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Vanaspati: Plants and Plant-Life as in Indian Treatises and Traditions c6: Appendix A. Heredity

Vanaspati: Plants and Plant-Life as in Indian Treatises and Traditions c6

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English

Contents

Appendix A. Heredity

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The principle of Heredity plays an important part in modern Biology. Darwin with his theory of Pangenesis, and Wiesmann with his theory of Germ-plasm and the neo-Darwinians and the neo-Wiesmannians with their improvements have not yet been able to come to any all-round satisfactory solution of the problem. And it is interesting to see what the ancient Biologists, coming at least two thousand years before Darwin and Wiesmann thought about this important problem. As plant life constitutes one of the principal themes of Biology we insert below Dr. Seal’s Chapter¹ on Heredity in its entirety with full references of the text from which he derives his information :

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¹ Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, Section 9, pp. 233-239 (1915).

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“Transmission of specific characters—what parental characters are transmitted to offspring.—The question is raised in *Charaka*² (and earlier still in the *Brāhmanas*) how specific characters are transmitted—why the offspring is of the same species as the parental organism, say, the human or bovine species, the equine species, or the Aśwattha species (Ficus religiosa)—*Sankara*, *Brihadāraṇyaka-bhāshya*. Species (योनयः) may be compared to so many moulds, as it were, into which the ovum is cast, even as molten metals are cast in moulds. This is of course only an illustrative analogy; the cause has to be investigated.

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² Charaka, Śārīrasthāna, III, 22, p. 448 (Bengali Edition).

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Now *Charaka* and *Suśruta*¹ following *Dhanvantari* hold that the fœtus, or rather the fertilised ovum, develops by ‘palingenesis’ (instead of epigenesis); in other words, all the organs are potentially present therein at the same time and unfold in a certain order. As the sprouting bamboo seed contains in miniature the entire structure of the bamboo, as the mango-blossom contains the stone, pulp, the fibres, which appear separated and distinct in the ripe fruit, though from their excessive minuteness they are undistinguishable in the blossom, even such is the case with the fertilised ovum.

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¹ Suśruta, Śārīrasthāna, III, 18, p. 318, Yasodānandan Sen Edition of English Translation, Vol. II, p. 141.

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The inheritance of specific characters is explained in accordance with this view. *Charaka*² assumes that the sperm-cell of the male parent contains minute elements derived from each of its organs and tissues. (*Cf.* Darwin’s “gemmule” and Spencer’s “ids.”)

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² Charaka, Śārīrasthāna, Chap. III, p. 449. Bengali Edition. For English Translation see Fasc. XXIV, Section 29, p. 733.

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*Śaṅkara*¹ similarly states that the sperm-cell (or the seed in the case of a plant) represents in miniature every organ of the parent organism, and contains in *potentia* the whole organism that is developed out of it (शरीरधात्वात्मा शुक्रभूतः अङ्गादङ्गात् सम्भवति ).

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¹ Śaṅkara on Brihadāraṇyaka.

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But if this is so, why are not congenital deformities of the parent, or constitutional diseases contracted in later life, invariably inherited? Congenital blindness, deafness, dumbness, stammering, lameness, or deformity of the spinal column or of the bony framework, or dwarfish stature, or constitutional diseases like madness, leprosy, or skin diseases in the parent, do not necessarily produce corresponding deformities or infirmities in the offspring. It cannot therefore be that the fertilised ovum represents in miniature every organ or tissue of the parental organism. The solution of this difficulty *Charaka*² ascribes to *Atreya*. The fertilised ovum, it is true, is composed of elements which arise from the whole parental organism ( समुदायात्मक, समुदायप्रभव ), but it is not the developed organs of the parents, with their idiosyncracies or acquired characters, that determine or contribute the elements of the sperm-cell (or seed). The parental *Vīja* (seed, germ-plasm), contains the whole parental organism in miniature (or *in potentia*), but it is independent of the parents' developed organs, and is not necessarily affected by their idiosyncracies or deformities. In fact, the parental *Vīja* (seed, germ-plasm) is an organic whole independent of the developed parental body and its organs. In the parental *Vīja* an element representing a particular organ or tissue may happen (for this is accidental, दैवा) to be defective or undeveloped, or otherwise abnormally characterised, and in this case the corresponding organ or tissue of the offspring will be similarly characterised. When constitutional diseases, acquired in later life, are found to be inherited, *Atreya* would suppose that the *Vīja* of the parent has been affected, and this would explain the fact of the inheritance. In the case of leprosy, for example, it is transmitted to the offspring only when the germ-plasm (the *Vīja* or the fertilised ovum) is infected with the virus of the disease by reason of the leprosy of the parent.

