunisolar. It is likely that the months also had been lunar. The Kanyā Saṃkrānti may occur on any day before or after the 12th lunar day in Bhādrapada Śukla. The Vilayati and Amli Sans are allied as they have the same epoch of reckoning and the same numerical designation.

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THE FASALĪ SAN

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This is the harvest year introduced by Akbar. Originally bearing the same number as the year of the Hijrī era. But the Hijrī year is striclty lunar (consisting of 354 days) while the Fasalī year is solar. Because of this difference, the year numbers began to differ as time went on. The Fasalī San was introduced in Northern India in the Hijrī year 963 i.e. 1556 A. D. when Akbar ascended the throne; and emperor Shahjahan introduced it in South India in the Hijrī year 1046 i.e. in 1636 A. D. In the beginning, the year was assigned the same number as the year of the Hijrī era, which was 1046. But at that time, the Fasalī year in Northern India was 1044. Hence, the Fasalī year number in the Deccan exceeded the year number int he north by 2. (It so happened because the Hijrī year is purely lunar). As the year beginnings were different in the two parts, an additional difference of some months occurred. As this year was purely official and had no connexion with religious affairs, the year beginnings appear to have been irregular. In Madras, this year originally used to commence on the first day of the solar month Ādi (i.e. Karka or Cancer). In the year 1800 A. D. the British Government fixed the 13th of July as the permanent initial date and later on in 1855, altered this to the 1st of July. In parts of Bombay the Fasalī begins when the Sun enters the Mṛga Nakṣatra (at present on the 5th, 6th, or 7th of June). It is thus a solar year; but its months, Muharram etc. are lunar. In northern India, the Fasalī year generally begins from the 1st lunar day of the dark half of the ‘pūrṇimānta’ Āśvina. In other words, the Fasalī year is in that part luni-solar. In Bengal, the Fasalī year 1300 commenced in September 1892 A. D. and in Southern India the Fasalī year 1300 commenced in June or July of 1890 A. D. In Southern India the Śaka year is obtained by adding 512-13 to the Fasalī year and the A. D. year, by adding 590-91. In Bengal, however, the Śaka year is obtained by adding 514-15 to the Fasalī year and the A. D. year by adding 592-93. The year number of the Bengal Fasalī, Vilayati and Amli Sans is the same for all days of the year except 18 days at the most. The Bengali San lags behind all these Sans only by 6 or 7 months. In fact, the Fasalī San is the origin of the Bengali, Vilayati, Amli and Bengali Fasalī Sans. It is clear that the variations in the year beginnings began to arise later.

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∗ Warren writes in 1825 A. D. that “the Vilayati year is reckoned from the first of the Kṛṣṇa pakṣa in Caitra” (Kala Saṅkalita, Tables p. IX). It may have been the practice at some places.

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THE SŪR-SAN OR SĀHŪR-SAN

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This is sometimes known also as the Arabi-San. The Sūr-san commenced in the Hijrī year 745 i.e., in 1344 A. D., and in the beginning, it was assigned the same number as the Hijrī year viz. 745. The Fasalī San came into use in the Deccan 292 years after the Sūr-san i.e. in the Hijrī year 1046, and that year according to the Sūr-san was 1037. Hence, a difference of 9 years occured between the Sūrsan and the Fasalī San in the Deccan. The Sūr-san was extensively used during the Marāṭhā Supremacy. It is nine years behind the Fasalī San in use in the Bombay Presidency, but the two are similar in all other respects. The year of this San begins when the Sun enters the Mṛga Nakṣatra. In other words, its year is solar; but its months, Muharrum etc. are lunar. When 521-22 is added to the Sūr-san, one gets the Śaka year, and when 599-600 is added, the A. D. year is obtained.

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The Bengali, Vilayati and Amli are special varieties of the Fasalī San prevalent in the north, and the northern Fasalī, the southern Fasalī and the Sūr-san are special varieties of the Hijrī era.

