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A History of Agriculture in India v2.c75: Chapter 23. Crops, Agricultural Implements, Forests and Fisheries in the Sixteenth Century

A History of Agriculture in India v2.c75

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English

Contents

Chapter 23. Crops, Agricultural Implements, Forests and Fisheries in the Sixteenth Century

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Information regarding crops grown in India in the sixteenth century is given in the *Ain-i-Akbari* as well as in the travel accounts of the European travellers. Wheat was grown in the provinces of Lahore, Multan, Delhi, Agra, Allahabad, Oudh, Malwa and Ajmer. Barley was grown in almost all parts of the country, but not in Bengal and Orissa. *Chana* was grown practically in all the provinces.

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Rice was the main crop in Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, Oudh, Allahabad, Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Khandesh, Berar and Kashmir. In Bengal, sometimes three crops of rice were grown in a year. Out of rice varieties grown in Bengal, *kar*, *sukhdas* and *shali* were superior. *Sukhdas* rice from the Awadh was regarded as the best. The author of *Mukhtasiru-t Twarikh* states, ‘Its qualities and flavour are beyond all praise. It is equally palatable to kings and the common people. It is incomparable in tenderness and sweetness, and has a very agreeable smell and taste. The rich and great men, and those who are fond of good living, think that no other food is so excellent.’¹ Next to Bengal, Bihar produced quality rice in large quantities. Awadh produced large quantities of *sukhdas*, *madhkar* and *jhanwar* ‘rice which for whiteness, delicacy, fragrance and wholesomeness are scarcely to be matched.’ Abu-’l-Fazl remarks that the Bihar rice for its quality and quantity is rarely to be equalled.’ Fine-quality rice was produced in Khandesh and Kashmir.

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¹ *Mukhtasiru-t Twarikh*, in Elliot and Dowson, *The History of India*..., Vol. VIII, p. 4

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Millets, which included *jowar*, *bajra*, *kodon*, *sawan*, *mandua*, and formed the *kharif* crops, were cultivated in Malwa, Gujarat, Ajmer, Khandesh, Delhi, Lahore, Agra, Allahabad, Oudh, and Multan. *Bajra* is entered as *lahdara*, a name now obsolete. *Kudiri* (or *kuri*) and *barti* are both described as resembling *sawan*, and probably denote the lowest-grade millets such as *kutki* or *mijhri*; it is possible that some of these inferior crops may have gone out of cultivation.

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Pulses included gram, lentil (*masur*), pea, *mung*, *urd*, *moth*, *lubiya*, *kulthi* and *arhar*. Two varieties of gram were assessed under the names *nakhud-i-Kabuli* and *nakhud-i-Hindi*.

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Oilseeds included *til*, linseed, rape, *toria*, and safflower.

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Other crops we sugarcane, cotton, hemp, indigo, poppy and betel. The vegetables grown were melons, variety of gourds and pumpkins and *singhara*. The cultivation of tobacco had just started in Gujarat.

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The following crops are mentioned as regards South India by Paes, Nuniz, and Garcia da Orta: rice, wheat, *jowar*, *ragi*, millets, in general, and pulses like *mung* and horse-gram. Other crops were sugarcane, cotton, indigo, *til*, linseed, pepper, coconut, ginger, turmeric, betel, cardamom and arecanut.

Relative Value of Crops

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According to Moreland,² the statistics provided by Abu-l-Fazl in *Ain-i-Akbari* give us a rough idea of the relative value of the crops grown.

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² Moreland, W. H. *India at the Death of Akbar—An Economic Study*, p. 103

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| Crop | Comparative value | Crop | Comparative value |
| Wheat | 100 | Linseed | 51 |
| Barley | 67 | Rape | 53 |
| Gram (common) | 60 | Poppy | 210 |
| *Jowar* | 59 | Sugarcane (ordinary) | 213 |
| *Bajra* | 42 | Cotton | 150 |
| *Mandua* | 44 | Indigo | 254 |
| *Sawan* | 22 | | |

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These figures are based on the average of the various assessment rates in force under Akbar in the provinces of Allahabad, Agra and Delhi. It will be noticed that the costliest crop was Indigo, followed by sugarcane and poppy.

Sugarcane

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During the reign of Akbar, Bengal occupied the first place in sugar production. Abu-l-Fazl mentions three kinds of sugarcane, viz. *paunda*, black and ordinary. These were grown in the provinces of Agra, Allahabad, Oudh, Lahore, Multan, Malwa and Ajmer.

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‘Sugarcane is of various kinds,’ states Abu-l-Fazl. ‘One species is so tender and so full of juice that a sparrow can make it flow out by pecking it; and it would break to pieces, if let fall. Sugarcane is either soft or hard. The latter is used for the preparation of brown sugarcandy, common sugar, white candy, and refined sugar, and thus becomes useful for all kinds of sweetmeats. It is cultivated as follows. They put some healthy sugarcane in a cool place, and sprinkle it daily with water. When the sun enters the sign of Aquarius, they cut off pieces, a cubit and upwards in length, put them into soft ground, and cover them up with earth. The harder the sugarcane is, the deeper they put it. Constant irrigation is required. After seven or eight months it will come up.