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² Charaka, Śārīrasthāna, III, 22-26; English Translation, Fasc. 23, p. 730; Fasc. 24, Sec. 29, p. 733. “Verily, in the seed from which the body springs, there are particular portions from which particular limbs grow. When a particular portion of the seed, therefore, is burnt up or consumed, the particular limb which would have grown out of it becomes deformed. No deformities again, occur if no portion of the seed becomes burnt up or consumed.” Abināś Ch. Kaviratna’s translation of the text,

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N. B.—The seventh tissue (the *Śukradharā kalā*,¹ sperm-bearing or reproductive) contains the parental *Vīja*, which is a minute organism ( समुदायात्मक ) deriving its elements from the parental organs, but distinct from the latter, and independent of their peculiarities, and it is the combination and characters of these constituent elements of the parental *Vīja* in the reproductive tissue that determine the physiological characters and predisposition of the offspring. We may call this *Atreya’s* germ-plasm theory, for it is an advance on the conception of “gemmules” and “ids,” but in *Atreya’s* version the “germ-plasm” is not only representative of the “somatic tissues,” but also generates and is generated by the latter. This mutual interaction of the “germ-plasm” and the “somatic tissues” is a distinctive feature of *Atreya’s* hypothesis, the value of which will be differently estimated by different schools of biologists.

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¹ Suśruta, Śārīrasthāna, IV, 20, 21, 22, 23, English Translation, Vol. II, p. 147.

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I may also add that the continued identity of the “germ-plasm” ( बीज ) from generation to generation, though it follows as a corollary from this doctrine of a distinct reproductive tissue, even when conceived to be affected by somatic processes, as *Atreya* and *Charaka* conceive it

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“Sukradharā kāla—extends throughout the entire body of all living creatures.” 20.

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“The physician should know that like fat (*Sarpi*) in the milk, or sugar in the expressed juice of sugar cane, the (seat of semen) is co-extensive with the whole organism of a man (or animal). . . . The semen under exhileration comes down from all parts of his body owing to the extreme excitement.” 121-23.

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to be, is nowhere expressly deduced. On the other hand, *Ātreya* and *Charaka* emphasise the influence of abundant or defective nutrition (see English translation 16, 17, pp. 774, 725), and of the constituents of the food, etc., on the characters of the *Vīja* in the reproductive tissue, especially as regards the sexual character, the stature, and the colour-pigment (वर्ण) of the offspring. But though the influence of nutrition on the *Vīja* is thus freely admitted in a general way, it is expressly stated that the peculiar characters or idiosyncracies of the elements that combine to form the *Vīja* must be regarded as a matter of chance (दैव), in other words, the truly congenital variations are accidental.”

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BOTANY AND SCIENCE OF MEDICINE

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the Lacedaemonians, who had been waiting for the signal, now attacked the city. The Plataeans, seeing the enemy already inside and their own men falling, and knowing nothing of the plot, were seized with panic and, thinking that the Thebans were far more numerous than they really were, surrendered at discretion. But when they discovered that the Thebans were few, they took heart and, resolving to attack them, closed the gates and fell upon them.

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The Thebans, finding themselves in a trap, began to defend themselves. Twice or thrice they repelled the attacks of the Plataeans, but when the women and slaves began to shout and throw tiles and stones from the houses, and a heavy rain began to fall, the Thebans, confused and blinded, broke and fled through the city. Most of them, not knowing the way in the darkness and rain, fell into the drains or were killed by the Plataeans, who knew the streets. The gate through which they had entered had been shut by a Plataean who had found a javelin-head and used it as a bolt, so that there was no way out. Pursued through the city, some climbed the wall and jumped down, most of them perishing; others reached the gate and, finding it shut, were cut down by the women and slaves. A small party, seeing a large building with an open door, rushed in, thinking it was a gate, and were captured.

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Meanwhile, the main body of the Thebans, who were to have arrived at daybreak to support the first party, had been delayed by the rain and the swollen river Asopus. When they heard of the disaster, they hurried to the city, intending to seize any Plataeans who might be outside the walls. The Plataeans, suspecting their intention, sent a herald to them, warning them not to harm the prisoners they had taken, and threatening to kill them if they did not withdraw from their territory. The Thebans, upon this, retired.

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The Plataeans, having thus cleared the city, collected their dead and the prisoners. The prisoners, numbering about one hundred and eighty, were executed the next day, despite a message from the Thebans claiming that they had surrendered on terms. The Plataeans denied this, asserting that they had promised to spare them only if they did not commit further acts of violence.

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Thus ended the attempt of the Thebans upon Plataea, an event which was the immediate cause of the war between Athens and the Peloponnesians. The Plataeans, having secured their city, sent a messenger to Athens with the news, and the Athenians, fearing for the safety of the Plataeans, sent a garrison to their aid and removed the women and children to Athens.

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The connection between the study of plant-life and the science of medicine has been intimate throughout the whole course of the genesis, development, and the culmination of the latter in India—from its genesis traced in the verses of the Rig Veda down to its culmination in the monumental treatises of *Charaka* and *Suśruta*. The application of plants as medicines as recorded in both these works are minute, exhaustive and extensive, and it is needless to reproduce the thing in detail. Here the study of the individual properties of plants, their application in diseases as means of cure, the collection of plants, the selections of plants, the preparation of drugs out of them, the selection of soils for plants to grow upon are excellently prescribed. No fewer than 26 forms of medicine derived from plants are mentioned. Instead of wasting space over what is common knowledge we turn to the more interesting task of tracing the historical development of the science of Medicine in Ancient India beginning from the earliest times down to its virtual stagnation.

