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Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c17: Chapter X: Education in the Epics

Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c17

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Chapter X: Education in the Epics

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**The Epics as Sources of History.** We shall now discuss the evidence of the Epics, the *Rāmāyaṇa* and the *Mahābhārata*.

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The value of the Epics as sources of history is somewhat affected by the uncertainty of the dates of the works in their present forms and the difficulty of distinguishing the various strata contributed in different periods to these composite literary structures. According to Hopkins, "upon the original story, the *Bhārata*, have been grafted many 'secondary tales' (*upākhyāna*), and upon these, and apart from these, have been inserted whole poems of romantic, ethical, and theological character, having nothing to do with the course of the Epic itself. We must, however, remember that our Epic has been enlarged in two ways: first, by a natural expansion of matter already extant; secondly, by unnatural addition of new material. The twelfth book may serve as a type of the latter; the eighth, of the former". Hopkins's conclusion is that "even the modern Epic, the full completed work, is not as a whole unimportant in the elucidation of the customs of India in the Middle Ages, reaching back more than 2,000 years".

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We may recall in this connection the references to the story of the two Epics in our earlier literature. Pāṇini, as has been already indicated, mentions the word. Mahābhārata [vi, 2, 38] and the formation Yudhishṭhira [viii, 3, 95]. He also mentions Vāsudeva and Arjuna as heads of sects [iv, 3, 98]. But, as Hopkins points out, "Pāṇini's evidence is negative, mentioning characters but not the poem by name." By the time of Patañjali, however, the Mahābhārata, as a poem, must have existed, considering his references to some of its typical characters like Vasudeva and Vāladeva, Nākula, Sāhadeva, and Bhaimasenya who are mentioned as descendants of Vṛishṇi and Kuru families [see the references given before]. Another early reference to the story of the two Epics is in the *Kauṭilīya* which mentions how the two kings, Rāvaṇa and Duryodhana, came to grief for their sins. the former in not restoring another man's wife (*paradārānaprayachchhan*) out of conceit and the latter another man's legal share of the kingdom [i, 6].

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**Their interest mainly military.** The purely educational evidence of the Epics is, however, very meagre in comparison with the sizes of the works or the vast quantity of sociological data they furnish. This is of course due to the interest of the two Epics lying mainly in the realm of action and not in that of thought. The military interest of the Epics predominates over the intellectual. The predominant part in their history is also taken by the military and ruling caste. The bulk of the intellectual life of the country centred in the hermitages and homes of Ṛishis and Brahmins, which do not receive notice in the Epics except when they are connected with the course of their story.

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**Meagre educational material.** Nevertheless, we can wring out of such unpromising sources some quantity of interesting information bearing upon matters educational. There are some general discourses bearing on the duties of the first Āśrama of life, the life of studentship. Secondly, there are accounts of some ideal students and schools or hermitages, the centres of learning in those days. Thirdly, there are accounts given of the education that was imparted to the princes or the children of the Kshatriya caste who were meant for the military and political career.

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**Principles underlying Castes and Āśramas.** If we may use a metaphor, the different Āśramas or stages of life are mutually related in the same way as the bud, the flower, and the fruit. The tender youth is first subjected to a process of rigorous discipline and training the aim of which is to purge him of all the impurities and imperfections, physical and moral, which obstruct the free operation of the vital principles of growth of the individual. Thus endowed with a sound mind in a sound body, the budding youth blossoms into a noble manhood which then reproduces itself in the householder's state and through the experience of an active life ripens into the fruit of mature wisdom and moral steadfastness which are dedicated in the third Āśrama of life to the advancement not of the *individual* but the *collective* life. The *Vānaprastha* must detach himself from personal interests centring in his individual home and family. He must wander from home into homelessness, cut himself off from his old moorings of self-interest to sail on the open main towards the Universal and the Absolute, and feel that "one touch of Nature which makes the whole world kin".

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Thus the first period of life is that of preparation through education. But this means that we must know what it is a preparation for. The preparatory processes, the contents and methods of education, will thus vary with the ultimate ends in view. The education of the Brahmin is to be such as can prepare him for the duties and vocations laid down as legitimate for him. Similarly, the education of the Kshatriya, the Vaiśya, and the Śūdra, too, will have to be such as can fit each for his respective career in life. All education thus becomes in a sense vocational or practical.

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**Duties of different Castes according to Mahābhārata.** The duties of the several castes which thus determine the kind of training suitable for them are laid down in some passages of the Mahābhārata. One such passage has them as follows [xvi, 60] :—

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"Self-control is the first duty of the Brāhmaṇas. Study of the Vedas and patient practice of austerities are also their other duties. By practising these two, all their acts are done.

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"If, while engaged in the observance of his own duties, without doing any unlawful act, riches come to a peaceful Brāhmaṇa endued with knowledge, he should then marry and beget offspring and should also practise charity and perform sacrifices. He should also share the enjoyment of this wealth with the worthy.

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"But by Vedic study alone will a Brāhmaṇa's duties be done. Whether he does anything else or not, he will be regarded as a true Brāhmaṇa, the friend of the universe."

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Thus practically the life of a Brahmin is the life of study whereby he becomes the custodian of the nation's culture to the promotion of which he has to consecrate his whole life.