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‘Sugarcane is also used for the preparation of intoxicating liquor, but brown sugar is better for this purpose. There are various ways of preparing it. One way is as follows. They pound *babul* bark mixing it at the rate of ten *sers* to one *man* of sugarcane, and put three times as much water over it. Then they take large jars, fill them with the mixture, and put them into the ground, surrounding them with dry horse-dung. From seven to ten days are required to produce fermentation. It is a sign of perfection when it has a sweet but a stringent taste. When the liquor is to be strong, they again put to the mixture some brown sugar, and sometimes even drugs and perfumes, as ambergris, camphor, etc. They also let meat dissolve in it. This beverage when strained may be used, but it is mostly employed for the preparation of arrack.

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'They have several methods of distilling it; first, they put the above liquor into brass vessels, in the interior of which a cup is put, so as not to shake, nor must the liquid flow into it. The vessels are then covered with inverted lids which are fastened with clay. After pouring cold water on the lids, they kindle the fire, changing the water as often as it gets warm. As soon as the vapour inside reaches the cold lid, it condenses, and falls as arrack into the cup. Secondly, they close the same vessel with an earthen pot, fastened in the same manner with clay, and fix to it two pipes, the free ends of which have each a jar attached to them, which stands in cold water. The vapour through the pipes will enter the jars and condense. Thirdly, they fill an earthen vessel with the above-mentioned liquor, and fasten to it a large spoon with a hollow handle. The end of the handle they attach to a pipe, which leads into a jar. The vessel is covered with a lid, which is kept full with cold water. The arrack, when condensed, flows through the spoon into the jar. Some distil the arrack twice, when it is called *duatasha*, or twice-burned. It is very strong. If you wet your hands with it and hold them near the fire, the spirit will burn in flames of different colours without injuring the hands. It is remarkable that when a vessel containing arrack is set on fire you cannot put it out by any means; but if you cover the vessel, the fire gets extinguished at once.'

Indigo and Safflower

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Indigo, used for dying cloth and for paints, was grown in the *subas* of Oudh, Allahabad, Agra, Lahore, Multan, Malwa, Delhi and Ajmer. The best indigo, however, was grown at Bayana, an important town in the present Bharatpur district of Rajasthan, and the second best at Sarkhej in Gujarat.

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Safflower was cultivated in the provinces of Agra, Allahabad, Oudh, Delhi, Malwa, Lahore and Multan.

Poppy

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Poppy, from which opium was extracted, was another important crop, and was taxed heavily in the time of Akbar. It was used as an intoxicant and was grown in the provinces of Agra, Oudh, Allahabad, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Malwa and Ajmer. It was also grown in the Deccan and in Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda. Malwa opium was considered very good. In some parts of that province children were given opium up to the age of three as a sedative.

Saffron

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Saffron was cultivated in Kashmir. The ground was carefully prepared before planting the seed in March or April. At the close of September the plants reached their full growth. The saffron plant was about a quarter of a yard (22.8 cm) in height. The flower is on the top of the stalk, and consists of six petals and six stamens. Three of the six petals have a fresh lilac colour, and stand round about the remaining three petals. The stamens are similarly placed, three of a yellow colour standing round about the other three, which are red. The latter yield the saffron. The plants yielded flowers for six years continuously.

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Saffron was cultivated in two villages: Pampur in the district of Maharaj, to the south of Srinagar, and Paraspur near Indrakot. The fields at Pampur extended over about 24 miles (39 km²) and those at Paraspur comprised an area of two square miles (5.18 km²). Saffron was used for colouring and flavouring good-quality rice. It was also used for imparting fragrance and agreeable yellow colour to dishes and for dyeing cloth.

Pān (Piper Betle)

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'The betel leaf is, properly speaking, a vegetable, but connoisseurs call it an excellent fruit,' states Abu-l-Fazl. 'The eating of the leaf renders the breath agreeable, and repasts odorous. It strengthens the gums, and makes the hungry satisfied, and the satisfied hungry. I shall describe some of the various kinds. 1. The leaf called Bilahri is white and shining, and does not make the tongue harsh and hard. It tastes best of all kinds. After it has been taken away from the creeper it turns white, with some care, after a month, or even after twenty days when greater efforts are made. 2. The Kaker leaf is white with spots, and full, and has hard veins. When much of it is eaten, the tongue gets hard. 3. The Jaiswar leaf does not get white, and is profitably sold mixed with other kinds. 4. The Kapuri leaf is yellowish, hard, and full of veins, but has a good taste and smell. 5. The Kapurkant leaf is yellowish-green, and pungent like pepper; it smells like camphor. You could not eat more than ten leaves. It is to be had at Banaras; but even there it does not thrive in every soil. 6. The Bangla leaf is broad, full, hard, plushy, hot, and pungent.

