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Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c18: Chapter XI: Industrial and Vocational Education

Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c18

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Chapter XI: Industrial and Vocational Education

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**Evidence.** Ancient Indian Literature, whether Sanskrit, Pāli, or the Prākṛits, being mainly religious in character, it does not furnish much evidence on the subject of industrial and technical education, though it is upon the basis of such education that ancient India was able to build up her own economic life and prosperity and figured in the ancient world as the chief exporting country, supplying foreign countries from time immemorial and through the ages with luxuries and other articles turned out by her cottage industries and handicrafts. Bits of evidence on this important and interesting subject are found scattered throughout this literature, and these may be pieced together to produce a picture of ancient Indian Industrial Education as a whole, though it is not possible to trace its history and development by different periods and stages, as in the case of general education and culture.

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**Ceremony of Admission.** The ideas and rituals which prevailed in the sphere of general education influenced that of practical education in arts, crafts, and the professions. The most important of these were the Medical and the Military.

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**Upanayana Ceremony for study of Āyurveda.** According to *Śuśruta-Saṁhitā* [ch. ii], the study of Medical Science or Āyurveda requires the separate performance by its student of a special Upanayana ceremony, although such a student, as a *dvija*, as a Brāhmaṇa, Kshatriya, or Vaiśya, should have already performed such a ceremony according to the rules of his order. The Āyurvedic Upanayana lays stress on physical and moral qualifications, on properly formed bodily organs such as tongue, lips, and teeth, eyes, nose and mouth; and on cleanliness, good manners and morals, courage, humility, capacity, intelligence, patience, retentiveness, and zeal, purity of body, mind, and speech and capacity for taking pains. A student lacking these qualifications will not be eligible for Upanayana and admission.

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The ceremony, as usual, was to be performed on an auspicious day. An altar 18 inches square was prepared, on which worship was offered to the Deity, to Brāhmaṇa, and to the Physicians. Next, *Samidh* or wood from four trees, Khadira, Palāśa, Devadāru, and Bilva, was soaked in curd, honey, and ghee and offered as *homa* to Fire, by utterance of the Mahāvyāhṛiti Mantra—Om Bhūh svāhā Om Bhuvaḥ svāhā Om Svaḥ svāhā Om Bhurbhuvah Svaḥ svāhā. Then the following Deities were invoked: Brahman, Prajāpati, the two Aśvins, and Indra; as also the following Ṛishis, as being associated with the development of Āyurvedic science: Dhanvantari, Bharadvāja, Ātreya, and the like.

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A Brāhmaṇa could perform the Upanayana ceremony for a Brāhmaṇa, Kshatriya, and Vaiśya student; a Kshatriya for a Kshatriya and Vaiśya student; and a Vaiśya for a Vaiśya student. But, according to some authorities, a Śūdra also may be initiated and admitted to a study of Āyurveda, if he was qualified by purity of his lineage and possession of virtues. Thus the study of Āyurveda was open to all the castes.

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At the conclusion of the ceremony, the preceptor, in the presence of Agni as witness, will ask the pupil to take an oath that he will follow the injunctions stated. ‘The pupil must abjure lust, anger, greed, inertia, vanity, conceit, envy, harshness, lying, laziness, and disreputable deeds. He must duly cut off his nails and hairs; wear pure silken clothes (as preventing infection); and practise *brahmacharya* and truthfulness. He must perform his prescribed duties, as the preceptor must perform his. He was also asked to treat, without charging fee and cost of medicines, the following persons: the *dvija*, *guru*, pauper, friend, ascetic, protégé, saint, orphan, and guest. He must avoid treating as his patients the hunter, fowler, the degraded and sinful.’ The principle of these rules is that the physician must himself be possessed of a sound healthy body, observe rules of hygiene and avoid all kinds of defilement, infection, and contamination, and be a man of strict morals as having to deal with patients of both sexes and of all sorts and conditions.

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The medical authorities contemplate a period of probation for testing the fitness of a pupil for the study to which he is formally admitted by Upanayana. This period is fixed by Śuśruta at six months [*Ashṭāṅga Hṛidaya*, Sūtrasthāna, ch. 2].

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**Medical Holidays.** Holidays were prescribed. These were the eighth, fourteenth, and new- and full-moon days; morning and evening twilights; when there were thunder, rain, and roar of clouds out of season; time of danger to the country and its king. Study was not also permitted at a crematorium, on an elephant, in a place for execution of convicts, in a field of battle, at a national festival, or in sight of inauspicious omens.

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**Upanayana for Military Education.** Military science was called Dhanurveda. According to a work called *Dhanurveda-Saṁhitā* attributed to Vasishṭha, an Upanayana ceremony had to be performed by a military student who was given a weapon, while a Vedic Mantra was uttered by the preceptor. In the case of a Brāhmaṇa student it was a bow, for a Kshatriya a sword, for a Vaiśya a lance, and for a Śūdra, a mace. The preceptor, the military master. was to have been accomplished in the use of seven weapons, viz. the bow, the disc, the sword, the spear, the mace, the arms, and the *Khārikārā*.

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**Graduation.** There was also a ceremony to mark the completion of this military training. It was called *Chhurikā-bandhanam*, because it meant the tying up of a dagger to the dress of the pupil as a token of his graduation: It is mentioned by Nārada as cited in *Vīramitrodaya* [see Altekar's *Education in Ancient India*, pp. 44-6].