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BEGINNINGS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE

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The Vedic texts reveal to us the science in its rudimentary stage, while *Charaka* and *Suśruta* exhibit it in its full-fledged development, its practical consummation. We have no materials sufficient to show us in detail the processes through which the transition from the rudimentary stage of the science of which we get a picture in the *Atharva Veda* to the stage of its final development which we see in the *Charaka* and *Suśruta* took place, and we are left to vague conjectures and inferences. Only a hypothetical attempt based on warrantable evidences, can be made. Whatever may be the stages of its development, it is clear beyond all doubt that this useful science has not undergone any further progress since the time of *Charaka* and *Suśruta*. The later contribution on the subject, rich as it is in quantity, does not represent any improvement in quality, nor a single step of advance in the theoretical aspect of the science as science, and our attempt will necessarily be confined to a description of the direction taken by the science from its inception to its fullest development.

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The first medical utterance of man is to be found in a text of the Rig Veda namely, in the *Aushadhi Sūkta* of the 10th *Maṇḍala* which gives us a description in detail of the variety of the use to which plants used to be put. One hundred and seven applications are mentioned, but the number must not be taken literally but as a poetic statement of plurality. Here is the Sūkta.¹

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¹ All the translations are quoted from Wilson.

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“Medicinal plants and herbs²—*Bhisaj*—the physician, son of *Atharva*.

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² Sukta VII (97), Vol. VI, p. 276, etc., Wilson

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1. I think of the hundred and seven applications of the brown-tinted plants, which are ancient, being generated for the gods before the three ages.

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2. Mother (of mankind) a hundred are your applications, a thousandfold is your growth; to you who fulfil a hundred functions make this my people free from disease.

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3. Rejoice, plants, bearing abundant flowers and fruits triumphing together (over disease) like (victorious) horses, sprouting forth, bearing (men safe) beyond disease.

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4. “Plants”! thus I hail you, the divine mother (of mankind). I will give to thee, Oh physician, a horse, a cow, a garment—yea, even myself.

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5. Your abode is in the *Aśvattha*, your dwelling is established in the *Palāśa*, you are assuredly the distributors of cattle, inasmuch as you bestow them on the physician [Mahīdhara says (XII, 79) the vessels in which the offerings are presented are made of the wood of these two].

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6. Where, plants, you are congregated like princes (assembled) in battle, there the sage is designated a physician, these the destroyer of evil spirits, the extirpator of disease.

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7. The *Aśvāvatī*, the *Somavatī*, the *Ūrjayantī* the *Udojasa* (are the four principal plants)—all these plants I praise for the purpose of overcoming this disease.

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8. The virtues of the plants which are desirous of bestowing wealth issue from them, man, (towards) the body like cattle from the pen.

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9. Verily *Ishkriti* is your mother, therefore are you (also) *Nishikritis*; you are flying streams; if a (man) is ill you cure him.

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10. The universal all-pervading plants assail (diseases) as a thief (attacks) a cowshed; they drive out whatever infirmity of body there may be.

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11. As soon as I take these plants in my hand making (the sick man) strong, the soul of the malady perishes before (their application) as (life is driven away from the presence) of the seizer of life.

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12. From him, Oh plants, in whom you creep from limb to limb, from joint to joint, you drive away diseases like a mighty (prince) stationed in the midst of his host.

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13. Fly forth, sickness, with the jay, with the blue jay, with the velocity of the wind, perish along with the iguana.

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14. Let each of you, plants, go to the other, approach the one (to the vicinity) of the other; thus being all mutually joined together, attend to this my speech.

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15. Whether bearing fruit or barren, whether flowering or flowerless, may they, the progeny of *Brihaspati*, liberate us from sin.

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16. May they liberate us from the sin produced by curse, from the sin cursed by *Varuna*, from the fetters of *Yama*, from all guilts caused by the gods.

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17. The plants, falling from heaven, said, ‘The man, whom living we pervade, will not perish.’

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18. The plants which have the *Soma* for their king, and are numerous and all-seeing, of them thou (Oh! *Soma*-plant) art the best; be very bountiful to the affectionate heart.

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19. Plants, which have the *Soma* for your king, and who are scattered over the earth, the offspring of *Brihaspati*, give vigour to this (infirm body).

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20. Let not the digger hurt you, nor (the sick person) for whom I dig you up ; may all my bipeds and quadrupeds be free from diseases.

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21. Both the plants that hear (this prayer), and those which are removed far off, all coming together, give vigour to the (infirm body).

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22. All the plants together with Soma their king, declare, ‘ We save him, O king, to whom the *Brāhman* administers us.’

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23. Thou (*Soma*) art the best of the plants, to thee (all) trees are prostrate ; may he be prostrate to us, who attacks us.”