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Regarding the duties of the Kshatriya, it is laid down that he "should give but not beg; should himself celebrate sacrifices but not officiate as a priest in the sacrifices of others; should never teach the Veda but study the same with a Brāhmaṇa teacher (*dadyāt na yācheta; yajeta na yājayet; nādhyāpayedadhyīyīta*); should protect his people, being always ready to kill robbers and show his mettle in battle; for there is no higher duty of a Kshatriya than checking the wicked. While gifts, study, and sacrifices bring him prosperity, the Kshatriya who wishes for spiritual merit can realize it only by doing his duties as a warrior (rājñā viśeshena yoddhavyaṁ dharmamīpsatā). No true Kshatriya should leave a battle unscathed. The proper duty of a king is to defend his people and keep them to their duties and when that is done, it does not matter if he does anything else or not. The best of kings is distinguished by three attributes, viz. performance of sacrifices, knowledge of the Vedas, and victory in wars.

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Regarding the *Vaiśya*, he should make gifts; study the Vedas, perform sacrifices, and acquire wealth by fair means.

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It is thus evident that while study is binding upon all belonging to the three twice-born castes (making up the majority of the entire Indian population), a life of learning or an intellectual career is not prescribed for all. The Kshatriya is destined for the political, and the Vaiśya for the economic career. In Adam Smith's phraseology, the former is for "defence" and the latter for "opulence."

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The status of the Śūdra in this ancient society has been much misunderstood. It would be irrelevant to our present purpose to go into the question thoroughly. We are only concerned with its educational or cultural aspects which are very well indicated in some passages of the Mahābhārata [ib.]. It may be recalled that much of the intellectual life and culture of the community centred round sacrifice which had thus a very great educative influence. From such influence the Śūdra was not excluded. The privilege of performing or participating in sacrifices was not denied to him. Of course, these sacrifices were of a kind, other than the strictly Vedic sacrifices for which the higher castes alone were eligible. The sacrifices for which the Śūdra is eligible are called *Pākayajñas*. But the Mahābhārata is very particular in pointing out that the highest of all sacrifices is open to all including the Śūdra. That sacrifice is devotion, what is called *Śraddhā-yajña*, performed by the mind (*manīshayā*). "Even gods do not disdain to share the offerings of sacrifices of Śūdras when performed in such spirit." "Therefore all the four castes are equal." "That person who desires to worship God through sacrifice is considered virtuous, even though he happens to be a thief or the worst of sinners."

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We have now roughly indicated the legitimate careers marked out for the four castes for which they must prepare in the period of their education. It is, however, to be noted that though the lines of differentiation of occupations normally followed those of caste, the lines were not at all rigid and inelastic. They were departed from under difficulties, distress, or emergencies. Under the pressure of necessity which has no law, the promiscuous pursuit of occupations is permitted, thus exposing the real character and significance of caste as determining the destiny of labour. As a matter of fact, the social and economic divisions were not always coinciding. On this point,¹ "the text of Yājñavalkya is pertinent: 'a Śūdra should serve twice-born men; but if he cannot thus subsist, he may become a trader'; and the profession of a husbandman is allowed to the Śūdra by the *Narasiṁha Purāṇa*, 'let him rely on agriculture for his subsistence.' On this ground, the practice of money-lending by a Śūdra has been mentioned" [Colebrooke's *Digest of Hindu Law*, vol. ii, p. 356].

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¹ *Cf.* *Mbh.*, xii, 78, 2, which permits a Brahmin in distress to take to agriculture and tending cattle like a Vaiśya, if unable to perform the duties of a Kshatriya, and also to trade (4–6), but not in certain prohibited articles. In xii, 76, a Brahmin is described as degraded by the pursuit of the following occupations, viz. accepting office in law-courts for summoning people (the office meant for a Śūdra), performing worship for others for money, officiating in sacrifices for a village, making sea-voyages, foretelling from the stars, acting as Ṛitvijas, Purohitas, counsellors, envoys, and messengers, or engaging in the army as a horseman, or a fighter on elephant or chariot, or as a foot-soldier. In another passage, there is the interesting injunction that the Brahmins should take up arms to protect the people when they are left unprotected. Even a Śūdra who affords such protection to helpless people deserves to be adored by all [xii, 78, 29–40]. It is thus quite apparent that the division of occupations or the distribution of careers in life was not at all rigid and immutable like that of castes. We should note in this connection the remarkable passage [xii, 85, 7–11] which lays down that the king's Ministry should be constituted by four Brahmins, eight Kshatriyas, twenty-one Vaiśyas, three Śūdras, and one Sūta, and all of fifty years of age. Thus the highest post in the administration was thrown open to all the castes, and the Śūdra did not labour under any disqualification. We may also recall the passage of Manu [ii, 241; *Āp.*, ii, 4, 25; *Gaut.*, vii, 1–3; *Baudh.*, i, 3, 41–3], which permits a Brahmin student, "in times of distress," to "learn the Veda" from a non-Brahmin teacher whom he must duly respect—"walk behind and serve"—"as long as the instruction lasts".

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**Education of Brahmins.** We now proceed to discuss the Epic evidence regarding the kind and methods of education prescribed for the members of the different castes to qualify them for their respective careers or callings in life.

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As has been already indicated, the evidence regarding the education of Brahmins and the centres of Brahminical learning is comparatively very meagre in the Epics and is forthcoming only in an indirect fashion in connection with episodes or stories or dialogues, and not with the general course of their narrative.

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Regarding the education of Brahmins, it is indicated in several passages which summarize the duties and rules relating to the first Āśrama or stage of life and applicable to the three twice-born classes on the lines laid down in the Dharma-Sūtras dealt with above. In xii, 191 we have the following:

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"Of the four modes of life, to live in the house of the preceptor is the first. In this mode of life one should have his soul cleansed (*viniyatātmā*) by purity of conduct, by Vedic rites, by restraints, vows, and humility. He should adore the morning and evening twilights, the sun, his own consecrated hearth, and the gods. He should shake off procrastination and idleness. He should purify his soul by saluting his preceptor, by studying the Vedas, and by attending to his preceptor's instructions. He should perform his ablutions thrice. He should lead a life of celibacy; attend to his consecrated hearth; serve his preceptor dutifully; daily go out for alms, and give ungrudgingly to his preceptor the whole of what is got in alms. Carrying out willingly the behests of his preceptor, he should be ready to receive such Vedic instruction as his preceptor may give him as a favour."