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**Rules of Medical Study.** After admission, the student commences the study of medical texts. These are imparted to him by his teacher slowly and in parts, in *padas* (syllables), *pādas* (one-fourth of a śloka or verse), and *ślokas*. When the texts are thus learnt and committed to memory, their meanings must next be thoroughly grasped. The student who has mastered the mere words of the texts but not their import which they cannot expound (*prabhāshaṇa*) is likened to a beast of burden which only undergoes the pain of carrying a load of sandal-wood without enjoying the pleasure of its smell. Such a student only undergoes the pain of study without being able to enjoy its fruits.

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It is also pointed out that Āyurveda has many branches of study which throw light on one another. A student of one subject should approach the master of another subject for interpretation of allied topics or points. In medical study, proficiency in one particular subject or branch is not sufficient. The complete knowledge of Medicine as a whole cannot be contained within only one subject or branch but is spread over many subjects and branches which thus help in the interpretation of each. The meaning of a particular science is not understood in its full implications like the contents of a seed (*vīja-bhuta*) and is rendered explicit by the light derived from allied subjects. Therefore, a medical man cannot achieve success unless he is a master of several sciences (*Bahu-śruta*) [*Sūtra-sthāna*, chs. iii and iv].

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It is again emphasized that a medical student must acquire a double proficiency in both Theory and Practice (*Śāstra* and *Karma*) which are likened to the two wings on which a bird is borne in its upward flight. The bird of one wing cannot fly at all They are also likened to the two wheels of a chariot which enable it to perform its functions in the field of battle. Similarly, a physician who is merely a pundit and grounded in the texts of his Śāstras (*Śāstrajña*) and is totally unskilled in the practical application of his theoretical knowledge will break down and will be at his wits' ends, unable to decide what he should do, puzzled by the actual sight of a patient, like a coward losing his sense in a field of battle (*mugdha* and *kiṁkartavyavimūḍha*). On the other hand, the mere empiric or quack who practises his profession without a theoretical knowledge of the Science of Medicine deserves censure and is liable to extreme penalty at the hands of the State. The best of medicines, the elixir of life, will become a poison if wrongly applied by a physician through his ignorance, while a physician who, with all his theoretical knowledge, is ignorant of the art of surgical operation (*chhedana*) and application of ointments and disinfectants (*snehādi-kārya*), is equally unacceptable. Such undeserving medical men only murder people under the licence of the State [ib., iii, 16–21].

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**Qualifications of a Physician.** He must be well-read in the texts of Medical Śāstras or treatises (*adhīta-śāstra*); well up in the import of the texts studied; skilled in practical work or surgical operations (like *Chheda* and *Sneha*); full of resourcefulness and originality (*svayaṁkṛitī*); possessed of light touch and swift hand (*laghu-hasta*); clean; of an optimistic temperament or cheerful spirits (*śūra = vishādarahita*); ready with all necessaries and materials for treatment (*sajjopaskara-bheshaja*); of a resourceful mind; possessed of keen intellect; possessed of professional experience (*vyavasāyī*); learned in theory; and devoted to truth and morality.

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**Factors of Success in Treatment.** The success of medical treatment depends on other factors, though the most important factor is the physician, who is compared to the Adhvaryu without whom the other three priests, the Udgātā, the Hotā, or the Brahmā cannot properly perform the sacrifice. He is also likened to the helmsman who can successfully handle a boat even if it lacks its rudders. But his work depends upon the efficiency of Nurses (*parichāraka*) and the quality of medicines together with the subject of treatment, viz. the patient. An efficient Nurse should be possessed of many virtues: he should be full of fellow-feeling (*snehayukta*), should not be hostile to anyone, should be physically strong, skilled in keeping up the suffering patient (*vyādhitarakshaṇam*), able to apply the prescriptions of the physician (Vaidyavākya-kṛit), and untiring in his work. As regards the quality of medicines to make them efficacious, their raw materials or sources (like the medicinal plants) should be grown properly, gathered in proper time, duly measured, should be palatable and mixed up with due degrees of smell, colour, and taste, capable of curing ailments, not repulsive, not producing any undesired effects, and should be given in proper condition. The patient also should be one who is patient under suffering, is suffering from a curable disease, possessed of materials for treatment, free from greed, full of faith in God and obedience to the directions of his Doctor [*ib.*, ch. 34].

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**Admission to Industry : Rules of Apprenticeship.** Admission to an industry or craft was also governed by regulations. These are best given in their standardized form in the law-book of Nārada, and are stated as follows :—

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" If a young man wishes to be initiated into the art of his own craft (*svaśilpaṁ ichchhan āhartum*), he must first obtain the sanction of his relations (*bāndhavānāṁ anujñayā*) and then proceed to live with his master (*āchāryasya vaset ante*), after previously fixing the period of his training or apprenticeship (*kālaṁ kṛitvā suniśchitam*).

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" Then the master must impart to his pupil his training at his own house where he is to provide his board and lodging. He must not make the apprentice perform other work (*na cha anyat kārayet karma*) but must treat him like a son.

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" If the apprentice deserts his master who duly instructs him and is not at fault in any way (*adushtaṁ*), he should be compelled by forcible means to stay with his master and will be liable to corporal punishment and confinement.

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" In case the training of an apprentice is completed before the stipulated time, he should not leave, but continue at his master's place up to the limit of the stipulated time and all the fruits of his work done during this time will be his master's (Śikshitopi kṛitaṁ kālam antevāsī samāpayet | Tatra karma cha yat kuryāt āchāryasyaiva tat phalam ||).