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THE HARṢA KĀLA

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This era was founded by HARSAVARDHANA, king of Kanauj. It was in use in Mathurā and Kanauj at the time of Alberuni. It is not now in use. More than ten Copper (plate and other) inscriptions dated the first and second centuries of this era have been discovered in Nepal. In all those inscriptions the years are qualified only by the word ‘samvat’. The Śaka year is obtained by adding 528 to the year of the Harṣa era and the A. D. year by adding 606-607.

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THE MAGI SAN

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This era is current in the District of Chittagong. It is 45 years behind the Bengali year; the two are very similar in other respects*.

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THE KOLLAM ERA OR PARAŚURĀMA ERA

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The year of this era is known as the Kollam Āṇḍu. Kollam means Western; and Āṇḍu means a year. The era is in use in Malabar from Mangalore to Kumari (Cape Comorin), and in the Tinnevelli district. Its year is Sidereal solar. The year begins from the Solar month of Kanni (i.e. Kanyā or Virgo) in North Malabar and from the month of Cingam (or Simha, Leo) in South-Malabar and Tinnevelli. The names of months prevalent in Malabar are the corrupt forms of the rāśis. The years run in cycles of 1000 and the present cycle, is said to be the fourth. But in actual modern use the number has been allowed to run one over 1000, the year number corresponding to Śaka year 1818 being Kollam 1072. The Śaka year 747 was the first year of the Kollam era. The Kollam era does not appear to have been in use before this date. By adding 746-47 to the Kollam year one gets the Śaka year and by adding 824-25, the A. D. year is obtained.

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THE NEVĀR ERA

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This era was in use in Nepal up to Śaka 1690. Its years are Kārtikādi and the month samānta. The era is called the NEPALĪ ERA (in Sanskrit manuscripts) and in copper plate and other inscriptions. The corresponding Śaka year is obtained by adding 800/801 to the Nevār year, the corresponding A. D. year by adding 878/879 and the Kārtikādi Vikrama Samvat by adding 935 to it.

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THE CĀLUKYA ERA

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The Cālukya king VIKRAMĀDITOA Tribhuvana Malla**instituted this era about the Śaka year 998. It seems to have ceased after Vijala Kalacuri defeated the Eastern Cālukyas in Śaka 1084. The system of months and pakṣas in this era is similar to that in Mahārāṣṭra. It is not, however, known for certain its year actually used to begin. The equivalent Śaka year is obtained by adding 997/998 to its year and the A. D. year by adding 1075/76.

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THE SIMHA SAMVAT

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This era was in use in Kathiawaḍ and Gujerat. Inscriptions bearing Samvat numbers 32, 93, 96, 151 of the Simha era have been found.***The author is inclined to infer from them that its year is luni-solar and current. The months are amānta but in one instance they seem to be ‘Pūrṇimānta.’ The year is most probably Āṣāḍhādi. It is certainly neither Kārtikādi nor Caitrādi. By adding 035/36 to the year of the Simha era one gets the Śaka year, by adding 1113/14—the A. D. year and by adding 1170 the ‘Āṣāḍhādi’ Vikrama Sambat.

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∗ Chronological Tables for A. D. 1764-1900 by Giriśa Candra. ** The name, Tribhuvana Malla, has been added on the authority of the Indian Calendar by Sewell and Diksit. (R. V. V.). *** Indian Antiquary Vol. XVIII, XIX.

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The LAKṢMAṆASENA ERA

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This era is current in Tirhūt and Mithila but always along with the Śaka or Vikrama era. There is a difference of opinion as to its epoch. Colebrooke (1796 A. D.) makes its first year correspond with 1105 A. D.; Buchanan (1810 A. D.) fixes it as 1105 or 1106 A. D.; Tirhūt almanacs, however, for the years between 1776 and 1880 A. D., show that it corresponds with 1108 or 1109 A. D. Buchanan states that the year begins on the first day following the full-moon day of Āṣāḍha that is on the first lunar day of the dark half of the ‘pūrṇimānta’ Śrāvaṇa, while Rajendralal Mitra (1878 A. D.) and General Cunningham assert that it begins on the first lunar day* of the dark half of (pūrṇimānta) Māgha. Dr. Kielhorn, examining six inscriptions dated in this era, from 1194 to 1551 A. D. concludes** that the year of the era is Kārtikādi, that the months are amānta and that its first year corresponds with Śaka 1040-41. This conclusion is supported by ABUL FAZAL’S statement in the Akbarnāmā. Accordingly, the Śaka year is obtained by adding 1040-41 to the year of this era, the A. D. year by adding 1118-19 and the ‘Kārtikādi’ Vikrama Samvat by adding 1175.