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This hymn together with the one following it, namely, the hymn ¹ addressed to a plant used against a rival wife, and the *Sukta* XVIII of *Maṇḍala* VII constitutes practically speaking the whole of the science or art, or both science and art, of Medicine as revealed in the *Rig Veda*. Here is the hymn to the plant against a rival wife :

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¹ Sukta 145, Maṇḍala (10).

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“ 1. I dig up the most potent medicinal creeper by which (a wife) destroys a rival wife, by which she secures to herself her husband.

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2. O (plant), with upturned leaves (the creeper referred to in the hymn is the *Pāṭhā*) auspicious, sent by the gods, powerful, remove my rival and make my husband my alone.

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3. Excellent (plant), may I too be excellent amongst the excellent, and may she who is my rival, be vile amongst the viles.

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4. I will not even utter her name, no (woman) takes pleasure in that person, may we remove the other rival wife to a distance.

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5. I am triumphing, thou art triumphant, we too being powerful will triumph over my rival.

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6. I make the triumphant (herb) my pillow, I support thee with that more triumphant (pillow), let thy mind hasten to me as a cow to her calf, let it speed on its way like water.”

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And thus runs the verse of *Sūkta* 18, *Maṇḍala* VII:

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“2. May the brilliant *Agni* counteract that poison which is generated in manifold knots (of trees and the like).

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3. The poison that is in *Sālmalī* tree (Bombax malabaricum), in rivers, or which is generated from plants, may the Universal gods remove from hence; let not the tortuous (snake) recognise me by the sound of my footsteps.”

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These three hymns taken together give us in a nutshell a world of ideas—a whole science in a few words. We get here the names of certain plants with *Soma*, the king of plants, at their head, and *Aśvavatī*, *Somavatī*, *Urjayantī* and *Udojasha*, and possibly also *Aśvattha* (Ficus religiosa) and *Palāśa* (Butea frondosa) as powerful agencies of cure against diseases. Innumerable applications of plants are referred to though not definitely named. We are told that plants used to be applied as medicines, both individually and collectively, against diseases natural and supernatural, against bodily infirmities as well as against curses and the like. We also come to learn that plants could be used by themselves as well as in association with incantations and prayers. The genesis of the whole body of medicine is given as Divine, and the nature of the cure is clearly characterised as radical, permanent and comprehensive We are given in brief either the condensation, a scientifically nice epitome, or the germ of the Science of Medicine, of the art of cure, of demonology and classification of plants or Botany at once. Behind the wealth of poetry we get some solid facts of scientific importance. The whole thing has the air of a summary distinctly presupposing more elaborate statements, a knowledge of details. There is no vagueness, but freshness of the original revealed to us in an unmistakable language. Where are the details gone? They are either, to all intents and purposes, lost or they existed in popular memory and were handed down by tradition from generation to generation till at last they came to be synoptically recorded in some treatise; and the Vedic texts quoted may be the synopsis of a synopsis.

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But we have a harvest of details bearing on the subject of medicinal plants, their utilities, their classifications, the diseases against which they were applied, the association in which they were to be applied and the rest, in the text of the *Atharva Veda*.

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These details seem to be an elaboration of what we get in a synoptical form in the three hymns of the *Rig Veda* just quoted. There are points of similarity between the two; nay, there is essential identity. The latter seems to be an only elaborate edition, a popular commentary of the former. How are we to explain this? Either the details of the *Atharva Veda* must be a development from and a lengthy explanation of the things we get in the *Rik*, or the *Rik* hymns give us a summary of the things so universally known.

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MALADIES—THEIR CLASSIFICATIONS AND REMEDIES

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In the Rig Vedic hymn already quoted the medicinal use of plants together with mention of some plants by name are given, classifications of plants are indicated, and the diseases, supernatural and natural, are referred to as being within the province of perfect and radical cure through the application of plants as drugs. For the sake of convenience and nicety, we now classify the medicinal plants of the *Atharva Veda* under the following heads:

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1. Those that cure physical maladies brought about by purely physical agencies (*Kāyachikitsā*).
2. ,, ,, ,, supernatural maladies brought about by supernatural agencies (*Bhūtavidyā*).
3. ,, ,, ,, help in the procreation and protection of children (*Kaumāravritya*).
4. ,, ,, ,, are used for curing minor and serious wounds, etc. (*Śalyavidyā*).

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5. Those that are used against the venom of snakes, and other insects (*Vishavidyā*).

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6. ,, ,, ,, ,, for securing the prosperity and prolongation of life (*Rasāyana*).

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7. ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, for virility and erotic success (*Vājīkaraṇa*).

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8. Miscellaneous.

1. Physical Maladies

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The medicinal plants that were used as drugs against diseases brought about by physical agencies are mentioned in the following hymns of the Atharva Veda:¹

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¹ Translations are quoted from Whitney's.

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Bk. I. 2—against injury and diseases. ,, ,, 3—obstruction of urine. ,, ,, 23 and 24—against white leprosy. Bk. II. 25—against abortion. Bk. V. 4—against fever and other maladies. Bk. XIX. 39—against disease *takman* (fever).