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The following passage [xii, 242] still further elaborates the rules of studentship:

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"While living in the preceptor's house, the Brahmachārin should seek bed after the preceptor has gone to his, and rise therefrom before the preceptor rises from his. He should do all such acts again as a disciple or a menial servant should do. Doing these, he should humbly stand by his preceptor.

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"Having performed all acts, he should study, sitting at the feet of his preceptor, with anxious desire to learn. He should always behave with simplicity, avoid evil speech, and take lessons only when his preceptor asks him for it.

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"He should never eat before his preceptor has eaten; never drink before his preceptor has done so; never sit down before his preceptor has sat down; and never go to bed before his preceptor has gone.

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"Having thus spent a fourth part of his life in the study of the Vedas and observance of vows and fasts, and having given the preceptor his fee, the disciple should, according to the ordinance, bid adieu and return home for becoming a householder."

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Another passage [xii, 66] points out "study of the Vedas every day, forgiveness, worship of preceptors, and services rendered to one's own teacher as securing the attainment of the object of *brahmacharya*".

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**Four Duties of Studentship.** The following passage [v, 44] throws further light on the system of studentship and the sacred relations obtaining between the teacher and the taught:—

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"The father and the mother only create the body; but the condition derived from the instructions of the preceptor is sacred, undecaying, and immortal.

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"The preceptor is to be regarded as father and mother, and must not be sinned against."

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A disciple should every day pay respect to his preceptor and engage in study with a pure mind and concentrated attention. He should never feel annoyed or angry (at the humble or hard services he is called upon to perform at his preceptor's house). This is the first step of studentship.

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He who acquires learning and maintains himself by the proceeds of his begging in the morning and evening and not by depending upon the preceptor's means—such a dutiful student completes the first step of studentship.

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The second step of studentship is the performance of acts desired by the preceptor at all costs and by all means—at the cost of life or the last penny, by body, mind, and speech.

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This devotion should be observed even towards the preceptor's wife or his son.

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The third step towards the fulfilment of studentship consists in the proper realization by the pupil of the benefits his preceptor confers on him by imparting to him the knowledge which annihilates pain and brings on bliss, the peace that passeth all understanding, so that in exaltation of heart he may thus think always of his preceptor, "By him have I been so developed."

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The fourth and last step of studentship consists in the pupil not leaving the preceptor's home without first paying off the debt he owes to his preceptor for his gift of knowledge by suitable presents. The pupil must make the presents also in due humility and a spirit of self-effacement, not thinking at all that he is making a gift to his teacher, much less speaking about it.

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In trying to make presents, whatever wealth the pupil acquires must be given to his teacher.

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These four steps of studentship are acquired (*a*) in course of time, i.e. by the natural growth of one's mental powers, (*b*) by contact with the preceptor, (*c*) by the pupil's own endeavours or mental capacity, and (*d*) by discussion with fellow-pupils. Thus the four factors of education are a suitable period of time, individual earnestness, and capacity, the aid of the teacher and the aid of associates in study.

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**Eligibility for education.** The eligibility for studentship is strictly laid down. The teaching of the Vedas must not be imparted to one who has not formally become a disciple, who has not observed vows or who is of impure soul. No knowledge should be imparted to one whose character is not previously known. As pure gold is tested by heating, cutting, and rubbing, so should disciples be examined with reference to their birth and qualities. There is, in addition, the very remarkable injunction that persons of *all the four castes* are competent to listen to discourses on Vedas or Vedic recitations (*śrāvayechchaturo varṇān*) [xii, 327].

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Lastly, the pedagogic principle is laid down that the studies prescribed should be according to capacity, for " one's knowledge is always proportionate to his understanding and diligence in study " [xii, 327].

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**Examples of Ideal Students.** Both the general course of the narrative and the episodes or stories of the Mahābhārata introduce us to ideal students, teachers, schools, and hermitages and other centres of learning.

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**Āruṇi.** Takshaśilā was a noted centre of learning. The story is told of one of its teachers named Dhaumya who had three disciples named Upamanyu, Āruṇi, and Veda. Āruṇi hailed from Pañchāla and was an ideal student in respect of devotion to his teacher, under whose orders to stop a breach in the watercourse in his field, Āruṇi, finding every other means unavailing, threw his own body into the breach. His devotion was recognized by his teacher by giving him the appellation of *Uddālaka* ¹ (*from uddāraka*).

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¹ Uddālaka and his son Śvetaketu of the Upanishadic fame are also referred to in the Mahābhārata [i, 122].

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**Utaṅka.** The traditions and ideals of Dhaumya were continued by his pupils. His other pupil, Veda, became a successful teacher noted for the devotion displayed by one of his pupils, Utaṅka, who in the story encounters every variety of experience and danger to procure for his preceptor the presents of his choice before he was free to leave his preceptor's home on completion of studentship.

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**Upamanyu.** This story confirms the traditions of the Upanishads and other literature regarding the regulations of the system of studentship, such as the duty of the student to tend the preceptor's cattle (Upamanyu in the story being entrusted with this work), take care of his fields, serve him at cost of his life, if necessary, and give him pleasing presents at the end of the pupilage [i, 3].