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The ILĀHĪ ERA

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This was established by the emperor Akbar. It is also known as the ‘Akbar San’. It dates from his accession, which took place on Friday, the 2nd day of the month of Rabi-us-sani, in Hijrī year 963, i.e. 14th February, 1556, A. D. Śaka 1477.*** This era employed extensively is found on the coins of Akbar and Jahangir, and appears to have fallen into disuse in the reign of Shah-Jahan. Its year is solar. Abul Fazal remarks, “The days and months of this era are both natural solar (Sāvana) without any intercalations. The names of the months and days correspond with the ancient Persian. The months have 29 or 30 days each. There are no weeks, the whole 30 days being distinguished by different names. Some months consist of 32 days†”. Here the lengths of the months are said to be “from 29 to 30 days each”; but in the old Persian calendar they had 30 days each. The names of the months in this era, Farwardin etc, are the same as those of the Persian months given in our almanacs at present. The Śaka year is obtained by adding 1476-77 to the Ilāhī year and the A. D. year by adding 1555-56 to it.

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† Prinsep’s Indian Antiquities, Useful Tables, II. p. 171.

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The RĀJAŚAKA OR RĀJYĀBHIṢEKA ERA

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This was established by Śivājī, the founder of the Marāṭhā kingdom and commenced on the day of his accession to the throne, that is on the 13th

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* This much information is from Cunningham’s “Indian Eras” ** Indian Antiquary, XIX, p. 7 ff. *** Cunningham has recorded the initial dates of 50 years of Akbar’s era as given by Abul Fazal (See Indian Eras, page 225). The first day of the very first year in it, is given as the 27th date of Rabi-ul-akhir (Tuesday, 10th March); and the first days of the subsequent years are found to be occurring about 10th March, according to Old Style, that is on the Vernal Equinox day. Thus the first day of the Akbari era used to fall about the 21st March of the New Style.

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Although Akbar ascended the throne on the second day of Rabi-ul-akhir, the commencement of the era was purposely postponed by 25 days. This shows that it was Akbar’s intention to start the year on the equinoctial day, that is on the day when the night and day are equal (the day of Sāyana Aries Ingress).

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lunar day of the bright half of Jyaiṣṭha in the Samvatsara named Ānanda, Śaka 1596. The denominating number of the year changes on the above lunar day. In other respects it is the same as the southern luni-solar amānta Śaka years. The Śaka year is obtained by adding 1595-96 to the year of this era and the A. D. year by adding 1673-74*.

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The subjoined table gives at a glance the differences in the year numbers of all eras-current as well as obsolete. Of these, the Kali year, however, is given in two ways, current and expired. The year numbers of other eras have, in fact, no differentiation between current and expired. The figures relating to them have been given in this table on the assumption that they represent the number actually assigned to the year in most parts of the country. The commencing month or the day in the case of each era is given in brackets under the name of the era. The lunar months indicated in them are amānta moon ending.

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| Kali | Saptarṣi | Vikrama | Christian | Śaka |
| (Caitra, Meṣa) | (Caitra) | (Caitra) | (Āṣāḍha) (Kārtika) | (January) | (Caitra, Meṣa) |
| Expired 4979 Current 4980 | 4954 | 1935 | 1934 | 1878 | 1880 |

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| Cedi | Gupta Valabhi | Gupta | Hijrī | Fasali Deccan | Fasali Bengali |
| (Bhādra. K. 1) | (Kārtika) | (Caitra) | (Muharram) | (Mṛg, July) | (Bhādra. K. 1) |
| 1630 | 1559 | 1559 | 1295 | 1287 | 1285 |

