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History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c40: Weights and Measures

History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray c40

Language
English

Contents

Weights and Measures

Measures Of Time And Space

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30 *kshanas* = 1 day; 2 *ghatikas* = 1 *kshana*; 30 *kalas* = 1 *ghatika*; 30 *kashthas* = 1 *kala*; 18 *nimeshas* = 1 *kashtha*; 30 *tatparas* = 1 *nimesha*; and 100 *trutis* = 1 *tatpara*.

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This makes a *truti* of time equal to 1/33,750 of a second, which is nearly the measure of the *paramanu* of time, as given in Vishnupurana (*vide* Bhaskara's Siddhanta-Siromani circa 1150 A.D.).

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The above measures were in use among the astronomers, but the physicists computed according to the following Table, given both in Udayana's Kiranavali and Sridhara's Nyayakandali:

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30 *muhurtas* = 1 day (24 hours); 30 *kalas* = 1 *muhurta*; 30 *kashthas* = 1 *kala*; 18 *nimeshas* = 1 *kashtha*; 2 *lavas* = 1 *nimesha*; 2 *kshanas* = 1 *lava*.

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This makes 1 *kshana* of the Nyaya-Vaisesika equal to 2/45 of a second. The Nyaya assumes that the unit of physical change (or the time occupied by any single antecedent step in a causal series before the succeeding step is ushered in) is equal to a *kshana* (2/45 of a second). The astronomers were familiar with far smaller measures of time.

Measures Of Weight And Capacity

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The Amarakosha mentions measures of three kinds—weight, length, and capacity.

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The *kristnala gunja raktika*, the black-and red-berry of the shrub *Abrus precatorius*) was employed as a natural measure of weight. 80 *krishnala* berries on the average weigh 105 grains Troy, and this must be taken as the basis of our computation, though in current practice 80 *krishnalas* are taken to be equivalent to 210 grains

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The conventional measures were, however;—one gold *masha* was the weight of 5 *krishnalas* of gold, 1 *suvarna* or *tola* weighed as much as 16 *mashas*, and one *pala* as much as 4 *suvarnas* or tolas. A *pala* of gold, therefore, weighs 320 *krishnalas* (Manu Chap. VIII).

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A *masha* of gold, therefore, would weigh 6 9/16 grains, a *tola*, 105 grains (in current practice it weighs about 180 grains); and a *pala*, 420 grains Troy

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1 *silver masha* = 2 *krishnalas*, 1 *dharana* = 16 *silver mashas*; 1 *pala* = 10 *dharanas*. 1 *krishnala* = 1296 *trasarenus*.

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A *trasarenu*, as a measure of weight, therefore, is the equivalent of 7/6912 of a grain Troy, or double this according to current measures

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But the *trasarenu* of physics is a different conception. It stands for the 'minimum visible', i e., as the physicists define it, that which is 'just discernible' as a glancing particle in the slanting beams of the morning (or afternoon) sun, coming into dark room through a chink or orifice of a window. This is a measure of size.

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*Measures of Capacity*:—Here the standard was furnished by the *kudava*, a vessel described as 3 *angulis* long, 3 *angulis* broad, and 1½ *anguli* deep,—with a cubical capacity of 13½ cubical *angulis* 4 *kudavas* = 1 *prastha*, 4 *prasthas* = 1 *adhaka* 4 *adhakas* = 1 *drona*, and 4 *dronas* = 1 *khari* or *bhara*.

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24 *angulis* make 1 *hasta*, cubit, which may be taken to be 18 or 19 inches.

