Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c4: Contents

Ancient Indian Education (Brahmanical and Buddhist) c4

Language: English

c4.2

| | | | PAGE |
| PREFACE | . . . . . . . | vii |
| PROLOGUE | . . . . . . . | xix |

c4.3

(i) Background, xix; (ii) Theory, xxii; (iii) Plan, xxv.

c4.7

Veda, 1; *Mantra*, 2; *Brāhmaṇa*, 5; *Saṁhitā*, 3; *Yajña*, 7.

Evolution of Rigveda and its contents, 17; Conservation of its text, 20; Two types of literary activity, 22; *Tapas* as means of knowledge, 24; Recitation of texts, 26; Comprehension of their meaning, 29; *Saṁghas* and *Śākhās*, 31; Summary, 34; *Vratachārī*, 36; Yāska on Vedic Education, 37; Achievements in (a) Language, 38; (b) Thought, 39, (c) Growth of scientific spirit, 49; Kshatriyas as Rishis, 50; Women as Rishis, 51; Education of non-Aryans and Depressed Classes, 51; Seats of Learning, 53; Secular Learning, 54; *Vedāṅgas*, 57.

c4.10

III. EDUCATION IN THE OTHER VEDAS . . . 61

c4.11

An age of compilation, 61; Different classes of priests and their learning, 61; Sāmaveda and its Science of Music, 62; Yajurveda, 64; Atharvaveda, 66; *Brahmacharya*, 67.

c4.12

IV. LATER VEDIC EDUCATION . . . . 71

c4.13

*Brāhmaṇas*, *Āraṇyakas*, and *Upanishads*, 71; *Śākhās* and *Charaṇas*, 78; *Parishads*, 82; *Gotras*, 83; Schools of Law, 84; *Charaṇas* of Vedas and Brāhmaṇas, 85; System of Education, 88; *Svādhyāya*, 88; Need of teacher, 89; Rules of Studentship: Admission, 91; Period, 92; Duties, 93; Inner Discipline, 95; Pursuit of Highest Knowledge, 96; Teacher’s valedictory Address, 99; Duties of Teachers, 101; Education Compulsory, 102; Educated Women, 105; Subjects of Study, 105; Methods of Study, 112; *Sannyāsa* and Yoga as means of Knowledge, 114; Eligibility for Highest Knowledge, 116; *Charakas*, 117; Representative Teachers of the age, 118; Types of Educational Institutions: (a) *Āśramas*, 133; (b) Debating Circles, 133; (c) *Parishads*, 133; Upanishads as Transactions of Learned Societies, 135; (d) Learned Conferences, 137;

c4.14

Sanskrit as spoken language, 138; Chief Centres of Education, 140; Seats of Sacrifice as Seats of Learning, 146; Courts of Kings as Centres of Learning, 148; Sylvan Schools, 149; Education of non-Brahmans, 151; Summary: the Two-fold Path, 155; Insistence on Morality, 156; *Varṇa* and *Āśrama*, 157; *Upāsanā*, 158; Yoga, 159.

c4.15

V. EDUCATION AS DESCRIBED IN THE *SŪTRA* LITERATURE . . . . . 162

c4.16

Origin of *Sūtras*, 162; Classes of *Sūtra* works, 165; *Vedāṅga Sūtras* and other specialized studies, 165; *Upavedas*, 170; *Sūtra* Schools and Teachers, 171; Educational System, 173; *Vidyārambha*, 173; *Upanayana*, 174; Brahmachāri's Uniform, 178; its symbolism, 179; Preliminaries, 180; *Sāvitrī Vrata*, 182; *Medhājanana*, 183; Food, 183; Begging, 184; Service to Teacher, 185; Daily Duties, 186; Restrictions, 187; Behaviour towards Teacher, 187; Rules of Study, 188; Courses of Study, 188; Special *Vratas* for Special Studies, 189; Period of Studentship, 190; *Upākarma* and *Utsarjana*, 191; Holidays, 193; Places banned for Study, 194; Rules of Vedic Study, 195; Description of Teaching in a Vedic School, 197; *Upakurvāṇa* and *Naishṭhika*, 198; Plurality of Teachers, 199; Qualifications, Duties, and Grades of Teachers, 200; Obligations of Teacher to Pupil, 201; Punishment of Pupils, 201; Teacher's Remuneration, 202; A Pupil's present to his Teacher after Graduation, 203; Development o Personality, 205; Compulsory Higher Education, 206; Education of Women, 208; Non-Brahman Teachers, 209; *Samāvartana* (Graduation), 209; Oral Teaching and its Advantages, 211; Individual Education, 218; *Parishad*, 219; Special *Sūtra* Schools, 225.