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| Vilāytī (Kanyā) | Amli (Bhā. S. 12) | Bengali (Meṣa) | Ārba Sūr (Mṛg) | Harṣa | Magī (Meṣa) | Kollam (Simha, Kanyā.) |
| 1285 | 1285 | 1285 | 1278 | 1272 | 1240 | 1053 |

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| Nepal (Nevār) (Kārtika) | Cālukya | Simha (Āṣāḍha) | Lakṣmaṇasena (Kārtika) | Ilāhī (Akbarī) (Sāyaṇa Meṣa) | Śivājī Rāj Śaka (Jyaiṣṭha S. 13) |
| 999 | 802 | 764 | 759 | 323 | 204 |

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*In the above discussion, rules for finding the year of an advanced (earlier) era by adding certain numbers to the shorter (later) era have been given, in some cases, two additive figures have been given. The following rule should be observed with regard to them :—

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When the day in question is one occurring after the first day of the year of the later era but occurring before that of the earlier era, add the first of the two numbers, otherwise add the second. Examples:—(1) Śrāvaṇa S. 1, Śaka 1801 = Śrāvaṇa S. 1, Kārtikādi Vikrama Samvat 1935, Āṣāḍhādi Vikrama Samvat 1936 ; A. D. 1879 (2) Māgha S. 1, Śaka 1801 = Māgha S. 1, Āṣāḍhādi and Kārtikādi Vikrama Samvat 1936, A. D. 1880 (3) Śrāvaṇa S. 1, Deccan Fasalī San 1289 = Śrāvaṇa S. 1, Śaka 1801, A. D. 1879 (4) Caitra K. 30, Fasalī 289 = Caitra K. 30 Śaka 1802, A. D. 1880.

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This table gives the year number of each era on Saturday, the 11th lunar day of the bright half of Caitra, Śaka 1800, i.e. 13th April, 1878 A. D. The name of the ‘samvatsara’ in that year was Bahudhānya (12th) according to luni-solar system and Vikṛti (24th) according to the Jovian system. The Meṣa Saṃkramaṇa (Sidereal Aries Ingress) had occurred very recently on Thursday, the 9th lunar day of Caitra S. at 10 ghaṭis past midnight, and the Kali year and Śaka year, by the solar measure, had begun, at some places, on the same day, at others, on the next day, or on the third day, that is on Saturday, Caitra S. 11th. In all almanacs, it was the 11th lunar day according to the lunar measure. In Bengal it was the first day of the Saura or solar Vaiśākha (or Meṣa) of the Śaka and the Bengali San and the 26th day of the Caitra of the Fasali San. It was the third day of Saura Vaiśākha of the Vilāyatī and Amlī Sans in Orissa. It was the second day of the Saura Caitra i.e. Meṣa in the Tamil (i.e. the Dravidian) country, and the second day of the month of Meṣa of the Kollam (Paraśurāma) year in the North and South Malabar. It was the 9th moon (day) of the month of Rabi-ul-akhir (or Rābi-us-Sani) of the Hijrī era and of the Fasali and Sūr Sans in our province.

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THE LUNAR AND SOLAR MEASURES

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Let us consider briefly the use of the two systems of years, viz. the lunar and the solar. Most of our religious rites and festivals have some connexion with the tithi, that is with lunar measure. The ceremonies associated with Saṃkrāntis are related to the solar measure. The years Prabhava, etc. originated from the Jovian measure. Hence, it cannot be stated definitely that a particular kind of measure alone is in use among our people. In some territories, however, the solar measure is mostly in use while in others, the lunar measure. In Bengal, the solar year is in use. The almanac for Śaka 1809 compiled by Jwālāpati Siddhānta and published at Madras, remarks “In these parts the lunar measure is acceptable for the civil life of people; the solar measure is acceptable in the regions, south of Śeṣācalam Hills.” I found this almanac with a Tailaṅga Brāhmaṇa residing at Nellore, the north of Madras, who told me that the lunar measure was in vogue in his part of the country. It appears from this and from several almanacs in use in the Madras Presidency that the author procured and from the information personally gathered from the people of different provinces, for civil purposes, that the solar measure is in use in the Tamil Country of the Madras Presidency, in Malabar and in Bengal; and that in other parts of India, the lunar measure is in use for civil purposes. The measures recommended by scriptures are followed for religious functions. The questions relating to months of this system and their beginning will be considered later on.