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A *kudava* would contain about 4 *palas* of distilled water at 30°C

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SIZE OF THE MINIMUM VISIBLE (ATOM)

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The supposed thickness of the just discernible mote in the sunbeam, called a *paramanu* in technology and a *trasarenu* in Natural Philosophy, follows directly from Varahamihira's table:—8 *paramanus* make 1 *rajas* (*ratharenu*), 8 *rajas* make 1 *balagra* (filament of hair), 8 *balagras* make 1 *liksha*, 8 *likshas* make 1 *yuka*, 8 *yukas* make 1 *yava*, 8 *yavas* make 1 *anguli*, 24 *angulis* make 1 *hasta* (cubit, 18 inches). The thickness of the *minimum visible* (the finest perceptible mote in the slanting sunbeam) is, therefore, taken to be 3 × 2⁻²⁰ or 1/349525 of an inch. The volume of a spherical *trasarenu* (or *paramanu* of the *silpasastra* or technology) would, therefore, be ⅙π × 3³ × 2⁻⁶⁰ of a cubic inch. It may be here noted that such a *trasarenu* is supposed in the medical schools to contain 30 chemical atoms (*paramanus* of Natural Philosophy) according to one estimate, or 60 according to another. The size of an atom must have been conceived to be less than π × 3 × 5⁻¹ × 2⁻⁶² of a cubic inch.

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The magnitude of *paramanu* is called *parimandalya* in the Nyaya-Vaiseshika, the name suggesting that the *paramanus* were conceived to be spherical in shape. The Nyaya-Vaiseshika calls a *paramanu* a mere point without any dimensions, but in the Samkhya-Patanjala, a *paramanu*, though indefinitely small, had still dimensions, being divisible into *tanmatras*, which were themselves integrations of *bhutadi*. The diameter of a spherical *paramanu* must have been conceived to be less than 3 × 2⁻²⁰ of an inch (i e., less than the conventional *paramanu* with which linear measures begin), and the volume of a *paramanu* would, therefore, in accordance with Bhaskara's formula, be smaller than 4/3π × 3³ × 2⁻⁶³ or π × 3³ × 2⁻⁶¹ of a cubic inch. The *tanmatras* were conceived as smaller still.

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That these were conventional measures arbitrarily assumed goes without question; for, of course, the Hindus had no physical data for a mathematical calculation of these minute quantities.

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I shall now proceed to give an account of the chemistry of the schools other than the Samkhya-Patanjala, and the affiliated Yoga and medical schools, discussed above. I shall confine myself here to the theory of the subject in the briefest outline.

The Vedantic View

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The Vedantists believe *Maya* to be the 'material cause' of the world. The power of *Maya* is the power to realise the unreal—to impart practical Reality, or mediate existence, to that which does not and cannot possess absolute Reality or self-existence. *Maya* is at once real and unreal, while the *Brahma* (Self) is absolute Reality, absolute Intelligence and absolute Bliss. The world evolves out of *Maya*, so that *Maya* in the Vedanta replaces the *Prakriti* of the Samkhya. But *Maya*, and by implication the world, originate out of *Brahma*, not by a process of evolution, but of *vivarta* (self-alienation). The self-alienation of the Absolute, acting through *Maya*, produces in the beginning *akasa*, one, infinite, ubiquitous, imponderable, inert and all pervasive. The world, thus begun, goes on evolving in increasing complexity. The other *sukshma bhutas*, classes of subtile matter, evolve from *akasa*, in an ascending linear order,—*akasa* giving off *vayu*, *vayu* giving off *tejas*, *tejas* giving off *ap*, and *ap* giving off *kshiti*. *Akasa*, one, infinite, all-pervasive, has the capacity of sound. *Vayu*, subtile gaseous matter, emanates from the universal *akasa*, and is instinct with the potential of mechanical energy (impact, pressure). *Tejas*, subtile radiant matter, emanates from *vayu*, and contains in potentia the energy of light and heat. *Ap*, subtile viscous matter, is the transformation of *tejas*, and is instinct with the energy that stimulates the nerve of taste; and lastly *kshiti* (Earth) subtile hard matter, which is the transformation of *ap*, possesses the latent energy of smell.

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But the subtile rudiments of matter must be compounded in various ways, to give rise to the gross consituent matter of the world. These forms of gross matter are called *mahabhutas*.

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There are five kinds of *mahabhutas* (gross matter corresponding to the five *sukshma bhutas*—subtile matter), and the process by which a *mahabhuta* is produced from the *sukshma bhutas* is called "panchikarana" (quintuplication). All the five *sukshma bhutas* are present as ingredients, though in different proportions, in each *mahabhuta*

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The *mahabhuta earth*, gross earth-matter, is composed of four parts of subtile earth-matter, and one part each of the other forms of subtile matter. The *mahabhuta vayu* is composed of four parts of subtile gaseous matter, and one part each of the other forms of subtile matter. And similarly with the other *mahabhutas*.