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" When the apprentice has mastered the art of his craft within the stipulated time (*samāye*), he should make gifts (*kṛitvā pradakshiṇāṁ*) to his teacher according to his means and then take leave of him (*nivartate*).

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"An apprentice after graduation. may have his services retained by his master who will then have the right to employ him after settling his remuneration with reference to his qualifications (vetanaṁ vā yadi kṛitaṁ jñātvā śishyasya kauśalam). In such a case, the pupil should not seek service with others."

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These rules show that industrial apprenticeship was treated as a contract based on several stipulations. First there was the stipulation as to the limit of time within which the master must engage to complete the course of training for which he admits the apprentice. As stated in the *Vīramitrodaya*, the master craftsman is to make an agreement in this form: "Let this apprentice stay with me so and so long." Secondly, the arrangement fixed the respective obligations of both the master and his pupil during the time of training. The obligations of the master were: (*a*) that he should treat his pupil as if he were his son, which meant (i) that he should give him free board and lodging in his house, (ii) that he should not treat him like a hired labourer, (iii) that he should teach him honestly and wholeheartedly without keeping back from him any secrets of his knowledge and craft and (iv) that he should not exploit his pupil's skill and labour by employing him on work not related to his training but only for his own gain. Kātyāyana fixes a penalty for employing an apprentice in work not connected with his training: "He who does not. instruct his pupil in the art (to which he is admitted) and causes him to perform other work shall incur the first amercement; and the pupil may forsake him and go to another teacher, released from this indenture" [Colebrooke's *Digest of Hindu Law*, ii, 7]. The law-books also contemplate cases of undutiful teachers putting off instruction of their pupils even after their admission, and condemn them severely if such neglect continues for a year [*Kūrma Purāṇa* cited in *Vīramitrodaya*]. On the pupil's side, there were appropriate obligations, viz. (1) that he should not desert his teacher before time where there is no justifiable ground for such desertion, such as neglect of duty or any moral lapse on the part of the teacher. A runaway apprentice might be flogged and confined if it is of his own motion; but if it is under instructions of his kinsmen who had been the consenting parties to his pupilage, the deserted master could sue these guardians of the pupil for a breach of contract [Colebrooke's *Digest*, p. 8; cf. *Manu*, iv, 164; viii. 299–300; *Gautama*, ii, 43-4]; (2) that the pupil could not leave his teacher even if he had completed his training before time. For this unexpired period, the pupil should work for his teacher and yield to him the fruits of his work, serving out his full term. The theory was that it was by way of reward or compensation for the pupil s gain in time achieved by his master's superior methods of training. Yājñavalkya [ii, 187] also states the same position: "Even if the apprentice has had his training completed before time, he must live on in his master s house up to the time fixed (*kṛita-śilpopi nivaset kṛita-kālaṁ guror gṛihe*), giving to him all that he earns by his work for the time as a return for what his master has spent on him by way of free board, lodging, and tuition (*antevāsī guruprāptabhojanastat phalapradaḥ*)."

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On this point, the question is raised by the commentator, "Whether the teacher has ownership even in what the pupil acquires by *voluntary exertion* in traffic and the like, independent of his craft, and by agriculture or similar means, and by treasure-trove or other *accident*. There are two opinions held on the point" [Colebrooke s *Digest*; ib.].

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This rule also intimates that if the art could not be learned by the apprentice in the time first stipulated, there should be a formal extension of the apprenticeship with all its liabilities to the teacher and the apprentice [ib.].

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**Advantages of the System.** The system of the apprentice and his master living together has many advantages. The apprentice always lives and works under his master's eye and has opportunities of observing the special points of his skill, his trade secrets, and imbibing his true "inward" method and genius, as the ultimate factor of success of his craftsmanship, when he lives in his home which is also his workshop, i.e home where in its freedom his whole personality always remains revealed, unobscured by the restrictions and formalities of a factory. It is the constant and intimate relationship of the home which, apart from actual and direct teaching, helps the disciple to master his teacher's method and skill in the shortest time. There is also another advantage of the home and the workshop being one. Here the teaching is learnt from the very beginning in relation to real things difficulties, and problems, and primarily by service, by personal attendance on the master. And it is not only technique that is thus learnt here, but something more valuable: in the home as workshop, there is something else, besides mere plant and tools: there is life with its problems, its human relationships, culture, and religion, relieving the mechanical monotony of a mere workshop, a thing which is as necessary to art as technique itself.

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**A School of Sculpture.** Two old inscriptions mention interesting examples of these craftsmen and the schools they conducted in connection with their crafts which they plied and pursued as cottage industries in their own homes combined with their workshops. One of these inscriptions was found on the famous Yaksha image discovered at Parkham and refers to the construction of the image (*Katā* = kṛita) by the sculptor Gomitaka described as the *ante-vāsī*, resident pupil, of the master Kuṇika. The second inscription found on the image of what was locally worshipped as "Mansā Devī" states that "the image of Yakshī Lāyāvā was constructed (*katā*) by the sculptor Nāka, the *ante-vāsī* or pupil of the master Kuṇika". It will thus appear that the School of Sculpture established by the master-craftsman Kuṇika was very famous in its locality and produced accomplished sculptors like Nāka and Gomitaka to whom India owes her earliest statues of colossal figures, male and female.