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BEGINNING OF YEAR

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The year began from the month of Madhu in the advent of the spring season, in the times of Yajurveda and later on, throughout the Vedic period. The month of Madhu received the name Caitra at the end of the Vedic period. It appears from the Anuvāk, describing the year-long sacrifice (page 28 of Part I) and from other quotations (pages 29 and 30 of Part I) that the year began with the Citrā full-moon day, (full-moon day of Caitra or the 1st lunar day of the dark half), with the Phālgunī full-moon day (i.e. on the 15th lunar day of Phālguna S. or the 1st lunar day of the dark half) and in some cases on the 8th lunar day of the dark half (ekāṣṭakā of ‘amānta’

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Māgha. In one quotation Phālguna is said to be the ‘mouth’ i.e. the first month of the year (page 131 of Part I). If this Phālguna be a Pūrṇimānta month, the 1st lunar day of the dark half of ‘amānta’ Māgha would be the year-beginning. If it be amānta then the 1st lunar day of the bright half of Phālguna would be the year beginning. It is also likely that at one time the year commenced at the beginning of ‘pūrṇimānta’ Pauṣa; the month was not, however, called the Pauṣa then (page 134 of Part I). In the Vedāṅga Jyotiṣa period, the year used to begin with the month of ‘amānta’ Māgha. References can be cited also to show that the year in the Mahābhārata times used to begin in Mārgaśīrṣa; even then, the references from Sūtras show the importance of the year beginning from Caitra in the ‘Vedāṅga’ period. Let us now consider the later period. The astronomers begin the calculations in their works either from the initial moment of the solar year or from that of the luni-solar year, according to their convenience. Gaṇeśa Daivajña has started the calculations in the Grahalāghava from the beginning of the luni-solar* year, but for his work Tithi-cintāmaṇi he adopted the solar year beginning i.e. the day of the sideral Aries Ingress as the year beginning. In the case of the solar year too most of the authors of astronomical works adopt the moment of mean Aries Ingress which some adopt that of the true Aries Ingress as the year beginning. Again, in the case of the lunisolar year, the beginning does not necessarily coincide with the first moment of the first lunar day of Caitra Śukla; it is made to coincide with some moment—generally sunrise—on that day. Sometimes the moment of midnight or noon or even sunset is chosen for that purpose.

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According to Dharmaśāstras, the year beginning coincides with the beginning of Caitra.

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Let us now consider the beginning of the ordinary or civil year. It is needless to say that as religion and practical life are intimately connected, the initial moments of the two kinds of year also have a close relation. In many parts of India the year begins from Caitra. Where the Śaka era and reckoning are in vogue, the year begins from the Caitra Śukla Pratipada. In provinces north of the Narmadā, other than Bengal, the Vikrama era, lunar measure and ‘pūrṇimānta’ months are in use. Even then the year begins on the 1st lunar day of the bright half of Caitra. In Bengal, the Śaka era and the solar measure are in use. There the year begins from the Saura Vaiśākha i.e. from the moment of true Meṣa Ingress; but the importance of the first lunar day of the bright half of the lunar month of Caitra appears to have been recognized. Similarly, the solar measure is in use in the Tamil Country. The year there begins from the moment of true Meṣa Ingress; still, the importance of the first lunar day of the lunar Caitra Śukla seems to be maintained.

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There appears to be a difference of opinion as to whether the year is to begin in the bright half of proper Caitra or that of the intercalary Caitra when Caitra is an intercalary month.