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The physical maladies against which cure is provided are leprosy, fever, obstruction of urine, head-disease, evil of the eye, abortion and injury and diseases in general. Some of the several medicinal plants that are mentioned in the text have been identified with their modern representatives. These are *Reeds*, *Haridrā*, *Kushṭha*, *Chitraparṇī*, etc. The genesis of the diseases in some cases are given and the method of the application of the drugs is nicely described. From the hymns containing cure against natural diseases, it is clear beyond all doubt, that the Science of medicine as revealed in the Atharva Vedic texts is far from being in a state of infancy. It presupposes a good deal of experiments and observation, and seems to be based on a wide generalisation.

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“We know the reed’s father, *Parjjanya* the much-nourishing; and we know well its mother, the earth of many aspects.”—Plant identified is reed. (I. 2. 1.)

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“Night-born art thou, O herb, O dark, black, dusky one ; O colourer, do thou colour this leprous spot and what is pale.” (I. 23. 1.)

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“Of the bone-born leprous spot, and of the body-born that is in the skin, of that made by the spoiler—by incantation have I made the white mark disappear.” (I. 23. 4.)

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“The *Asura*-woman first made this remedy for leprous spot, this effacer of leprous spot ; it has made the leprous spot disappear, has made this skin uniform.” (I. 24. 2.)

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Plant identified is *Haridrā*—Circuma longa.

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“The blood-drinking wizard, and whoso wants to take away fatness, the embryo-eating *kaṇva* do thou make disappear, O spotted leaf and overpower.” (II. 25. 3.)

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Plants identified are :
1. *Māṣaparṇī*—Glycine debilis.
2. *Lakṣmaṇ*—Having upon its leaves red spots. *Putrajanī*—*Bhābaprakāśa*, I. 208. *Putrakandā*—*Rājanighaṇṭu*, VII. 114. *Putradā*—a bulbous plant.
3. It is a leguminous plant identified by U. C. Duta as Uraria lagopodioides. Dec.

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“On an eagle-bearing mountain, born from the snowy one; they go to it with riches, having heard of it, for they know the effacer of fever.” (V. 4. 2.)

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“The *Aśwattha*, the seat of the gods in the third heaven from here ; there the gods won the *Kuṣṭha*, the sight of immortality.” (V. 4. 3.)

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“Born in the north from the snowy mountain, thou art conducted to people in the eastern quarter; there they have shared out the highest names of the *Kuṣṭha*.” (V. 4. 8.)

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“Head-diseases, attack, evil of the eyes, of the body—all that may *Kuṣṭha* relieve, verily a divine virility.” (V. 4. 10.)

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Plant identified is *Kuṣṭha*—Costus speciosus or arabicus.

2. Supernatural Maladies

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Supernatural maladies, brought about by supernatural agencies, are mentioned in the following hymns of the Atharva Veda :

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Bk. II. 7—against curses and cursers. Bk. IV. 17—against various evils. ,, 18—against witchcraft. ,, 20— to discover sorcerers. ,, 37—against various superhuman foes (against possession by evil spirits). Bk. V. 14—against witchcraft ,, 15—against exorcism. VI. 85—for relief from Yaksa. VIII. 5. 2—against witchcraft, etc. ,, 7—to the plants for some one's restoration to health.

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As the title indicates remedies of supernatural diseases were exclusively directed against supernatural agencies, such as demons, Yakshas, ghosts, curse of gods or the like. Plants used as drugs were sometimes applied by themselves, and sometimes in association with incantations, invocations, and magical formulæ. A pronounced characteristic of the Eastern system of medicine is that it provides for the cure against the diseases of the spirit, which the West has left to the region of incurability, where in the language of Macbeth's Physician—"the patient must administer to himself." Of all the supernatural diseases witchcraft seems to be the most prevalent one, and a very large number of plants are prescribed as remedies against it. While giving remedies against this disease in detail, the hymns of the *Atharva Veda* coming under this head throw a lurid light upon the contemporary state of customs and beliefs—a state of civilisation characterised by ferocity, superstition, envy and malice. Besides witchcraft may be mentioned obsession by *Yaksha*, Demon, *Apsarā*, *Gandharva*, sorcery, curses, ghost, etc. All the plants prescribed are not, unfortunately, named; only a few and a very few have been identified with their modern representatives.

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The application of the supernatural remedies in association with natural ones is a prominent feature of the ancient Medical Science, and the following quotations cursorily taken from the hymns will suffice to illustrate our remark :

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"Let the curse go to the cursers; our [part] is along with him that is friendly; of the eye-conjurer, the unfriendly, we crush in the ribs." (II. 7. 5.)

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Plant identified is *Durvā* (Panicum dactylon).

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"The truly-conquering, the curse-repelling, the overcoming, the reverted one—all the herbs have I called together saying—may they save us from this." (IV. 17. 2.)

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"Death by thirst, death by hunger, likewise defeat at dice—through thee, O off-wiper, we wipe off all that. (IV. 17.7.)

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Plants are—*Sahadevī* (Sida cordifolia and rhombifolia); and *Apāmārga* (Achyranthes aspera).

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“O thou of thousand abodes, do thou make them lie crestless, neckless; take back the witchcraft to him that made it, like a sweetheart to a lover.” (IV. 18. 4.)