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'The cultivation is as follows. In the month of March-April, about New Year's time, they take a part of a creeper four or five fingers long with Karhanj leaves on it, and put below the ground. From fifteen to twenty days after, according as leaves and knots form, a new creeper will appear from a knot, and as soon as another knot forms, a leaf will grow up. The creepers and new leaves form for seven months, when the plant ceases to grow. No creeper has more than thirty leaves. As the plant grows, they prop it with canes, and cover it, on the top and the sides, with wood and straw, so as to rear it up in the shade. The plant requires continually to be watered, except during the rains. Sometimes they put milk, sesame oil and its dregs, etc., about the plant. There are several kinds of leaves known under different names: 1. The Karhanj leaf, which they separate for seedlings and call Peri. The new leaf is called Gadauta. 2. The Nauti leaf. 3. The Bahuti leaf. 4. The Chhiw leaf. 5. The Adhinida leaf. 6. The Agahniya or Lewar leaf. The Karhanj leaf itself. With the exception of the Gadauta, the leaves are taken away from the creeper when a month old. The last kind of leaf is eaten by some; others keep it for seeding: they consider it very excellent, but connoisseurs prefer the Peri.

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A bundle of 11,000 leaves was formerly called Lahasa, which name is now given to a bundle of 14,000. Bundles of 200 are called Dholi; a Lahasa is made up of Dholis. In winter they turn and arrange the leaves after four or five days; in summer every day. From 5 to 25 leaves, and sometimes more, are placed above each other, and displayed in various ways. They also put some betel nut and kath on one leaf, and some lime paste on another, and roll them up; this is called a bira. Some put camphor and musk into it, and tie both leaves with a silk thread. Others put single leaves on plates, and use them thus. They are also prepared as a dish.'³

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³ Abu-l-Fazal, Ain-i-Akbari, pp. 68-77

Spices

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The Malabar region was famous for its spices. The chief spices were cardamom, ginger, pepper, nutmeg, cloves and cinnamon. Cardamom was grown in Bijapur and ginger in all parts of India. Cardamom was an excellent but costly spice. Its price varied from 52 to 80 dams per seer and it was used by the nobles and princes in India and other countries of Asia. Pepper grew in Bijapur, Malabar, Cochin and many other places in Southern India, in Champaran district in Bihar, and in the forests of Mahmudabad district in Bengal and in Assam.

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Stevens is famous as the first Englishman known to have set foot on Indian soil. Born in Wiltshire and educated in Winchester, he made his way to Rome and there entered the Jesuit order. Being desirous of serving in India, he obtained a passage at Lisbon in the spring of 1579 and reached Goa in October of that year. He was the first European to make a scientific study of Konkani, and he wrote two religious works, one of which was a long epic in Marathi. Describing a visit to Malabar he mentions a number of crops including pepper and coconut. ‘Here grows the pepper; and it springs up by a tree or a pole, and is like our ivy berry, but something longer, and at the first the bunches are green, and as they wax ripe they cut them off and dry them. The leaf is much lesser than the ivy leaf and thinner. All the inhabitants here have very little houses covered with the leaves of the coco-trees. All the pepper of Calicut and coarse cinnamon grows here in this country. The best cinnamon comes from Ceylon, and is pilled from the young trees. Here are very many palm or coco-trees, which is their chief food; for it is their meat and drink, and yields many other necessary things.’⁴

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⁴ Foster, W. *Early Travels in India*, 1583-1619, p. 45

Agricultural Implements

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According to Moreland, implements used by the peasants during Akbar’s rule are still in use in India. The ploughs, hoes, sickles—all bear their age upon their face. Economy in the use of iron is the most striking characteristics of these implements. This was due to the high cost of that metal.

Forests

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There were extensive forests in the North-West Frontier Province, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa, modern Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, and southern India. Ralph Fitch (1583-1591) in his travels through Bengal noticed large forests infested by wild animals, including tigers. Abu-l-Fazl says that one had to traverse a thick forest during a journey along the southern bank of the Ghagra. William Finch (1608-1611) found the road from Jaunpur to Allahabad through a continuous forest. He says that there were lions and tigers on the road to Jalaur. Due to lack of transport forests were mostly unexploited. According to Moreland, ‘inaccessible forests can have yielded no income, and inaccessibility’ was more common than now, while forests within reach of towns or villages furnished the inhabitants with timber, fuel, and minor produce on a scale which, roughly speaking, varied inversely with the pressure of the population. Such instances as we get of particular forms of produce having acquired a reputation in the markets fall in with this view; the bamboos of Bengal, which were in demand for fitting out ships, could be transported cheaply by the waterways of the country, while the teak of the Western Ghats was within reach of the sea-coast where large vessels were built.’⁵

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⁵ Moreland, W. H. *India at the Death of Akbar—An Economic Study*, p. 144

Fisheries

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The *Ain-i-Akbari* tells us that fish formed an important part of the people’s food in Bengal and Orissa, and also in Sind. Travellers record that its use was common in the south of India, and that it was sometimes dried and salted for provisioning ships. Fish-oil was prepared in Sind, the use of fish-manure was established in Gujarat when Thevenot visited Surat in 1666, and, speaking generally, it may be reasonably assumed that the fisheries were conducted very much on the familiar lines.