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At those places where the year is made to begin from the Meṣa Ingress, it is begun at present from the moment of the true Meṣa Ingress; but formerly, it seems that it used to begin from the mean Ingress*, because that has importance in astronomical works. The Bhāśwatikaraṇa (Śaka 1021) has adopted the moment of true Meṣa Ingress as the epoch. No other work before it had adopted the true Ingress for its epoch. Several instances are found from inscriptions, dated later than Śaka 1083, in Malabar, which show that the month used to begin at the moment of the true Ingress.** Śrīpati (Śaka 961) condemns the mean intercalary month and recommends observance of the true inter calary month. It shows that before Śaka 1000, even for civil purposes, the year may have been taken as beginning from mean Meṣa Ingress, and the true Ingress may have come into use later on.

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∗ By a luni-solar year is meant that year of which the months are lunar but in which an intercalary month is introduced in order to keep agreement with the solar year.

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The question as to what moment of the month of Caitra or Meṣa, marked the beginning of the year, will be considered while discussing the month later on.

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The year may also begin in months other than Caitra or Meṣa. Let us consider this question.

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The year of the Vikrama Samvat begins on Kārtika Śukla Pratipada in some parts of Gujerat and in Southern India. The author has an almanac with him for the Śaka year 1810 (i.e. 1888-89 A. D.) published at Ahmedabad. It gives the Vikrama Samvat 1945 as beginning from Āṣāḍha which means that the Samvat year 1945 started from the Śukla Pratipada of Āṣāḍha of Śaka 1810. A well-known merchant from Kathiawad, residing at Barsi, told the author in Śaka 1810 that for the purpose of maintaining accounts and for other practical purposes they change the Samvat year from the first lunar day of Āṣāḍha Śukla half, in such cities as Rajkot, Jamnagar, Morvi, Tankara, Jodia, Khambhalia, etc. which are situated in the Halar district, and in cities like Amreli, Damnagar, Jetpur, etc., that is, in almost the whole of Kathiawad; and accordingly it was found from the letters received by the merchant from those parts that the Samvat 1944 changed to 1945 after the 1st lunar day of Āṣāḍha Śukla. Dr. Fleet also observes in his Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol. III, that the Halar Samvat begins from Āṣāḍha. In Śaka 1810 the author met at Barsi some merchants from Idar, who told him that in the territory within 100 miles of their place, the Samvat begins from the 2nd lunar day of the dark half of ‘amānta’ Āṣāḍha. The Fasalī San begins from the first lunar day of the dark half of ‘pūrṇimānta’ Āśvina (i.e., ‘amānta’ Bhādrapada) in Bengal and in some parts of Northern India. In Orissa, the year begins from the 12th lunar day of the bright half of Bhādrapada (page 255). It appears that in Tirhut and Mithila, the Lakṣmaṇa Sena era begins from the first lunar day of the dark half of ‘pūrṇimānta’ Śrāvaṇa or Māgha, which corresponds to amānta Āṣāḍha or Pauṣa.

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From the almanacs printed at Cochin and Trivandrum and from other information, it is learnt that in South Malabar and Tinnevelly the year begins at the moment of the Sun's entry into Leo. From the almanacs printed at Calicut and Mangalore and from other sources of informations it is found that in North Malabar, the year begins from the Kanyā (Virgo) saṃkrānti. In Madras Presidency the Fasalī year used to begin with the month of ‘Karka’; later on, it was made to begin on the 13th of July and at present it begins from the 1st of July. In Mahārāṣṭra, the Fasali year begins with the Mṛga nakṣatra. In Orissa, the year of the Vilāyatī San begins from Kanyā Saṃkrānti.

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∗ The mean Meṣa Ingress takes place some time after the true Ingress. The difference in the moments of the two is known as ‘śodhya’ (subtrahend). This ‘śodhya’ is different in different works. According to Āryabhaṭa I, it is equal to 2 days 8gh. 51 p. 15 vp. and according to modern S. S. it is 2 d 10-14-30.

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∗∗ Indian Antiquary, XXV, p. 53 ff.