c4.17

VI. EDUCATION IN THE TIME OF PĀṆINI . . 230

c4.18

Literature known to Pāṇini, 230; Literature known to Kātyāyana and Patañjali, 234; Popular Literature, 235; Rules of Education, 235; School Regulations, 236; Classes of Teachers, 237; Methods of Study, 238; Different Classes of Literary Men, 240; Different Classes of Ascetics, 241; Variety of Educational Institutions, 242; *Gotra*, 242; *Charaṇa*, 243; Special Schools, 244; *Parishad*, 245; Women and Education, 245.

c4.19

VII. EDUCATION IN KAUṬILYA'S ARTHAŚĀSTRA . 246

c4.20

Subjects of Study, 246; Schools of *Arthaśāstra*, 248.

c4.21

VIII. THE LEGAL ASPECT OF EDUCATION . . 249

c4.22

Litigation between Teacher and Pupil, 249; Rights of Property in respect of Gains of Learning, 251; Higher Academic Activities, 253; *Upanyāsa*, 254; *Praśna*, 254; *Vāda*, 254; *Prādhyāyana*, 254; Appliances of Learning Impartible, 256; Teacher as Heir of Pupil, 256; Property accruing to a person in pupilage, 256; Property of Ascetics, 257.

c4.23

EDUCATION AS CONCEIVED IN THE PHILOSOPHICAL SŪTRA LITERATURE . . . . 258

c4.24

Origins, 258; Systems of Philosophy as Systems of Discipline, 260;

c4.25

Discipline of Vedānta, 262; Views of (*a*) Śaṅkara, 262; (*b*) Sureśvara, 264; (*c*) Vidyāraṇya, 265; (*d*) Sadānanda, 265; (*e*) Rāmānuja, 265; (*f*) Nimbārka, 265; Social Implications of Vedantic Education, 266; Summary, 269;

c4.26

*Pūrva Mīmāṁsā* System of Discipline, 271;

c4.27

*Nyāya* System of Discipline, 274; Elements of Knowledge, 276; Objects of Knowledge, 278; Discussion as a Method of Learning, 278; Faith and Reason, 279;

c4.28

*Vaiśeshika* Discipline, 280;

c4.29

*Sāṁkhya* Discipline, 281; Caste and Education, 283;

c4.30

The *Yoga* System of Discipline, 284; Yoga implicated in other Systems, 284; Affinity of *Sāṁkhya* and *Yoga*, 285; Antecedents, 286; Treatment of Mind, 286; The terms 'Yoga' and '*Samādhi*', 287; Assumptions of Yoga, 288; Sāṁkhya Theory of Knowledge as followed by Yoga, 288; The Twenty-five Sāṁkhya Categories of Knowledge, 289; Problem of Yoga is to ascend from plane of daily life to that of Pure Consciousness, 293; Yoga Psychology of Perception, 293; Yoga Scheme of Practical Discipline, 295; *Chitta-bhūmi*, 296; *Chitta-Vṛitti*, 298; *Pramāṇa* (Pratyaksha, Anumāna, Āgama), 298; *Viparyaya*, 299; *Vikalpa*, 300; *Nidrā*, 300; *Smṛiti*, 300; *Klishta* and *Aklishta Vṛitti*, 300; Outline of Process of Yoga in Different Stages, 301; Moral Practices and Technique of Yoga, 305; *Abhyāsa*, 305; *Vairāgya*, 305; Five Means of *Samādhi*, 307; *Iśvara-praṇidhāna*, 307; Obstacles to *Samādhi*, 309; Other Distractions, 309; Moral Means of Yoga (*Chitta-Pariśuddhi*), 310; *Prāṇāyāma*, 311; How to achieve *Abhyāsa* and *Vairāgya*, 311; *Kriyā-yoga* comprising (*a*) *Tapas*, (*b*) *Svādhyāya*, (*c*) *Iśvarapraṇidhāna*, 311; The Five Afflictions (*Kleśas*): (*a*) *Avidyā*, 312; (*b*) *Asmitā*, 312; (*c*) *Rāga*, 313; (*d*) *Dvesha*; 313; (*e*) *Abhiniveśa*, 313; The Eight Aids to Yoga (*Ashṭāṅga*): (1) *Yama*, 313; (2) *Niyama*, 314; (3) *Āsana*, 315; (4) *Prāṇāyāma*, 315; (5) *Pratyāhāra*, 315; (6) *Dhāraṇā*, 316; (7) *Dhyāna*, 316; (8) *Samādhi*, 316;