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**Kacha.** Another picture of ideal studentship is called up by the story of Kacha and Devayānī. Kacha himself gives the following description of the life he lived in that sylvan retreat No. 5.—Supposed by Cunningham to be the hermitage of Kapila who gives it away to four exiled Ikshvāku princes.

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of learning: "Carrying the burden of sacrificial wood, Kuśa grass, and fuel, I was coming towards the hermitage and, feeling tired, sat for rest under the shade of the banyan tree, along with my companions, the kine, under my charge" [i, 76, 35, 36]. One of the traditional duties of the student was to tend his preceptor's cattle, and collect wood for fire and sacrifice, and this brought him into intimate touch with Nature and subjected him to Nature's influence and educational processes working through "silent sympathy", as Wordsworth puts it. The outdoor life and fellowship with the lower animals had also their own advantages to the student.

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**Failures of Scholarship : Yavakrīta.** The story of Yavakrīta [iii, 135] emphasizes the indispensable need of a teacher in the acquisition of knowledge which the Upanishads also insist upon. In the story, Yavakrīta engaged in the severest asceticism for obtaining the knowledge of the Vedas, because he thought that study under a teacher would require a long time for the purpose. Indra admonished him by saying: "The way you have adopted is not the proper way. Go and learn the Vedas from a preceptor." Finding his advice still going unheeded, he conveyed to Yavakrīta a sensible image of his folly by attempting the impossible feat of bridging the river Gaṅgā by means of hands.

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**Ārshṭisena.** The story of Ārshṭisena illustrates the limitations of the doctrine aforesaid. It shows how in spite of his long continued residence at his preceptor's house, and regular instruction day by day, he could not master any branch of learning or the Vedas. It was only after his practice of austere penances that he achieved success [ix, 40].

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**Hermitages.** The Mahābhārata tells of numerous hermitages where pupils from distant parts gathered for instruction round some far-famed teacher. A full-fledged Āśrama is described as consisting of several Departments which are enumerated as follows: (1) *Agnisthāna*, the place for fire-worship and prayers; (2) *Brahma-sthāna*, the Department of Veda; (3) *Vishṇusthāna*, the Department for teaching Rāja-Nīti, Arthanīti, and Vārttā; (4) *Mahendrasthāna*, Military Section; (5) *Vivasvata-sthāna*, Department of Astronomy; (6) *Somasthāna*, Department of Botany; (7) *Garuḍa-sthāna*, Section dealing with Transport and Conveyances; (8) *Kārtikeya-sthāna*, Section teaching military organization, how to form patrols, battalions, and army.

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**Naimisha.** The most important of such hermitages was that of the *Naimisha*, a forest which was like a university. The presiding personality of the place was Śaunaka, to whom was applied the designation of *Kulapati*, sometimes defined as the preceptor of 10,000 disciples. Śaunaka attracted to Naimisha a vast concourse of learned men by his performance of a twelve years’ sacrifice, of which the most essential *aṅga* or accompaniment was the discourses and disputations of learned men on religious, philosophical, and scientific topics. In one place [ix, 37] we read of “ascetics living at Naimishāraṇya being engaged in a sacrifice lasting for twelve years”, on completion of which they set out in large numbers for visiting the various sacred shrines of the country. In another place [ib., 41] we have the same reference with the interesting additional information that in the course of that twelve years’ sacrifice, when a particular one called *Viśvajit* had been completed, the Ṛishis started for the country of the Pañchālas, and reaching there, requested the king to give them twenty-one strong and healthy calves to be given away as *dakshiṇā* for the sacrifice they had finished.

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**Hermitage of Kaṇva.** The hermitage of Kaṇva was another famous centre of learning, of which a full description is given [i, 70]. It is situated on the banks of the Mālinī, a tributary of the Sarayū River. It was not a solitary hermitage, but an assemblage of numerous hermitages round the central hermitage of Ṛishi Kaṇva, the presiding spirit of the settlement. The entire forest was full of hearths where sacred fire was burning, and resounding with the chanting or recitation of sacred texts by learned Brahmins. The wide range and variety of their studies is also indicated. There were specialists in every branch of learning cultivated in that age; specialists in each of the four Vedas; in sacrificial literature and art; Kalpa-Sūtras; in the art of reciting the Saṁhitās according to the *Pada* and *Krama-pāṭha*, and in Orthoepy generally, and in Śikshā (Phonetics), Chhanda (Metrics), Śabda (Vyākaraṇa), and Nirukta. There were also the philosophers well versed in Ātma-Vijñāna (Science of the Absolute), in Brahmopāsanā (Worship of Brahma), in Mokshadharma (the way to salvation), and in Lokāyata (*Vaiśeshika*). There were also Logicians knowing the principles of *Nyāya*, and of Dialectics (the art of establishing propositions, solving doubts, and ascertaining conclusions). There were also specialists in the physical sciences and arts. There were, for example, experts in the art of constructing sacrificial altars of various dimensions and shapes (on the basis of a knowledge of Solid Geometry); those who had knowledge of the properties of matter (*dravyaguṇa*); of physical processes and their results, of causes and their effects; and zoologists having a special knowledge of monkeys and birds. It was thus a forest University where the study of every available branch of learning was cultivated.

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**Other Hermitages.** The hermitage of Vyāsa was another seat of learning. There Vyāsa "taught the Vedas to his disciples. Those disciples were the highly blessed Sumanta, Vaiśampāyana, Jaimini of great wisdom, and Paila of great ascetic merit". They were afterwards joined by Śuka, the famous son of Vyāsa [xii, 328].