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**Caste and Craft.** The rules of industrial apprenticeship as given by Nārada indicate that admission to a craft was free, provided the guardian's consent was obtained. Normally, no doubt, the Hindu system did not favour the free choice of occupations under its fundamental philosophical position that economic ends are not ends in themselves but must subserve the higher religious and spiritual ends of life. Therefore, as a social regulation, to promote the self-fulfilment of the individual, different castes were to pursue different crafts in consonance with the ideals and values for which each caste stood. But while this was the ideal, it did not mean that it did not permit of deviations from it in practice and in the actual circumstances of life. The *Smṛitis* agree that, under necessity which has no law (*āpad-dharma*), "in times of distress or failure to obtain a living through lawful labour," persons could take to any occupations. The economic life of the times is better revealed in the Buddhist texts with their touch of realism and references to its concrete facts and details. Some of the typical ones may be cited. In *Vinaya*, i, 77 and iv, 128, we find parents freely discussing the various professions and callings of the day which their son might choose, such as Writing [*Lekham*] or occupation of the Scribe or Clerk, Accountancy [*Gaṇanam*], and Money-changing [*Rūpam* to be learnt from the treatises called *Rūpa-sutta*]. In *Chullavagga*, v, 28 even the Bhikshus or Monks, with all their preoccupations of religious life, are allowed "the use of looms and of shuttles, strings, tickets, and all the apparatus belonging to a loom", presumably because it was considered that a Monk should be able to produce the scanty clothing prescribed for him, "the triple clothing" comprising the upper and lower cloth and a towel, so as to make the whole brotherhood and Vihāra self-contained in regard to a primary requisite of life. The Jātakas even tell of Brāhmans as physicians [iv, 361], goat-herds [iii, 401], merchants, hunters, snake-charmers [iv, 457], archers, and even cartwrights [iv, 207].

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**Guilds as Industrial Schools.** While the home of the artisan functioned as the school for imparting instruction in the particular craft plied by him, the collective interests of the craft as a whole in a particular area or region were administered by an organization like a guild which was called *Śreṇī*. Each guild laid down its own laws for the administration of the interests of the particular craft belonging to it. The guilds were of various kinds like the crafts and were like so many industrial schools. The Smṛitis [e.g. Gautama, xi, 21] mention the main guilds to be those of (1) Cultivators, (2) Herdsmen, (3) Traders, (4) Money-lenders, and (5) Artisans, to which Bṛihaspati [i, 26] adds (6) Artists (=*chitra-kāras*), and (7) Dancers. There are also references to Guilds of Musicians, Priests, and Military adventurers. Thus all these may be taken to function like Schools of Fine Arts and Crafts in those days. Every industry or craft was self-governing by its *Śreṇī*, while it was pursued by an individual craftsman as a home or cottage industry, throwing open his own home or cottage as a school for training of apprentices in his craft.

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**The Sixty-four Arts and Crafts (Kalās) in Literature.**¹ Many works of Sanskrit Literature, as well as Buddhist and Jain, contain references to the ancient Indian Arts and Crafts making up a traditional number of 64. These references, for instance, are found in the Rāmāyaṇa [i, 9, 5], Bhāgavata-Purāṇa [x, 45, 36], Mahābhāshya [i, 1, 57], Daśakumāracharita [ii, 21], Kādambarī, Vātsyāyana's Kāmasūtra, and also in the works of Vāmana, Māgha, Bhavabhūti, and others. Among Buddhist and Jain works containing these references may be mentioned Lalitavistara, Jātakamālā (p. 105), Kalpasūtra, Aupapātika- Sūtra, or Praśnavyākaraṇa-Sūtra. Some works mention more than 64 *Kalās*, Jain works mentioning 72, while Lalitavistara gives 86. But the most ancient and established number is 64.

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¹ In treating this topic, I am much indebted to the Dissertation on *The Kalās* presented by Dr. A. Venkatasubbiah to the University of Berne for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

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While the mere mention of 64 *Kalās* is contained in many works, some contain their actual lists. The principal works giving such lists are (1) Kāmasūtra, (2) Kādambarī, (3) Śukranītisāra, (4) Kalpāntaravāchyāni (a commentary on Kalpasūtra), (5) Rāmachandra's Commentary on the first verse of Lakshmaṇa Kavi's continuation of the Champūrāmāyaṇa by Vidarbharāja, (6) Yashodhara's commentary called Jayamaṅgala on the Kāmasūtra, (7) the Jain work Samavāyasūtra, (8) the Buddhist work Lalitavistara, and (9) the Buddhist work Sūtrālaṁkāra by Aśvaghosha. The list of *Śukranītisāra* as one of the latest of these works is given below and may be considered as the basis of a comparative study of the lists contained in other works. The list comprises the following items:—

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1. *Nartanam*, Dancing, accompanied by suitable and allied expressions through features of the face, movements of the arm and hand, and the like (hāva-bhāvādisaṁyukta).

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The *Rājātaraṅgiṇī* mentions thirty-two modes of dancing.

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One text [*Lalita.*] calls it *Vādya-nṛityam*, dancing to the accompaniment of instrumental music.

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*Kādambarī* describes this item not as a practical art but theoretical knowledge of the literature on dancing compiled by Bharata and other writers (Bharatādipraṇītāni Nṛitya-Śāstrāni).

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Vātsyāyana mentions forms of dramatic art such as (1) *Nepathya-yoga*, "stage-play," and (2) *Nāṭakākhyāyikā-darśanam*, "histrionic and scenic representation."

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2. Proficiency at playing on many instruments together in a concert, skill in playing in an orchestra (Aneka-vādya-vikṛitau tadvādane jñānam).

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*Kādambarī* mentions these instruments as "*Vīṇā*, *Muraja*, *Kāṁsyatāla*, *Dardurapuṭa*, and the like".