c4.31

Different Philosophical Systems have a common scheme of Discipline and Aim, 316;

c4.32

Emphasis of Philosophical Discipline on Skill of Debate in Education, 317; *Tantra-Yukti*, a special treatise on Debate, and its contents, 318; *Ānvīkshikī* work of Medhātithi Gautama, 319; its chapter on *Sambhāsha* or *Vādavidhi*, 320;

c4.33

Conclusion, 322.

c4.34

EDUCATION IN THE EPICS . . . . 325

c4.35

Evidence, 325; Principles underlying *Varṇa* and *Āśrama*, 326; The *Mahābhārata* on duties of different castes, 327; Education of Brāhmaṇa, 329; Duties of Studentship, 330; Eligibility for Education, 331; Ideal Students, 332; Failures of Studentship, 333; Hermitages, 333; Learned Gatherings at Sacrifices, 335; Education of the Kshatriya, 336; Bhīshma as Teacher 337; Arjuna as Pupil and as Teacher, 338; Contents of Kshatriya Education, 338; Women and Education, 343; Ayodhyā as Centre of Education in *Rāmāyaṇa*, 343; Āśramas mentioned in *Rāmāyaṇa*, 343.

c4.36

XI. INDUSTRIAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 345

c4.37

Ceremony of Admission, 345; *Upanayana* for *Āyurveda*, 345; Medical Holidays, 346; Ceremony for Graduation, 347; Rules of Medical Study, 347; Qualifications of a Physician, 348; Success in Medical Treatment, 348; Admission to Industry, 349; Rules of Apprenticeship, 349; Caste and Craft, 352; Guilds as Industrial Schools, 353; The Sixty-four Arts and Crafts (*Kalās*) according to different Texts, 353; The Arts and Crafts in the Time of Early Buddhist Texts and Kauṭilya, 363.

c4.38

XII. SOME TYPICAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND CENTRES . . . . . . 366

c4.39

Education essentially individual, 366; Examples of Organization, 367; Examples of Colleges endowed by Temple-charities in the South, 367; (1) Salotgi, 367; (2) Ennāyiram, 368; (3) A College of 340 Students, 368; (4) A School of Grammar at Tiruvorriyur, 369; Other Institutions, 370; Teachers' Salaries, 370; Learned Settlements, 371; Noted Centres of Education in Mysore, 372; *Maṭhas*, 373.

c4.40

PART II

c4.41

BUDDHIST EDUCATION

c4.42

XIII. THE BACKGROUND . . . . . 374

c4.43

Buddhism as a phase of Hinduism, 374; Buddhist scheme of life as influenced by Brahmanical, 376; Monachism not a monopoly of Buddhism, 377; Its Brahmanical Forms, 377; Pre-Buddhist Brahmanical Ascetic Orders, 381; Non-Buddhist Orders of *Śramaṇas*, 382; Controversies and Conversions of the Buddha, 384; The Buddha a product of the Brahmanical System. 386; General Attitude of Buddhism towards Brahmanism, 389; General Indebtedness of Buddhism to Brahmanism, 392.

c4.44

XIV. THE SYSTEM (ACCORDING TO VINAYA) . . 394

c4.45

Buddhist Education purely Monastic, 394; Initiation, 394; *Pravrajyā*, 395; Restrictions of Admission, 396; *Upasampadā*, 398; Democratic Procedure, 400; Renunciation of Monkhood, 401; *Upādhyāya* and *Āchārya*, 402; Duties of Pupils, 403; Duties of Teachers, 404; Residential Schools or *Vihāras*, 406; Bases of Monasticism: (*a*) Continence, 409; (*b*) Poverty, 410; Property permitted to *Saṁgha*, 412.