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Among other hermitages noticed by the Mahābhārata may be mentioned those of Vasishṭha and Viśvāmitra [ix, 42], and that in the forest of Kāmyaka on the banks of the Sarasvatī [iii, 183]. But a hermitage near Kurukshetra [ix, 54] deserves special notice for the interesting fact recorded that it produced two noted women hermits. There "leading from youth the vow of brahmacharya, a Brahmin maiden was crowned with ascetic success and ultimately acquiring yogic powers, she became a *tapas-siddhā*", while another lady, the daughter not of a Brahmin but a Kshatriya, a child not of poverty but affluence, the daughter of a king, Śāṇḍilya by name, came to live there the life of celibacy and attained spiritual pre-eminence.

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**Learned gatherings at Sacrifices.** Along with the hermitages in these sylvan retreats which were the stationary seats of learning, another great educative influence in the country was the occasional concourse of learned men gathered together at the courts and palaces of kings by the sessions of sacrifices they used to celebrate with due pomp and liberality. The Upanishads, as we have already seen, are full of pictures of such learned congregations which in ancient India played the principal part in the advancement and diffusion of knowledge. As may be expected, the Mahābhārata does not fail to notice this important type of educational institutions which constitute such a characteristic feature in the history of Indian pedagogic theory and practice, organization and achievements.

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**Mahābhārata recited at the Sacrifice of Janamejaya.** The Mahābhārata itself composed by Kṛishṇa Dvaipāyana was fully recited from day to day by Vaiśāmpāyana at the sacrifice of Janamejaya, son of Parikshit, which was attended by thousands of learned Brahmins. Again, it was at the sacrifice of Śaunaka at Naimishāraṇya that the Mahābhārata was repeated by Ugraśravā Sauti. Thus the celebration of these royal sacrifices was the principal agency for the promulgation and popularization of original literary works of national interest and importance.

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**Sacrifice of Janaka.** The Upanishads also emphasize the other feature of these learned gatherings, viz. that they provided the arena where scholars seeking to establish their intellectual position entered the lists in tournaments of debate. This feature is also noticed by the Mahābhārata [iii, 132-4], where it is stated how learned Brahmins were flocking to the sacrifice of Janaka "for the purpose of listening to controversies" (and also to Brahmaghosha, recitation of the Vedas). Thither came Ashṭāvakra, eager to assert and establish his intellectual primacy, but the entrance to the Congress was barred by the gate-keeper who, under orders of the learned chief Vandī, was to admit "only old and learned Brahmins". Ashṭāvakra had thus first to convince the gate-keeper of his eligibility for membership of that learned Assembly, and addressed him as follows: "O Gate-keeper, you will to-day see me engaged in a controversial fight with all the learned men and get the better of Vandī himself in arguments." In the end Ashṭāvakra came out victorious with his supremacy acknowledged by the entire Assembly. Lastly, in this connection we may also note the different classes of learned men distinguished [xii, 236, 18-20]. "Those who are acquainted with the Vedas are of two sorts, viz. those who lecture on the Vedas (Pravaktṛi) and those who are otherwise (i.e. mere preceptors)... The preceptors of the Vedas are of two sorts, viz. those who are conversant with the Self and those that are otherwise."

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**Education of the Kshatriya with reference to his occupations.** We shall now discuss the Epic evidence regarding the education of the Kshatriya. Both law and legend are at one in making studentship the first stage in the life of every member of the three twice-born classes. But, as has been already stated, the course of studies may be naturally assumed not to have been uniform for all the classes, but determined by the ultimate ends and careers prescribed for each class. This *a priori* assumption seems to be borne out by the evidence of the Epics as a whole, though there are some passages in that evidence liable to give a contrary impression.

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It is necessary at the outset to recall how the position is defined in law. The three occupations common to all the twice-born classes as stated therein are "studying, sacrificing, and giving". To these three occupations are added as special to the Brahmin "teaching, performing sacrifices for others, and receiving gifts", and as special to the Kshatriya, "defence or protection of his people." It is also to be noted that such study as was enjoined for the Kshatriya might make him sufficiently proficient in the Veda to be able to teach, and teach a Brahmin student who should not go without education for failure of a Brahmin teacher. Thus normally the Kshatriya was only to study, and the Brahmin to study as also to teach and perform sacrifices for others. It is thus evident that the study as a qualification for the high, responsible, and practical function of teaching and direction of religious practices will be different in scope and method from that which is followed by occupations not directly depending on or connected with it. Some law-givers expressly point out that it is the king alone who is expected to commit to memory the Vedas, like the Brahmin, and not the ordinary members of his caste [*Gaut.*, xi, 3; *Manu*, vii, 43].

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**Bhīshma as Teacher of Kuru and Pāṇḍu Princes.** Let us now examine the Epic evidence on the education of the princes. The Pāṇḍus are described as "having studied *all* the Vedas and the various Śāstras or treatises on duty, etc." [i, 1, 122]. Dhṛitarāshṭra, Pāṇḍu, and Vidura "brought up from their very birth by Bhīshma as if they were his own sons" are described as "being purified by the ceremonies of their order, disciplined by study and the vows and practices of studentship, and emerging into manhood skilled in 'studies' (*Śrama*, as explained by Nīlakaṇṭha) and 'hand to hand fights' (*Vyāyāma*). They are proficient in Dhanurveda (archery) and Veda, in club-fights, in the wielding of swords and shields, in the driving of elephants, in Nītiśāstra (Polity), Itihāsa, and Purāṇa and other subjects, in the truths of the Veda and Vedāṅgas, and of fixed determination in all their undertakings" [i, 109, 17–20]. Pāṇḍu excelled in archery and Dhṛitarāshṭra in personal strength [ib., 21].