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“I, with this herb, have spoiled all witch crafts—what one they have made in the field, what in the kine, or what in thy men.” (IV. 18. 5.).

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“Whichever flies through the atmosphere, and whichever creeps across the sky; whichever thinks the earth a refuge that *Piśācha* do thou shew forth.” (IV. 20. 9.)

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Plant is—*Sadampushpā*—ever-flowering.

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“By thee do we expel the Apsarases, the Gandharvas; O goat-horned one, drive the demon; make all disappear by thy smell.” (IV. 37. 2.)

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“Where are the *Aśvatthas*, the *Nyagrodhas*, great trees, with crests—thither go away, ye Apsarases; you have been recognised.” (Popular belief is still prevalent that these plants are haunted by ghosts, etc.). (IV. 37. 4.)

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“Hither hath come this mighty one of the herbs, of the plants; let the goat-horned *arāṭakī*, the sharp-horned, push out.” (IV. 37.6.)

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Plant is *Ajāśringī*—Odina pinnata.

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“The *avakā*-eating *Gandharras*”—*Avakā* is *Blyxa octandra* (a grass-like marsh plant). (IV. 37. 8 & 9.)

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“An eagle discovered thee; a hog dug thee with his snout; seek thou to injure, O herb, him that seeks to injure; smite down the witchcraft-maker.” (V. 14. 1.)

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“Be the witchcrafts for the witchcraft-maker, the curse for him that curses; like an easy chariot let the witchcraft roll back to the witchcraft-maker.” (V. 14. 5.)

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“The *Varaṇa*, this divine forest-tree, shall ward off the *Yaksha*, that has entered this man—that have the gods warded off.” (VI. 85. 1.)

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Plant is *Varaṇa*—*Crataiva Roxburghii*.

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“Thou art the chief of herbs, as the ox of moving creatures, as the tiger of wild beasts; whom we sought, him have we found, a watcher near at hand.” (VIII. 5. 11.)

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“Those that are brown, and that are bright, the red and the spotted, the swarthy, the black herbs—all do we address.” (VIII. 7. 1.)

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“Food of fire, embryo of the waters, they tha grow up renewed, fixed, thousand-named—be they remedial (when) brought.” (VIII. 7. 8.)

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“Wrapped in *Avakā*, water-nurtured, let the herbs, sharp-horned, thrust away difficulty.” (VIII. 7. 9.)

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(An amulet made of splinters of ten kinds of trees against all diseases.)

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3. Plants that Help in the Procreation and Protection of Children.

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Here we are to examine the art of procreation and preservation of children by means of plants. Side by side with procreation had to be considered the hindrances, natural and supernatural, and consequently the requisite remedies. Plants constitute a substantial section of the remedies used for the purpose.

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The plants used for these purposes are mentioned in the following hymns:

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Bk. II. 25—against abortion with a plant. Bk. III. 23—for fecundity—"to procure the conception of male offspring."

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Bk. VIII. 6—To guard a pregnant woman from demons.

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The following quotations cursorily taken from the text will suffice to show both the nature of the remedy and the conception of the disease, both being comprehensive, radical and thorough:

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"The blood-drinking wizard, and whose wants to take away fatness, the embryo-eating kaṇva do thou make disappear, O spotted-leaf, and overpower." (II. 25. 3.).

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"The plants of which heaven has been the father, earth the mother, ocean the root—let those herbs of the gods favour thee, in order to acquisition of a son." (III. 23. 6.).

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“The two spouse-finders which thy mother rubbed up for thee when born—for them let not the ill-named one be greedy, the *aliṅśa* nor the *vatsapa*.” (VIII. 6. 1.)

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“Whoever makes this woman one having a dead child, or a miscarriage, him, O herb, do thou make disappear, lustful for her, slippery.” (VIII. 6. 9.)

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(An amulet of white and yellow mustard plants.)

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4. Plants used for curing Wounds, etc.

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It is abundantly evident from the hymns of the *Atharva Veda* dealing with medicines for wounds, etc., that the surgical treatment, too, was considerably developed in Ancient India. The hymns are very few in number, but they are enough to show us that the first surgeons of India, for so we must call them, knew a good deal of anatomy, displayed a good deal of skill, in accurately examining the nature of the cases and in prescribing radical remedies against them. They also appear to be acquainted with a process of classification of plants. The following quotations typically selected will illustrate our remark.

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To heal serious wounds with a herb:

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“What of thee is torn, what of thee is inflamed, is crushed in thyself—may Dhātar excellently put that together again, joint with joint" (boiled *Lākshā* water—perhaps it is a product of *Arundhatī* plant). (IV. 12. 2.)

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"Let thy marrow come together with marrow, and thy joint together with joint; together let what of thy flesh has fallen apart, together let thy bone grow over." (IV. 12. 3.)

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"Let marrow be put together with marrow; let skin grow with skin; let thy blood, bone grow; let flesh grow with flesh." (IV. 12. 4.)