c4.46

XV. DISCIPLINE . . . . . . 414

c4.47

Begging, 414; Alms-bowl, 415; Monks' Dietary, 415; Manner of Begging, 417; Manner of Eating, 418;

c4.48

Invitations to Meals, 419; The Buddha's Hosts, 420; Gifts of provisions to *Saṁgha*, 422; The Buddha's non-Buddhist Hosts, 423; Monks' Daily Meals, 425; Medicine, 425; Jīvaka, the Buddha's Physician, 427; Clothing and Dress, 429.

c4.49

XVI. Residence . . . . . 434

c4.50

Five Kinds of Housing, 434; *Varshāvāsa* (rain-retreat), 434; Hut, 437; Cave, 437; *Vihāra*, 437; Its Furniture, 440; *Ārāma*, 440; Baths, 441; Jetavana *Vihāra*, 442; *Vihāra* Staff, 443; *Vihāra* as a School of Arts and Crafts, 444.

c4.51

XVII. Instruction . . . . . 446

c4.52

Training of Monks, 446; *Parivāsa* (probation), 446; Restrictions, 447; Disciplinary Measures, 447; Games and Sports, 447; Studies of Monks, 448; Cultivation of Vernacular, 449; Subjects Tabooed, 449; Subjects Taught, 450; Teaching mainly Oral, 450; Regular and Special Teachers, 451; Spurious Teachers, 452; Discussion as a Method of Education, 452; Learned Meetings, 454; The Buddha's Daily Life, 455; Monks Seeking Solitude, 457; Buddhist Limitations to Solitary Life, 459; Comparison of Buddhist and Brahmanical Systems, 459; Women in Buddhist Education, 462; Some Women Leaders of Buddhism, 464; Education outside Monasteries, 466; Education of the Laity, 466.

c4.53

XVIII. Industrial Education . . . . . 468

c4.54

Medical Education 468; Career of Jīvaka, 468; Evidence of *Milinda-Pañha*, 471; Evidence of *Jātakas*, 472.

c4.55

XIX. The Milinda-Pañha on Education . . 473

c4.56

Career of Nāgasena, 473; Subjects of Study, 475.

c4.57

XX. Education as described in the Jātakas . 477

c4.58

Taxila as a Centre of Learning, 477; Tuition Fees, 479; Public Contributions to Education, 480; Invitation to Meals, 480; State Scholarships, 480; Day-Scholars, 481; Householders as Students, 481; Choice of Studies, 482; Democracy of Learning, 482; Food and Discipline, 483; Communal Colleges, 484; Senior Students as Assistant Masters, 484; Teaching by Shifts, 485; Birds as Aids to Study, 485; Use of Writing, 485; Different Courses of Study, 486; Religion and Humanities, 486; Sciences, Arts, and Crafts, 487; Specialization in Theory and Practice, 487; Education made Practical, 488; Foreign Travel as Aid to Education, 489; Special Schools of Medicine, Law, and Military Science, 489; Schools of *Silpas* (Arts and Crafts), 490; Benares as a Centre of Education, 490; Its School of Music, 490; Hermitages as Centres of Highest Learning, 490.

c4.59

XXI. EDUCATION IN THE FIFTH CENTURY A.D. (ACCOUNT OF FA-HIEN) . . . 492

c4.60

Chinese Pilgrims to India, 492; Buddhist India, 493; Monasteries seen by Fa-Hien, 494; Maintenance of Monasteries, 496; Duties of Monks, 497; Oral Teaching, 497; MSS. Copied by Fa-Hien, 498; Popularity of Sanskrit, 498; Stūpas in Honour of Texts and Teachers, 498; Guests at Monasteries, 498; Assemblies, 499; Non-Buddhistic Sects and Charitable Institutions, 499; Chinese Pilgrims facing risks of life on journey to India, 500.

c4.61

XXII. EDUCATION IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY A.D. (ACCOUNT OF HIUEN TSANG) . . . 503

c4.62

Period, Object, Success, and Difficulties of Hiuen Tsang's Visit, 503; His Account of Brahmanical Learning, 504; Account of Buddhist Education, 508; Monasteries seen by Hiuen Tsang, 508; Numbers of Monks in Residence at Monasteries, 523; Monasteries turning out Leaders of Buddhist Thought, 526; Contents of Primary Education, 528; The Five *Vidyās*, 528; Contents of Higher Education, 528; Monasteries open for all Sects of Buddhism, 529; Debating Skill, 530; Gradation of Scholars, 530; Manual and Menial Work of Monks, 531; The *Karmadāna*, 531; Spiritual Exercises, 531; Assemblies, 531; Penalties, 531; Worship of Images of Saints, 532; Spread of Education, 532.