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We have so far reviewed the system in use at present. Let us now see the system prevalent in by-gone days. None of our astronomical or other works have either given the history of the first month of the year or discussed the matter or given any decisions. Hence it has become difficult to know the history of this question at present. Śivājī's coronation era used to begin from the 13th lunar day of the bright half of Jyaiṣṭha. The Akbarī San used to begin with the tropical Meṣa saṃkrānti that is the vernal equinox day. According to Kielhorn, the Cedi era began in Āśvina. Albiruni has given very valuable information on this point. He writes :

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The astronomers who use the Śaka era, begin the year with the month Caitra, whilst the inhabitants of Kanir, which is conterminous with Kashmir, begin it with the month Bhādrapada.

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All the people who inhabit the country between Bardārī and Mārīgala begin the year with the month Kārtika......The people living in the country of Nirahāra, behind Mārīgala, as far as the utmost frontiers of Tākeśar and Lohāvar begin the year with the month Mārgaśīrṣa......The people of Lanbaga, i.e. Lamghān, follow their example. I have been told by the people of Multan that this system is peculiar to the people of Sindh and Kanoj, and that they used to begin the year with the new moon of Mārgaśīrṣa, but that the people of Multan only a few years ago had given up this system, and had adopted the system of the people of Kashmir ; and followed their example in beginning the year with the new moon of Caitra.”*

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According to the amānta lunar measure the year beginnings are as follows :—(1) The beginning of the month of Madhu (The 1st lunar day of the bright half of Caitra (2) the 1st lunar day of the dark half of Caitra, (3) the 13th lunar day of Jyaiṣṭha Śukla. (4) The 1st lunar day of the bright half, and first and second lunar days of the dark half of Āṣāḍha (5) the 1st and 12th days of the bright half and the 1st day of the dark half of Bhādrapada. (6) Perhaps the 1st lunar day of Āśvina Śukla (7) the 1st lunar day of Kārtika Śukla and that of the dark half of ‘amānta’ Kārtika (8) the 1st lunar day of Mārgaśīrṣa Śukla (i.e. beginning of the month of Mārgaśīrṣa), or perhaps, the 1st lunar day of the dark half of Mārgaśīrṣa (i.e. the beginning of the month of ‘pūrṇimānta’ Pauṣa); (9) the first lunar day of the dark half of pauṣa, (10) the 1st day of the bright half of Māgha and perhaps the first day of the dark half of Māgha (i.e. the beginning of the ‘pūrṇimānta’ Phālguna), the 8th day of the dark half of Māgha, and (11) sometimes the 1st lunar days of the bright and dark halves of Phālguna. According to the Nirayaṇa solar measure the year beginnings are :—(1) Meṣa Ingress (2) the Mṛga nakṣatra (approximately the 25th day of the month of Vṛṣabha) (3) Sun's Ingress into Karka, Simha and Kanyā. These occur respectively in the amānta lunar months of Caitra, Jyaiṣṭha (sometimes Vaiśākha, Āṣāḍha, Śrāvaṇa, and Bhādrapada.) By the tropical (Sāyaṇa) solar measure the first point of Aries and the 1st day of July (approximately the 11th day of the tropical Cancer Ingress) marked the year beginnings.

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∗ Albiruni's India, Vol II. p 8

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Let us now see when and where these year-beginnings were or are in use. The beginning of Madhu or Caitra in the spring season is regarded as the beginning of the year by Śrutis, Vedāṅgas, Smṛtis, Purāṇas, works on astronomy and the modern and ancient works on Dharmaśāstra. Copper plate and other inscriptions of Gupta-Kings during the period from 156 to 209 of Gupta era, Śaka 397 to 450, have been discovered. All astronomical references in them can be verified when the year is taken to begin from the beginning of Caitra.* At one time the Guptas enjoyed suzerainty over most of Northern India. Beruṇī has written (Śaka 952) that the beginning of Caitra marked the beginning of the year. In short, this year beginning has been universally recognized at all times and in all places. Even when this year beginning was in use, there had been and still are other year beginnings at some places and at some times. The first day of the dark half of Caitra, which always occurred in the spring season, appears to have been regarded as the year-beginning by the pūrṇimānta scheme at some places during part of the Vedic period. In Bengal, the year begins at the beginning of the solar month of Vaiśākha i.e. at the beginning of Meṣa. Its antiquity cannot be ascertained. It is, however, recorded in the works on Dharmaśāstra by Jīmūtavāhana current in Bengal;

