Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c13.3.1

c13.3.1

**Literature known to Pāṇini.** Pāṇini throws light on the literature of his times. Four classes of literature are distinguished. The first is that which is "*seen*" (*dṛishṭam*) or revealed, e.g. the Sāmaveda. Some of the "seers" of the Sāmaveda are also mentioned, viz. Vāmadeva [iv, 2, 7, and 8]. Kātyāyana and Patañjali add the names of Kali, Agni, Uśanas, and Aupagava. The second is that which is "enounced" [iv, 2, 63; iv, 3, 101 (*proktam*)]. To this class would belong the Veda or *Chhandas* enounced by Tittiri, Varatantu, Khaṇḍika, and Ukha¹ works by the Ṛishis like Kāśyapa and Kauśik; the *Chhandas* works of Śaunaka and others²; of Kaṭha and Charaka; of Kalāpī and Chhagalī; and of the *direct* pupils of Kalāpī¹ and Vaiśampāyana. In this class are also included such *Brāhmaṇa*² and *Kalpa* ³ works as are enounced by the ancient sages, thereby excluding, according to Kātyāyana and Patañjali, the works of later sages ⁴ like Yājñavalkya and Sulabha. Lastly, Pāṇini mentions as examples of this class of literature the *Bhikshu-sūtras* as enounced or originally propounded by Pārāśarya and Karmanda as well as the *Naṭa-sūtras* as propounded by their founders mentioned as Śilālin and Kṛiśāśva. The *Bhikshu-sūtra* means a collection of rules or precepts for mendicants, while the *Naṭa-sūtra* means a collection of rules for actors [iv, 3, 101–111]. The third class of literature distinguished by Pāṇini is that which is "discovered" and not handed down by tradition [ii, 4, 21;