c4.63

XXIII. I-TSING'S ACCOUNT OF EDUCATION IN THE SEVENTH CENTURY A.D. . . . 535

c4.64

Objects and Difficulties of I-tsing's Mission, 535; Places visited by him, 536; Strength of Brahmanism, 536; Elementary Education, 537; Medical Study, 538; Higher Study, 539; Admission of Monks, 540; Daily Duties of Monks, 542; Grading of Monks, 543; Secular Education, 545; Non-Buddhist Students, 545; Breadth of Culture, 546; Unsuccessful Monasteries, Teachers, and Pupils, 546; Successful Monasteries, 547; Learned Assemblies, 548; Literary Celebrities, 548; Worship of Images, Chaityas, and Stūpas, 549; Self-Government at Monasteries, 551; Register of Names, 551; Menial and Administrative Staff, 552; Dietary, 552; Measurement of Time, 553; Aids to Spiritual Life, 553; Properties of Monasteries, 553; Libraries, 555; Cultural Intercourse between China and India, 555.

c4.65

XXIV. UNIVERSITIES . . . . 557

c4.66

I. *Nālandā*, 557; Early History, 557; Its Endowments, 558; Remains of its Buildings, 560; Free Education, 563; Difficulty of Admission, 563; Standard of Scholarship, 565; 1,500 Teachers for 8,500 Students, 565; 100 Lectures delivered per day, 566; Range of Studies, Brahmanical and Buddhist, 566; Famous Teachers, 567; Ranking of Monks, 567; Provision for Hiuen Tsang, 569; Academic Titles, 569; Distribution of Rooms in Hostels, 569; Time-table, 569; Bath, 570; Democratic Management,

c4.67

570; Harmony of Life amid diversity of Studies and Beliefs, 571; Library, 574;

c4.68

History after I-tsing, 574; Nālandā Scholars in Foreign Countries, 575;

c4.69

Nālandā Literature and Scholars in Tibet, 575;

c4.70

Nālandā Scholars working as Missionaries in China, 578;

c4.71

Foreign Scholars at Nālandā, 579;

c4.72

Scholars from Different parts of India at Nālandā, 580;

c4.73

Nālandā Rituals and Art, 581; Development of *Tantra-yāna* and *Vajrayāna* at Nālandā, 581; Supposed Founders of Nālandā Art, 584; Bronzes of Nālandā influencing Javanese Art, 585;

c4.74

II. *Valabhī*, 585;

c4.75

III. *Vikramaśīlā*, 587; Site, 587; Buildings and Staff, 587; Administration, 587; Six Colleges and a Central Hall, 587; Six "*Dvāra-Paṇḍitas*", 588; Vikramaśīlā Scholars working in Tibet, 589; Career of Dīpaṁkara Śrī Jñāna Atiśa, 590; Career of Abhayakara Gupta, 593; Moslem Destruction of Vikramaśīlā, 594;

c4.76

IV. *Jagaddala*, 595; Its Foundation by King Rāmapāla, 595; Its noted Scholars, 595;

c4.77

V. *Odantapurī*, 595;

c4.78

VI. *Mithilā*, 596; Early History, 596; Later History from Fourteenth Century under Different Dynasties of Rulers, 597; Its early Scholars, Jagaddhara, Śaṅkaramiśra, and Vāchaspatimiśra, 596; The Poet Vidyāpati, 597; Its School of Nyāya under its famous Masters, Gaṅgeśa, Vardhamāna, Pakshadhara, 597; Its later Scholars, 597; Its Admission Examination called *Śalākā-Parīkshā*, 598;

c4.79

VII. *Nadia*, 598; Development of Nadia as a Centre of Learning under the Sena Kings of Bengal, 598; Its students, the Poets, Jayadeva, Dhoyī, and Umāpati, 599; Its Prosperity under Muslim Kings, 599; Nadia an Offshoot of Mithilā, 599; Its School of Nyāya, founded by Vāsudeva Sārvabhauma, a student of Mithilā, 599; Its famous Logicians, 600; Its Schools of Smṛiti, Tāntrikism and Astronomy, 601;

c4.80

Spread of Indian Learning in Foreign Countries, 601; Generations of Indian Scholars Working in China for over 1,000 years, 602.