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"If by a staff, if by an arrow, or if by flame a sore is made, of that thou art relief; relieve thou this man." (V. 5. 4.)

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"Out of the excellent *Plaksha* (*Ficus infectoria*) thou arisest, out of the *Aśwattha* (*Ficus religiosa*), the *Khadira* (*Acacia catechu*), the *Dhava* (*Anogeissus latifolia*), the excellent *Nyagrodha* (*Ficus bengalensis*), the *Parṇa* (*Butea frondosa*); do thou come to us, O *Arundhatī*" (a climber, *Silācī* by name). (V. 5. 5.)

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Of these plants it may be a product.

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"The berry, remedy for what is bruised, remedy for what is pierced—that did the gods prepare; that is sufficient for life." (VI. 109. 1.)

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The plant is *Pippalī*—*Piper longum*.

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5. Plants used against the Venom of Snakes and other Insects.

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It is the proud distinction of the Indian system of medicine that it has provided for the treatment against poison of snakes and other insects—a provision which is absent in some of the most advanced systems of medicine to-day. Even in this rudimentary state of the medicinal science with which we come across in the Atharva Veda we find that the poison of snakes has received attention in detail. The kind of snakes from which men were in constant apprehension of danger are distinctly mentioned.

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The hymns dealing with medicine for venomous bite yields a harvest of historical results giving us the important truths that there was a distinct class of people treating patients suffering from snake-bites, that the Kirātas, perhaps a hilly tribe, were discoverers of these remedies.

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The very interesting thing in this connection is that the cure is not only all-comprehensive and radical but also vindictive, the agent of the mischief, the snake, being compelled by virtue of the remedy to take the poison of its own bite—thus the devil being hoisted with its own petard. This process might be regarded as an ancient anticipation of the modern process of auto-vaccination both being based on precisely the same principle of *vishasya vishamuushadham*—poison is the antidote against poison. This wonderfully useful but academically unrecognised Science of Cure against snake-bite is successfully practised by illiterate but skilful exorcists in obscure corners of this country. The germ of snake worship as represented by the modern *Vāstu* and *Manasā Pūjā* may be traced in one of the verses.

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“With sight I smite thy sight; with poison I smite thy poison; die, O snake, do not live; let thy poison go back against thee.” (V. 13. 4.)

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“The eared-hedgehog said this, coming down from the mountain; whichsoever of these are produced by digging, of them the poison is most sapless.” (V. 13. 9.)

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“From the crosslined [snake], from the black snake, from the adder [what is] gathered—that poison of the heron-jointed one hath this plant made to disappear.” (VII. 56. 1.)

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The plant intended is “*Madhuka*” which is the name of various trees and herbs—Bassia latifolia.

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“The little girl of the *Kirātas*, she the little one, digs a remedy, with golden shovels, upon the ridges of the mountains.” (X. 4. 14.)

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“Hither hath come the young physician, slayer of the spotted ones, unconquered; he verily is a grinder-up of both the constrictor and the stinger.” (X. 4. 15.)

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“Whichever of the snakes [are] fire-born, herb-born, whichever came hither [as] water-born lightnings; those of which the kinds are variously great—to those serpents would we pay worship with reverence.” (X. 4. 23.)

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“Remove thou it from every limb; make (it) avoid the heart; then, what keenness the poison has, let that go downward for thee.” (X. 4. 25.).

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6. *For securing Prosperity and Prolongation of Life with Plants.*

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The Indian science of medicine deals with remedies both positive and negative, both preventive and curative. It takes into account man, not only in a state of disease but also in a state of health. It aims both at security and the prolongation of life. And in some of the hymns of the Atharva, we find mention of plants which either by themselves or in association with incantations lead to longevity. Most important of these plants are *Aparājitā*, *Parṇa*, *Palāśa*, *Aśwattha*, *Tālīśa* and *Śiṃśapā*. Prosperity is sought to be brought about by the defeat of foes too, which, curious as it might seem, could be brought about by the use of plants possessing supernatural properties. The plant *Aparājitā* (Clitoria ternata) is, as its etymology shows, born to grant invincibility, and the practice prevalent in Bengal of using it round one’s upper arm on the great *Bijoyā* day is a revival of the past practice. The dead past is still living in the living present. Quotations made below bear on the above remarks:

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“Indra put thee (*Aparājitā*) on his arm, in order to lay low the *Asuras*; smite the dispute of (my) counter-disputant; make them sapless, O herb.” (II. 27. 3.)

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“Indra consumed the pāṭhā, in order to lay low the Asuras, etc.” (II. 27. 4.).

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The plant is Pāṭhā (Clypea hernandifolia).

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“The Parṇa (Butea frondosa), Soma’s formidable power, hath come, given by Indra, governed by Varuṇa; may I, shining greatly, wear it in order to length of life for a hundred autumns.” (III. 5. 4.)

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“As thou, O Aśwattha (Ficus religiosa) didst break out the Khadira (Acacia catechu) within the great sea, so do thou break out all those whom I hate, and who hate me.” (III. 6. 3.)