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Vātsyāyana mentions "*Vīṇā*, *Ḍamaru*, and the like".

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The *Samavāyasūtra* mentions the following Arts of Music: (1) *Svaragatam*, knowledge of the seven *svaras*; (2) *Vādyam*, playing on musical instruments; (3) *Pushkara-gatam*, special skill at playing on the particular instrument called *pushkara*, a kind of drum; and (4) *Samatālam*, knowledge of "beating time to music".

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Rāmachandra calls the Science of Music *Svara-śāstra*.

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3. Skill at toilette, "assisting men and women in decorating themselves with dress and ornaments" (Strī-puṁsoḥ vastrālaṁkārasandhānaṁ).

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The *Samavāyasūtra* calls it *Ābharaṇa-vihim*, "rules relating to ornaments," and *Taruṇī-paḍikamma*, "the art of decorating a maiden."

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Vātsyāyana calls it *Nepathyaprayoga*, and Yaśodhara *Śarīrasaṁskāra*, "decoration of body."

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4. *Anekarūpāvirbhāva-kṛiti-jñānam*, the art of producing various forms or figures out of stone, wood, and other materials, the art of the Sculptor.

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The *Samavāyasūtra* calls it *Rūpaṁ*, which is explained as "sculpture, painting, producing forms in cloth, gold, wood, etc."

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5. *Śayyāstaraṇa-saṁyoga-pushpādigrathanam*, "the art of making beds and garlands with flowers."

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The *Samavāya.* calls it "*sayaṇa-vihim*". The *Lalita.* mentions *Mālya-granthanam*.

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Among these domestic Arts of menial service, Vātsyāyana adds those of *Utsādana* (oiling and perfuming the body), *Saṁvāhana* (Massage), and *Keśamardana* (dressing the hair).

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The *Samavāyasūtra* mentions the chemical art of Perfumery called *Gandha-yukti*.

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6. *Dyūtādi-aneka-krīḍābhiṁrañjanam*, "the art of entertaining by gambling and other pastimes."

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Yaśodhara enumerates fifteen kinds of gambling with dice, cowries, etc., and also with live creatures.

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The *Samavāya.* calls gambling *Jūyaṁ* and mentions a new game, *Aṭṭāvayam*, "a game played on a board of sixty-four squares."

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7. *Anekāsanasandhānairraterjñānam*.

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8. *Makarandāsavādīnāṁ madyādīnāṁ kṛitiḥ*, "the art of preparing flower-juices and other intoxicating liquors."

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9. *Śalyagūḍhāhṛitau śirāvraṇavyadhe jñānam*, "the art of extracting buried arrows, spears, etc., and of incision of open wounds and blood-vessels."

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10. *Hīnādirasasaṁyogānnādisampāchanam*, "the art of cooking various dishes with the various *rasas* combined in different proportions."

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Vātsyāyana calls it "*Vichitra-śākayūsha-bhakshya-vikāra-kriyā*"; "preparation of various vegetables, soups, and condiments"; and also "*Pānaka-rasa-rāga-āsava-yojanam*", "the art of preparing different kinds of drinks."

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Yaśodhara calls it *Āsvādya-vidhānam*, " the art of preparing savoury foods."

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The *Samavāyasūtra* describes the culinary art as *Anna-vidhi* and *Pāna-vidhi*, the art of preparing foods and drinks. Rāmachandra calls the culinary art *Sūda-Karma*.

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11. *Vṛikshādi-prasava-āropa-pālanādi kṛitiḥ*, " the art of grafting and planting and culture of plants."

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Vātsyāyana calls it *Vṛikshāyurvedayogāḥ*, " knowledge of the processes by which plants may be made to grow strong and healthy, abnormally small or big, etc."

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Rāmachandra calls it *Bhūruhāṇāṁ dohanam*, " the art of grafting trees, making trees produce all sorts of abnormal fruits, etc."

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12. *Pāshāṇadhātvādidṛitibhashmakaraṇam*, " the art of melting and reducing to ashes stones, minerals, and the like."

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The *Samavāyasūtra* calls it " Dhaupāgam " = Dhātupākam, " melting and combination of minerals." It also mentions the following metallurgical arts, viz. (1) *Hiraṇya-pāka*, (2) *Suvarṇa-pāka*, and (3) *Maṇi-pāka*, treating respectively of silver, gold, and precious stones.

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Vātsyāyana calls it simply *Dhātu-vāda*.

c18.69

13. *Yāvadikshuvikārāṇāṁ Kṛiti-jñanam*, " knowledge of the preparation of all things that can be prepared from the juice of sugar-cane."

c18.70

14. *Dhātvaushadhīnāṁ saṁyoga-kriyā-jñānam*, " knowledge of the combination of minerals and herbs."

c18.71

15. *Dhātu-sāṅkarya-pārthakya-karaṇam*, " the art of combining and isolating minerals."

c18.72

16. *Dhātvādīnāṁ saṁyoga-apūrva-vijñānam*, " the science of producing new compounds of minerals."

c18.73

17. *Kshāranishkāsana-jñānam*, " the art of extracting the *Kshārarasa out of minerals*."

c18.74

18. *Padādinyāsataḥ śastrasandhāna nikshepaḥ*, " the art of adjusting the bow with the foot, fitting the arrow and then shooting it."

c18.75

19. *Sandhyāghātā-kṛishṭibhedaiḥ mallayuddham*, " the art of wrestling in different ways, utilizing grips and falls of diverse kinds."