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**He appoints Droṇa as their Teacher.** Bhīshma, as the guardian of the Pāṇḍu and Kuru princes committed to his care, appoints as their preceptor Droṇa, "learned in all the Vedas." Droṇa specially taught his students Dhanurveda in all its branches. They became before long perfect experts in the use of all kinds of weapons [i, 131]. There is, it may be noted, no mention here of the study of the sacred texts by the princes. In another place [i, 134], the following injunction is expressly laid upon Droṇa by Bhīshma in giving him charge of the education of the princes: "Unstring your bow and teach these princes the science of arms." Droṇa was selected as a teacher because he was a specialist in that subject which was taught him by the great Ṛishi Agniveśa. "I was engaged there," says Droṇa, "in serving my preceptor, and lived with him for a long time as an humble-minded Brahmachārin with matted locks on my head." Droṇa was given for his residence by Bhīshma "a neat and tidy house, well-filled with paddy and every kind of goods", and commenced his instruction of the princes. He "gave instructions to all the princes in the science of arms".

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**Arjuna the best Pupil.** "Though he gave equal instructions to all, yet Arjuna became the foremost of all in agility and skill." "Arjuna took a great deal of care in worshipping the preceptor; had great devotion to his study of the science of arms. Therefore he became a great favourite of Droṇa." "He practised with his bow even in the night." Pleased with him, Droṇa then taught him "the art of fighting on horseback, on the elephant, on the car, and on foot". He taught him "how to fight with clubs, the sword, the lance, the spear, and the dart. He taught him the use of many other weapons, and how to fight with superior numbers". As regards his other pupils, Duryodhana and Bhīma specialized in the art of fighting with clubs, Nakula and Sahadeva in handling the sword, Yudhishṭhira as a "car-warrior", while Aśvathāmā excelled in the use of all arms.

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**Arjuna as Teacher of his son Abhimanyu and other Princes.** The same kind of military training was also the portion of the next generation of princes. "That powerful boy (Abhimanyu, son of Arjuna) became equal to his father in counteracting the weapons hurled on him in great lightness of hand, in fleetness of motion forward and backward, and in traversing and wheeling." He "learnt from Arjuna the science of arms with its four branches and ten divisions ... and he also became learned in the Vedas." Again: "All their rites of infancy and childhood, according to the ordinances, such as Chūḍākaraṇa and Upanayana were duly performed by Dhaumya. After having studied the Vedas those princes (sons of Draupadī) of excellent behaviour and vows learnt from Arjuna the use of all the weapons" [i, 223].

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**Contents of Kshatriya's Education.** The education prescribed elsewhere for the sons of kings included the following: "Knowledge, the family-laws, the Veda-of-the-bow, the Veda, elephant riding, horseback-riding, chariot-driving, rules of propriety, word-science, music and the fine arts, legends, and tales" [xiii, 104; cf. v, 189].

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The kind of religious or Vedic knowledge which these princes were expected to acquire will be further evident from the fact that in the great war we find among the active combatants a good many very young knights. One of the foremost of these was Abhimanyu who is represented as only sixteen years old, already married and regarded as a full-fledged knight [i, 67]. Old Droṇa [vii, 192, 65; 193, 43] at eighty-five is spoken of as "acting in battle as if he were a vigorous youth of sixteen". The same kind of evidence is also given in the Rāmāyaṇa where, when Rāma is about to be taken away from home on his military mission, his father exclaims: "He is as yet but a boy (*bāla*); he is not yet sixteen and has not acquired the art of using arms." This passage thus further shows that the age of sixteen marked the end of boyhood before which the prince was normally expected to have acquired the military arts and qualified for the vocation or mission of his life [*Rāmā.*, i, 23, 2; iii, 42, 23].

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The conclusion to which all this evidence points is very well put by Hopkins: "How are we to interpret this? The Science of Arms required years of patient study. Is it conceivable that a boy otherwise occupied in physical training should by the age of sixteen be master of the special skill that gave him power on the battlefield and at the same time have found time to commit to memory even one Vedic collection? It is clear that the Law is later than the Epic on this point; and even there such knowledge is only to be assumed as desirable for the warrior in general. The active young knight and busy trader must have performed their duties toward the Veda in a very perfunctory way, if at all. The more reasonable supposition seems to me to be that, while in the early age there was no let to the desire of a young warrior if he wished to be Veda-learned, the conventional practices of his caste nevertheless constrained most of his attention to arms, and in his eight months of schooling (if even this, the later term of yearly study, be allowed for so early a time) he probably did nothing more than 'go over' the text of the Veda. It is absurd to believe that the memorizing of even one Vedic collection could have been attempted by such young warriors as those the Epic depicts. The practice must have been peculiar to the man of leisure, the priest. Indeed, it is not to this caste as a whole that the Epic ascribes such knowledge but the king alone is, theoretically, acquainted with the three-fold Veda. A sort of commutation of learning seems to be implied in the Sūtra period; for we read that the student, instead of learning all, may even as an alternative to the *anuvāka* (itself a concession) recite only 'as much as the Guru thinks best'; or 'only the first and last hymn of each seer'; or 'at the beginning of each hymn just one verse' "[*Śāṅkh.*, ii, 7, 22 ff.].¹

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¹ "The twenty-second verse alone would give any liberty of shortening (*yāvad vā gurur manyeta*). Oldenberg, translating this, notes the consequence, and calls the plan an 'abridged method, by which students who had not the intention of becoming Vedic scholars and probably chiefly students of the Kshatriya and Vaiśya caste, could fulfil their duty of learning the Veda'. In xii, 132, 20, 21 (= Manu, viii, 44) we are told that the *dharmavid*, or king erudite in rules of duty, must know the 'four-fold system of right'. This is best explained by another verse in the same book (xii, 59, 33), where the three-fold (Veda) is one; logic, two; agricultural occupations (including trading, etc.), three; and the system of punishment, four. The age of manhood is reached at sixteen"

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We may add to this the significant query of Nārada who, wishing to know what King Yudhishṭhira has studied, only asks him whether he has learnt the Sūtras on horses, elephants, and chariots together with the Veda-of-the-bow (being the only Veda mentioned in this connection). Among other assumed subjects of royal study are mentioned Sūtras on other subjects such as those treating of poison, city-life, and military machines which together with the knowledge of magical weapons and sorcery make up the contents of the royal learning [ii, 5, 110, 120 ff.].