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“Thou art the highest of herbs (Tālīśa-plant); of thee the trees are subjects; let him be our subjects who assails us.” (VI. 15. 1.)

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The plant is Tālīśa—Flacourtia cataphracta.

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“If with eye, with mind, and if with speech we have offended waking, if sleeping, let Soma purify those things for us with Svadha.” (VI. 96. 3.)

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“Me with a portion of Śiṃśapā, together with Indra as ally, I make myself portioned; let the niggards run away.” (VI. 129. 1.)

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The plant is Dalbergia sisu.

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7. Plants used for virility and Erotic Success:

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The vital importance of the problem of virility was recognised by the Ancients in India and their medical science, even in its infancy, attacked it, and found out remedies both for increasing man's virility on the one hand and for destroying it on the other. In harmony with the spirit of the time the aid of medicinal plants used to be called for in impairing the virility of the opponents—a fact characteristically symptomatic of the then state of civilisation and culture. Very allied to the problem of virility is the problem of amatory success and we find a large number of plants mentioned in the Atharvanic hymns applied for the purpose, of course with supernatural aid in the shape of invocations and incantations. The following hymns deal with these topics :

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Book I, 34.—A love spell with a sweet herb used in a ceremony for superiority in disputation.

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Book III, 18.—Against a rival wife with a plant.

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Book IV, 4.—For recovery of virility.

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Book VI, 72.—For virile power.

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” ” 138—To make a certain man impotent.

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” ” 139—To compel a woman's love.

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Book VII, 38—To win and fix a man's love with a plant.

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The quotations made below will illustrate the general spirit and tenor of these hymns:

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“About thee with an encompassing sugarcane have I gone, in order to absence of mutual hatred ; that thou mayest be one loving me, that thou mayest be one not going away from me.” (I.34.5)

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The plant is *Madhuka*—Bassia latifolia or *Yasthimadhu*—Glycyrrhiza glabra.

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“I dig this herb, of plants the strongest, with which one drives off her rival; with which one wins completely her husband.” (III. 18.1)

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(A hymn exactly parallel to this is found in Rig Veda.)

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The plant is *Pāṭhā* or *Vānaparṇī*—Clypea hernandifolia.

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“Of the horse, of the mule, of the he-goat and of the ram, also of the bull what vigours there are—them do thou put in him, O self-controller.” (IV. 4. 8)

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The plant used is identified with *Kapitthaka* (Feronia elephantum.)

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“As the black snake spreads himself at pleasure, making wondrous forms, by the Asura’s magic, so let this *Arka* suddenly make thy member altogether correspondent, limb with limb.” (VI. 72.1.)

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The plant is identified with the *Arka* plant—Calotropis gigantea.

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“Wherewith they invigorate one who is lean,

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wherewith they incite one who is ill—with that, O Brahmaṇaspati, make thou his member taut like a bow.” (VI. 101.2.)

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(The amulet of *Arka* wood.)

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“Thou art listened to, O herb, as the most best of plants; make thou now this man for me impotent, *opaśa*-wearing.” (VI. 138.1.)

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“A conciliator, a love-awakener, do thou, O brown, beauteous one; push together both yon woman and me; make our heart the same.” (VI. 139.3.)

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The plant is *Andropogon aciculatus*.

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“If thou art either beyond people, or if beyond streams, may this herb, having as it were bound (thee), conduct thee in hither to me.” (VII. 38.5.)

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The plant is *Śaṅkhapuṣpikā*—or hemp.

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MISCELLANEOUS USES OF PLANTS

1. Utility of Plants in the Growth of Hair

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Over and above the branches dealt with in previous sections of the paper, the verses of Atharva Veda contain a variety of uses to which plants used to be put. We place this under the head "Miscellaneous uses of plants." One of these topics is "the growth of hair." It is the outstanding merit of medical science in India that even in its infancy it took a due note of the vital relation of the body and the soul as also of the vital importance of considering its æsthetic aspects, and hence cosmatic consideration plays a part therein. Some hymns of the Atharva Veda mention plants used for contributing to the preservation, growth, development and nicety of hairs. The following extracts will give us an idea of the thing.

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"O thou of great leaves, blessed one, rain-increased, righteous! as a mother to her sons, be thou gracious to the hair, O Śamī." (VI. 30.3.) (Prosopis spicigera and Mimosa suma).

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“Fix thou the old ones, generate those unborn, and make longer those born.” (VI. 136.2.)

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“What hair of thine falls down, and what one is hewn off with its root, upon it I now pour with the all-healing plant.” (VI. 136.3.)

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“Fix thou the root, stretch the end, make the middle stretch out, O herb; let the black hairs grow out of thy head like reeds,” (VI. 137.3.)

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2. *Bk. X. 3. With an amulet of Varaṇa (Crataeva Roxburghii).*

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This hymn of the Atharva Veda gives us the use of a plant employed for manifold purposes: the prevention of injury, atonement for hereditary sins, warding off foes, and the attainment of prosperity. The following quotations will amply bear us out:

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“This Varaṇa is my rival-destroying, virile amulet; with it do thou take hold of thy foes, slaughter thy injurers.” 1.

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