c18.76

The *Lalita.* mentions fights of four kinds, with *Vāhu* (arms), *Daṇḍa* (lathis), *Mushṭi* (fists), and *Asthi* (bones).

c18.77

The *Kādambarī* mentions physical science as *Vyāyāma-Vidyā*.

c18.78

20. *Abhilakshite deśe yantrādi-astra-nipātanam*, "the art of hurling weapons and missiles at observed marks."

c18.79

The *Lalita.* mentions the three forms of marksmanship, viz. (1) *Akkshuṇṇa-vedhitvam*, "the art of hitting the mark accurately"; (2) *Marma-vedhitvam*, "hitting the heart of the mark"; (3) *Śabda-vedhitvam*, "hitting the mark or game by its sound."

c18.80

The *Kādambarī* mentions military proficiency in the art of wielding the different weapons of those days such as *Chāpa* (bow and arrow), *Chakra* (discus), *Varma* (armour), *Kripāṇa* (sword), *Śakti* (spear), *Tomara* (javelin), *Paraśu* (axe), *Gadā* (club), and the like.

c18.81

21. *Vādyasaṅketato vyūharachanādi*, "the knowledge of forming an army into *Vyūhas* in accordance with the directions conveyed by instrumental music."

c18.82

22. *Gajāśvarathagatyā tu yuddhasaṁyojanam*, "taking part in battle on elephant, horse, or chariot."

c18.83

23. *Vividhāsana-mudrābhiḥ devatā-toshaṇam*, "propitiating deities by worship in different postures and by different *mudrās* or dispositions of fingers."

c18.84

24. *Sārathyam*, "the science of charioteering." *Kādambarī* calls it *Rathacharyā*.

c18.85

25. *Gajāśvādeḥ gatiśikshā*, "the art of training elephants and horses in movements."

c18.86

26. *Mṛittikā-kāshṭha-pāshāṇa-dhātu-bhāṇḍādi-satkriyā*, "the art of producing vessels and the like out of such materials as clay, wood, stone, or metals.

c18.87

Rāmachandra uses the terms *Vṛitra-kriyā*, "work in vṛitra, a kind of stone; *Loha-kriyā*, work in metals; *Aśma-kriyā*, work in stones; *Mṛit-kriyā*, "work in clay"; *Dāru-kriyā*, "work in wood"; *Venu-kriyā*, "work in bamboos"; *Varma-kriyā*, "armour-making"; *Añjana-kriyā*, "manufacture of collyrium"; *Charma-kriyā*, "manufacture of leather-goods"; and *Ambara-kriyā*, manufacture of textiles.

c18.88

Vātsyāyana uses the following terms for some of these crafts: *Paṭṭikā-Vetra-vāna-vikalpaḥ*, "making of different things like cots and seats from canes and reed"; *Takshakarmāṇi*, explained as "the manufacture of *apadravyas* out of materials like gold, steel, or wood".

c18.89

27. *Chitrādi-ālekhanam*, "painting of pictures." Yasodhara calls it *Chitravidhi*. He also mentions the art of painting on cloth, which he calls *Pustakarma*. Vātsyāyana calls it *Alekhyam*.

c18.90

28. *Taṭāka-Vāpi-Prasāda-Samabhūmi-Kriyā*, "the art of excavating tanks and wells and levelling the ground."

c18.91

29. *Ghaṭṭādi-anekayantrāṇāṁ Vādyānāṁ kṛitiḥ*, "construction of machines like the water-wheel and of musical instruments."

c18.92

Yaśodhara calls it *Upakaraṇa-kriyā*, construction of machines, apparatus, engines, etc., as explained by Monier-Williams.

c18.93

*Kādambarī* calls it *Yantraprayoga*, "use of machines."

c18.94

Vātsyāyana calls it *yantramātṛikā* which is explained as "construction of machines for purposes of locomotion, supply of water, and war".

c18.95

30. *Hīna-madhyādi-saṁy ga-varṇādyai rañjanam*, "the art of painting with colours mixed in different proportions or quantities, large, moderate, and the like."

c18.96

31. *Jala-Vāyu-Agni-saṁyoga-nirodhaiḥ kriyā*, "working with water, fire, and air in two ways, by utilizing them or by controlling them."

c18.97

32. *Naukā-rathādir yānānāṁ kṛiti-jñānam*, "the science and art of constructing ships, chariots, and other vehicles for locomotion."

c18.98

33. *Sūtrādi-rajjukaraṇa-vijñānam*, "the art of making yarns, ropes, etc."

c18.99

34. *Anekatantu-saṁyogaiḥ Paṭabandhaḥ*, "weaving of cloth out of a variety of yarns."

c18.100

35. *Ratnānāṁ Vedhādisadasat jñānam*, "the science of testing precious stones, and of the processes of cutting and boring them and similar processes."

c18.101

Vātsyāyana calls it *Rūpyaratna-parīkshā*, "testing of precious stones and coins."

c18.102

Rāmachandra calls it *Ratnaśāstram*.

c18.103

36. *Svarṇādināṁ yāthārthya-vijñānam*, "the art of examining the properties of gold and testing its genuineness."

c18.104

37. *Kṛitrima-svarṇa-ratnādi-kriyā-jñānam*, "the science and art of manufacturing artificial gold and imitation precious stones."

c18.105

38. *Svarṇādi-alaṁkāra-kṛitiḥ*, "manufacture of ornaments from materials like gold."

c18.106

Vātsyāyana calls it *Karṇa-patra-bhaṅga*, which means "the making of ear-ornaments".