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and this Jīmūtavāhana appears to have lived about Śaka 1014.** The Bhāsvatīkaraṇa (Śaka 1021) which was compiled in the holy city of Jagannātha makes the year beginning coincide with the Meṣa Saṃkrānti. Again the same, that is, the beginning of the solar Caitra, is taken to be the year beginning in Tamil region; and it is also not known how ancient the practice is. But copper plates and other inscriptions belonging to the 12th century of the Śaka era have been found*** in those parts, which refer to the solar months. The Ārya-siddhānta is in use in that region. This year beginning may have been as old as that work (Śaka 421). The sun enters Mṛga nakṣatra in the month of Jyaiṣṭha and sometimes in Vaiśākha. This is the time of the year beginning of the Sūr San and the Fasali San in Mahārāṣṭra and the adjoining territories. This has been in vogue from Śaka year 1266 (1344 A.D.). This accords the seasonal year. The New year's Day following the 13th lunar day of bright half of Jyaiṣṭha has a personal association, since it is the first day of the regular year of Śivājī. The year begins on the 1st lunar day of bright half of Āṣāḍha in use in Kathiawaḍ and the practice is at least as old as the Siṃha Samvat, (Śaka 1036). Similarly choice of the 2nd lunar day of the dark half of Āṣāḍha appears to be equally old.

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The 1st lunar day of the dark half of Āṣāḍha as the year-beginning connected with the Lakṣmaṇa Sena era, in Tirhut and Mithila may have come into use some time after Śaka 1041. Although all the three year-beginnings in Āṣāḍha are connected with tithis, still they are essentially seasonal since they are clearly related to the beginning of rains. The Fasali San formerly used to begin with the beginning of Karka, that is, in Āṣāḍha in the Madras Presidency; but at present, under Government orders it begins from the 1st July (in Jyaiṣṭha or Āṣāḍha). This also is seasonal. Now-a-days the Official Revenue year begins in August in our province. (The official year begins also in April. The civil year beginning in January is now current everywhere.) In Malabar the year begins at the beginning of Siṃha (in Śrāvaṇa) and that of Kanyā (Bhādrapada). The practice may be as ancient as the Kollam era (Śaka 747). In Bengal the year begins at the beginning of ‘Kanyā’. This is associated with the Fasali San and has come into use from Akbar’s time. In Albirunī's time, the year used to commence in Bhādrapada in the vicinity of Kashmir. The 12th day of the bright half of Bhādrapada has a personal association in Orissa in regard to the new year. The first day of the Cedi year probably used to fall on the 1st lunar day of the dark half of Bhādrapada. It may as well have been the 1st day of the bright half of Āśvina.

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Copper plate inscriptions from the Cedi year 793 (Śaka year 962) have been found and the practice may be reaching as far back as that year. The choice of Kārtika as the year-beginning appears to be very ancient. Bhaṭotpala's commentary on the Bṛhatsaṃhitā contains some quotations from earlier authors of the Saṃhitās, wherein there are stray references of all the months; in the course of these, Kārtika has been mentioned as the first month of the year at certain places. In the Sūrya Siddhānta also it has been spoken of as the first month. It appears to have been in vogue in Northern India from the date of Vikrama era. A number of copper plates and other inscriptions from the Vikrama year 898 onwards have been found in Northern India in which the Vikrama Samvat has been mentioned as commencing from Kārtika. At the time of Albirunī, the Vikrama year was Kārtikādi. Even in Nepal, the Kārtikādi year was current till 1748 A.D. At present it is confined only to Gujerat. The month of Kārtika got the first place in the order of months because Kṛttikā was regarded as the first nakṣatra. Even the years beginning from Mārgaśīrṣa appears to have some connection with Kṛttikās. Apparently that month was regarded as the first which began on the day following the full moon with Kṛttikās, the first nakṣatra, but the month was named Mārgaśīrṣa since it would end with the full moon near the Mṛgaśīrṣa star. The months referred to in the Mahābhārata are Mārgaśīrṣādi and not Kārtikādi.

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