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In the *Rāmāyaṇa* [i, 80, 27 ff.], the list of subjects the king is expected to study includes Dhanurveda, Veda, Nītiśāstra and the art (śikshā) of elephants and cars, besides the arts of painting (Ālekhya), writing (Lekhya), jumping (laṅghana), and swimming (plavana). In another passage we have mention of Writing and Numbers [(*lekhya-saṁkhyā*), ib., 80, 4 (cf. ii, 2, 6)], of fine arts (Gandharvavidyā), logic (Nyāya), polity (Nītiśāstra), etc.

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There are several similar lists in the Mahābhārata. Reference has already been made to two such lists [xiii, 104, 125; v, 189, 1 ff.], where we have mention of *Śabdaśāstram* and the sixty-four *Kalās* together with *Yuktiśāstram* (i.e. "grammar, fine arts, and etiquette"). Another list enumerates the following [ii, 11, 25]: Ashṭāṅga-āyurveda (Medicine with its eight branches), Ṛigveda, Sāmaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, Sarvaśāstrāṇi, Itihāsas, Upavedas, Vedāṅgas, Vāṇī of seven kinds, Sāmas, Stutiśāstras (treatises of hymns), various kinds of Gāthā literature, Bhāshyas (*bhāshyāni tarkayuktāni*), Nāṭakas, Kāvyas, Kathākhyāyikās (Kārikāḥ). Hopkins holds the view that probably this list is earlier than the previous one, but both show that "the line of education was away from the Veda and that what time the princes had was given to culture, not to religion". He further holds that "as the old royal personal fighting days ended—that is, as the princes were more and more expected to be figure-heads in war, and drove into battle to watch it on an elephant's back rather than to lead it in a war-car—their older bow- and sword-training was given up; but the time so gained was spent in more effeminate, certainly not more dryly intellectual occupations. Perhaps the rather late Virāṭa, with the cowardly little crown-prince, shows us the step between"

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**Contents of Military Training.** We may also give in this connection some details of the military training which the Kshatriya princes receive in the Epic. The art of warfare was made up of several arts connected with the traditional divisions of the ancient Hindu army, viz. the horse, the foot, the elephant, and the chariot. The entire military science and art of the age seem to have been comprehended by the generic term *Dhanurveda*, the dhanu or bow being regarded as the type or symbol of all weapons or methods of warfare. Thus the *Dhanurveda* or the general science of weapons and warfare is mentioned in different references as conveying different kinds of military knowledge or accomplishments In one [vii, 45, 17] the heroes are "equipped with the strength born of the skill acquired" (*śikshābalopetāḥ*). In another [vi, 74, 10; also 82, 37; 90, 42, etc.], "lightness of hand" (*pāṇilāghava*) is acquired. Other references [ix, 22, 16; vii, 142, 38; 169, 3] mention "lightness and cleverness" (*lāghava* and *saushṭhava*). The *Dhanurveda* also imparts the "knowledge of seizing weapons" (*Śastragrahaṇavidyā*, vi, 76, 7 and vii, 114, 4). It also teaches the arts of mounting a car (*āroha*), leaping down (*paryavaskanda*), running (*saraṇa*), leaping easily (*sāntarapluta*), discharging weapons simultaneously (*samyakpraharaṇa*), and of advancing and retreating (*yāna vyapayāna*) [vi, 76, 8; cf. *Rāmāy.*, vi, 69, 30 ff.]. All this shows that the *Dhanurveda* is the same as Astraśikshā or art of handling missiles [vi, 118, 21]. Another passage [vii, 23, 39] even speaks of a man as being a paragon (*pāraga*) of proficiency "in the Dhanurveda of missiles and Brahmaveda". The *Rathaśikshā* or skill with the car became also a part of the Dhanurveda, wherefrom the knight learnt the art of "circling" with his war-car, of "doubling and returning", and the negative skill of avoiding being made a *viratha* (deprived of one's war-car), and preventing it from being splintered into fragments by the enemy's blows. There was also taught the skill in the use of armour so as to make it invulnerable. The skill seems to have been imparted by oral instruction. Droṇa knew "how to instruct one to wear the breastplate so that it should be invulnerable" [vii, 48, 27; 103, 17 (varma bhāsvaram)]. One passage [i, 139, 6, 17] extends the scope of Dhanurveda so as to include the knowledge of fighting with all weapons of which the bow is a mere type, viz. fighting with club, sword, car, bow, arrow, and missiles. This extended scope leads to its four divisions [i, 130, 21; iii, 37, 4; v, 158, 3; ix, 44, 22], according to the weapons taught or methods of using them [iii, 115, 45]. Though it is called a Veda (or more properly Upaveda) to denote its literary existence it was not studied naturally in the manner of the study of the other Vedas, of memorizing the texts. The learner must study it in isolation and by practice with his arms; if necessary, he must seek the aid of a teacher to show him their use; and, in one case, he makes an earthen idol of the ideal teacher and worships him, so that he may imbibe his excellence by his self-absorption. Ekalavya left home for the sake of his practice, which thus included both physical exercise and spiritual, for the perfect marksman must not see anything but the target [i, 132, 33; 133, 5; 131, 42; 132, 13, 14, 34-5]. That the study of the Dhanurveda is to be principally by practice is also shown from the case of Arjuna who goes out and practises even at night and thus becomes an expert in the various military arts such as those connected with the management of horses, elephants, and the like [i, 132, 28].