c18.107

39. *Lepādi-satkṛitiḥ*, "the art of enamelling, polishing, varnishing, etc."

c18.108

40. *Charmānām mārdavādi-kriyā-jñānam*, "the science and art of tanning leather."

c18.109

41. *Paśucharma-aṅga-nirhāra-jñānam*, "the science of separating the hide and the various limbs from the bodies of animals."

c18.110

42. *Dugdhadohādi-ghritāntaṁ vijñānam*, "knowledge of the processes of milking and of making ghee from milk as its ultimate product."

c18.111

43. *Kanchukādīnāṁ sīvane Vijñānam*, "the art of sewing bodices."

c18.112

Vātsyāyana uses the general term *Suchivānakarmāṇi*, "the art of sewing, weaving, knitting, and plaiting, by the use of needle."

c18.113

44. *Jale bāhvādibhiḥ taraṇam*, "the art of swimming in water with hands."

c18.114

Rāmachandra uses a more significant expression, *Payasi plava-chāturyam*, which means "skill in diving in water "

c18.115

45. *Gṛiha-bhāṇḍādeḥ mārjane vijñānam*, "the art of cleansing houses and household utensils and furniture."

c18.116

46. *Vastra-sammārjanam*, "the art of cleaning clothes, laundry."

c18.117

47. *Kshura-karma*, "the art of shaving."

c18.118

48. *Tila-māṁsādi-snehānāṁ nishkāsane kṛitiḥ*, "the art of extracting the essence out of sesamum, meats, and fats."

c18.119

49. *Sīrādyā-karshaṇe-jñānam*, "the art of ploughing, hoeing, etc."

c18.120

50. *Vṛikshādi-ārohane jñānam*, "the art of climbing trees and the like."

c18.121

51. *Manonukūlasevāyāḥ kṛiti-jñānam*, "the art of serving another to his heart's content."

c18.122

52. *Venu-tṛiṇādi-pātrāṇāṁ kṛiti-jñānam*, "the art of making vessels out of bamboo, reeds, etc."

c18.123

53. *Kācha-pātrādi-karaṇa-vijñānam*, "the science of manufacturing vessels and other articles out of glass."

c18.124

54. *Jalānām saṁsechanaṁ saṁharaṇam*, "the science of irrigation by which water is distributed and collected."

c18.125

55. *Lohādisāraśāstra-astra-kṛitijñānam*, "the art of manufacturing weapons out of metals."

c18.126

56. *Gaja-aśva-vṛishava-ushṭrānāṁ Palyānādi-kriyā*, "the art of manufacture of saddles, etc., to be used for riding elephants, horses, bullocks, and camels."

c18.127

57. *Śiśoḥ saṁrakshaṇe dhāraṇe krīḍane jñānam*, "the art of bringing up, handling, and playing with children."

c18.128

58. *Aparādhijaneshu yuktatāḍana-jñānam*, "the art of handling offenders by suitable rebukes."

c18.129

59. *Nānādeśīya-varṇānām susamyak lekhane jñānam*, "proficiency in writing the alphabets of various countries."

c18.130

The *Samavāya Sūtra* calls it *Leham* = Lekham, i.e. writing of various scripts. Eighteen such scripts are mentioned, such as Brāhmī, Yavanalipi, Kharoshṭhī, Pāhārī, Gandharvalipi, Maheśvarī, Drāviḍī.

c18.131

Yaśodhara calls it *Lipijñānam*.

c18.132

Rāmachandra uses the three terms *Deśabhāshāḥ*, *Lipijñānam*, and *Lipikarma*, which mean "knowledge of different languages and scripts".

c18.133

60. *Tāmbularakshādi kṛiti-vijñānam*, "the art of preparing tāmbula, i.e. betel-nuts, areca nuts, slaked lime, etc."

c18.134

61. *Ādānam*, "power of comprehension of these *Kalās*."

c18.135

62. *Āśukāritvam*, "quickness of work."

c18.136

63. *Pratidānam*, "imparting instruction in the *Kalās*."

c18.137

64. *Chirakriyā*, "slow or gradual work."

c18.138

It will be seen that the lists of sixty-four *Kalās* as given in different texts do not agree in all particulars and also in the terms used for the *Kalās*. Some texts mention *Kalās* which are not known to other texts and are, therefore, important as showing the additional number of Arts and Crafts making up the economic and cultural life of the times and the diversity of occupations available in the country. Some of these have been indicated above and a few more are mentioned below.

c18.139

The study of the Sciences and Humanities, the literary Art in general, are represented by the following subjects in the *Lalitavistara*:—

c18.140

1. *Gaṇanā*. The *Samāvāya*. calls it *Gaṇitam*. It means Arithmetic.

c18.141

2. *Saṁkhyā*, "the science of numbers."

c18.142

3. *Veda*. *Kādambarī* uses the general term *Dharma-śāstra* for all these topics.

c18.143

4. *Itihāsa*.

c18.144

5. *Purāṇa*.

c18.145

6. *Nirghaṇṭu*, Lexicon.

c18.146

7. *Nirukta*, Etymology.

c18.147

8. *Nigama*, Revealed Scripture.

c18.148

9. *Śikshā*, Phonetics.

c18.149

10. *Chhanda*, Metrics.

c18.150

11. *Jyotisha*, Astronomy.

c18.151

12. *Vyākaraṇa*, Grammar. *Kādambarī* calls it *Padam*.

c18.152

13. *Yajña-Kalpa*, the Kalpa-Sūtras giving rules for conducting sacrifices.

c18.153

14. *Sāṁkhya*.