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According to Hopkins, "the ultimate expansion of the theory of weapons resulted in the theory of war, and this was expanded again into a theory of polity; and we thus have on the one side our modern Nītiśāstra or system of royal polity, and on the other the practical instruction in the use of arms or the science of weapons. Thus in a late book we read: 'he will comprehend the science of weapons, and the different weapons, and the system of polity.'¹ A system of war is implied when we read, for example, of the system of Uśanas, the system of Aṅgiras' son, etc."²

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¹ "xiv, 66, 24. In the later books the system of polity was so familiar as to be used in proverbs, e.g. xiii, 164, 7—'not everyone that has perused the works of polity is wise in polity.'"

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² i, 100, 36. The best treatment of Epic material is given by Professor E. W. Hopkins in *JAOS.*, Vol. 13, to which this chapter is indebted.

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**Women and Education.** The *Rāmāyaṇa* contemplates women who were *Bhikshuṇīs*. The best example of these is 'Śramaṇī' Śabarī who is described as *Chīra-Kṛishṇājināmbarā*, *Jaṭilā*, *Siddhā*, *Tāpasī*, with her Āśrama on the Pampā, and Guru named Mataṅga. Śabarī was not a *śabara* by caste. It was only a name [*Araṇyakāṇḍa*, 74, 9–33]. In the *Mahābhārata*, Ashṭāvakra converses with an old woman who describes herself as a Brahmachāriṇī. The daughter of Śāṇḍilya was also a Brahmachāriṇī, as also that of Ṛishi Gārgya. Janaka has a philosophical discussion with Bhikshuṇī Sulobhā.

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**Ayodhyā as a Centre of Culture.** The educational and cultural conditions of the country in that age are seen at their best at Ayodhyā, the capital of Kings Daśaratha and Rāma. The city was noted for its Vedic Schools of Taittirīyas, Kāṭhakas, and Mānavas. It is stated that among the Brāhmaṇas of the city there was neither illiteracy nor inadequacy of knowledge [*R.*, i, 5–7]. There were the Associations of Brahmachārīs called "Mekhalīnāṁ Mahā-Saṁgha". This Students' Federation is mentioned as approaching the King with statements of their views on public questions and grievances. Students are also mentioned as residents of *Āśramas* as well as of *Āvasathas* which were like the licensed lodging-houses of modern times. The Āśramas were suburban retreats whither flocked the citizens to listen to learned discourses and discussions held there. These were like modern University Extension Lectures [*R.*, ii, 67]. These debates were generally carried on by Lokāyatas notorious for their casuistry. Ayodhyā was also the seat of the Purāṇic Schools of Sūtas and Māgadhas and was crowded by these bards and chroniclers [*R.*, ii, 100; 38–9; i, 5], of whom the Chief in those days was Ārya (Reverend) Chitraratha [*R.*, ii, 32]. There were also at Ayodhyā Ladies' Clubs called *Vadhū-Saṁghas*, Dramatic Societies called *Nāṭaka-Saṁghas*, which organized festivities called *Utsavas* and *Samājas* at the suburban parks, of which the main programme was acting and dancing [*R.*, i, 5–7; ii, 67]. Lastly, we have a reference to educational institutions conducted by private citizens in the city (*paurān*) which offered Lectures and Lessons attended by various bodies of students (*Śishya-Gaṇas*). These citizens included the Sūtas and Māgadhas, king's officers, artists and craftsmen of all kinds, and merchants who had travelled widely [*R.*, ii, 1–2; i, 5–7; ii, 67].

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**Āśrama of Bharadvāja at Prayāga.** Lastly, we may mention one of the biggest Āśramas of the times, that of Ṛishi Bharadvāja at Prayāga, which accommodated Bharata and his royal retinue, including the ladies of the Palace. The Āśrama was equipped with "white *Chatuḥ-śālās*"; stalls which accommodated the royal elephants and horses; *harmyas* or mansions; *prāsādas* or palaces, and their *toraṇas* or gateways; a separate *rāja-veśma* or royal guest-house fitted with several *toraṇas*, and furnished with beds, seats, and vehicles, coverlets and carpets, stores of food. The Āśrama also entertained its royal guests with the performances of musicians and dancing girls. All this lavish hospitality was extemporized for the occasion, showing the resources which Ṛishi Bharadvāja could command in the locality by his personality [*R.*, vi, 126; ii, 90–2].¹

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¹ A highly intensive study of the educational material of *Rāmāyaṇa* is contained in Dr. S. C. Sarkar's Patna University Readership Lectures to which I am indebted.

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No. 6.—Supposed by Cunningham to be the hermitage of Ṛishi Bharadvāja at Prayāga, or of Atri at Chitrakūṭa; showing Rāma, Lakshmaṇa, and Sītā standing before the Ṛishi. A more elaborate and dramatic representation of *Rāmāyaṇa* scenes in their sequence is to be found in four parts of a story-telling panel in a sculpture at Nāgārjunikoṇḍa (*c.* second century A.D.) [See Plate XLV of *Memoir* No. 54 of Archaeological Department, Government of India.].

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