c18.154

15. *Yoga*.

c18.155

16. *Vaiśeshika*.

c18.156

17. *Veśika*, a system of philosophy.

c18.157

18. *Bārhaspatya*, the philosophical system of Bṛihaspati, the Chārvāka or Lokāyata philosophy.

c18.158

19. *Hetuvidyā*, Nyāya philosophy. *Kādambarī* uses the terms *Vākyam*, Logic, and *Pramāṇam*, *Pūrva-Mīmāṁsā*.

c18.159

20. *Arthavidyā*, Economics. Yaśodhara calls it *Ājīva-jñānam*.

c18.160

21. *Kāvya*, *Belles Lettres*.

c18.161

22. *Grantha-rachitam*, the art of the writer or authorship.

c18.162

23. *Ākhyātam*, the art of story-telling.

c18.163

24. *Hāsyam*, the art of the Humorist.

c18.164

To these Vātsyāyana adds the following subjects:—

c18.165

25. *Abhidhāna-Kośa-Chhando-Vijñānam*, "knowledge of lexicons and metrics."

c18.166

26. *Deśa·bhāshā-vijñānam*, "the science of language based on a study of the languages of different countries."

c18.167

27. *Vainayikīnāṁ Vidyānāṁ Jñānam*, "the science of Education, Pedagogics."

c18.168

28. *Mlechchhita-vikalpa*, the knowledge of languages other than Sanskrit. The *Samavāya-sūtra* uses the term *Jana-vācham* for a knowledge of the vernaculars; *Māgadhīyam*, proficiency in Māgadhi Prākṛit; and also *Paure-vācham*, urban, refined speech. This is equivalent to the term *Vachanaṁ Udāram* used by Yaśodhara, a sort of courtly speech. *Kādambarī* has the term *Sarva-deśa-bhāshāḥ*. All these terms show the specialized study in those days of Sanskrit and the Prākṛits, the literary and spoken tongues, and also non-Aryan (Mlechchha) languages.

c18.169

29. *Āryā-prahelikā*, "proficiency in composition of verses in *āryā* metre and in the science of riddles."

c18.170

30. *Śakunarūyam*, i.e. *Śakuna-vidyā*, "knowledge of the cries of birds." The *Lalitavistara* uses the wider term *Mṛiga-pakshī-rutam*, knowledge of cries of both birds and beasts. Rāmachandra uses the simple term *Śākunam* for this subject, the science of omens and portents.

c18.171

Rāmachandra mentions the following additional subjects:—

c18.172

31. *Sarvāni Apadānāni*, "all ancient chronicles."

c18.173

32. *Sāmudrikam*, "palmistry."

c18.174

33. *Vāksiddhi*, "the science of Yoga by which whatever is said will actually happen."

c18.175

*Kādambarī* adds:—

c18.176

34. *Graha-gaṇita*, "the science of Astronomy, Mathematics applied to the study of planets."

c18.177

The *Samavāya-sūtra* describes Astronomy by the four terms *Chandra-Lakshmaṇa*, *Sūrya-Lakshmaṇa*, *Rāhu-Lakshmaṇa*, and *Graha-Lakshmaṇa*.

c18.178

Yaśodhara mentions the Veterinary Sciences under the term:—

c18.179

35. *Tiryakyonīḥ-chikitsā*.

c18.180

Besides all these subjects representing the sciences and the literary art, culture, and religion, there are several additional technical arts and crafts mentioned in some of the texts.

c18.181

The Chemical and *Pharmaceutical* Arts are mentioned by Rāmachandra as—

c18.182

36. *Rasa-vāda*, treatment of mercury.

c18.183

37. *Gandha-vāda*, treatment of sulphur.

c18.184

38. *Dhātu-vāda*, Metallurgy.

c18.185

The *Lalitavistara* mentions some arts of Architecture and Engineering such as—

c18.186

39. *Nagara-niveśa*, Town-planning.

c18.187

40. *Vāstu-niveśa*, the art of the architect who plans a building.

c18.188

41. *Nagara-mānam*, survey and measurement of cities.

c18.189

42. *Skandhāvāra-mānam*, measurement of camps.

c18.190

*Kādambarī* adds:—

c18.191

43. *Suraṅga-upabheda*, the construction of tunnels.

c18.192

The *Lalita-vistara* mentions the art of dyeing as—

c18.193

44. *Vastra-rāga* and

c18.194

45. *Maṇi-rāga*, colouring of precious stones.

c18.195

It also mentions:—

c18.196

46. *Madhuchchhishtakritam*, the craft of wax-modelling.

c18.197

Vātsyāyana mentions the general military science as—

c18.198

47. *Vaijayikīnāṁ vidyānāṁ jñānam*, the knowledge of the military arts by which victory is achieved.

c18.199

It describes the athletic art as—

c18.200

48. *Vyāyāmikīnāṁ vidyānāṁ jñānam*.

c18.201

To all these Rāmachandra adds some occult arts such as *Agni-stambha*, *Kharga-stambha*, *Jala-stambha*, *Vācha-stambha*, *Asi-stambha*, *Vāyu-stambha*, by which the innate properties of these substances are controlled or suspended. To these is also added the interesting art of *Vayastambha* by which ageing is arrested. There are also mentioned certain other arts or *siddhis* such as *Mantra-siddhi*, *Oushadha-siddhi*, *Maṇi-siddhi*, *Pādukā-siddhi*, *Mṛit-siddhi*, *Ghaṭikā-siddhi*, and *Vāk-siddhi*.

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