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Hence if ak, v, t, ap and e represent the five forms of subtile matter (*akasa*, *vayu*, *tejas*, *ap*, and *earth*), and Ak, V, T, Ap, and E stand for the corresponding *mahabhutas*, we may represent the constitution of the *mahabhutas* as follows:—

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Ak = ak₄. (v₁. t₁. ap₁. e₁), ak₄ being the radicle.
V = v₄. (ak₁. t₁. ap₁. e₁), v₄ being the radicle.
T = t₄. (ak₁. v₁. ap₁. e₁), t₄ being the radicle.
Ap = ap₄. (ak₁. v₁ t₁ e₁), ap₄ being the radicle.
E = e₄. (ak₁. v₁. t₁. ap₁), e being the radicle.

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In forms of gross or complicated matter, the potential energies (qualities) become actualised. The *mahabhuta akasa* manifests sound; *vayu*, sound and mechanical energy; *tejas*, sound, mechanical energy and heat-light; *ap*, the energy of the taste-stimulus in addition; finally *earth*, the energy of the smell-stimulus added to the foregoing.

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Others hold that *akasa*, ether, never enters as a component part, and is always one and indivisible. In this view the four *mahabhutas*—*vayu*, *tejas*, *ap* and *earth alone* are supposed to be compounded, and by a process which may be called quaternion:—

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V = v₃. (t₁. ap₁. e₁)
T = t₃. (v₁. ap₁. e₁)
Ap = ap₃. (v₁. t₁. e₁)
E = e₃. (v₁. t₁. ap₁).

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These compound forms, as before, are supposed to exercise their specific energies actively. Others again hold that the *mahabhutas*—*tejas*, *ap* and *earth* alone are compounded by a process named : *trivrit-karana* (triplication). Thus T = t₂ (ap₁. e₁), Ap = ap₂. (t₁. e₁), E = e₂. (t₁. ap₁).

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The *sukshma bhutas* are forms of homogeneous and continuous matter, without any atomicity of structure; the *mahabhutas* are composite; but even these are regarded as continuous, and without any atomic structure. The Vedanta speaks of *anu* (*paramanu*) not as an ultimate indivisible discrete constituent of matter, but as the smallest conceivable quantum or measure of matter. In the Samkhya doctrine, the atomic structure is ordinarily accepted. The *gunas* are supposed to be bounded and indefinitely small in size (except the *gunas* giving rise to *akasa* and *manas* which are unlimited), and hence the *tanmatras* and *paramanus* must be conceived to have a discrete structure

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PARINAMA—EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS

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When the *mahabhutas* are once formed, the different kinds of substances are derived from them by the evolutionary process called *parinama* (transformation). Matter is constantly undergoing change of state. The effect is only the cause in a new collocation. Change is of two kinds:—

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(1) Change by a spontaneous process, without external influence, including isomeric change The Vedantists believe in spontaneous disintegration and reintegration. Action from without, impressed force *ab extra*, is not always a condition of change of state (whether of rest or of motion);—nor is it necessary that more than one substance should combine to generate another substance or variety of substances (e g., the formation of curds from milk, of ice from water, etc.).

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(2) Change due to combination with other substances Such combination may produce (i) a compound substance possessing like qualities with the constituents, or (ii) unlike compounds with new qualities, "heteropathic effects". Any new quality evolved through (chemical) combination is called *samhata bhuta-dharma*, e.g., the intoxicating power of the fermented rice and molasses, which does not exist in the ingredients taken separately. This *sambhuyakriya* corresponds to chemical combination, and the Vedantists, like the Samkhyas, explain this only as the evolution of the latent energy in a new collocation. But, unlike the mediaeval Samkhya, the Vedanta freely recognises the combination of heterogeneous *bhutas*. Thus, *earth*, *ap*, *tejas* and *vayu* freely combine in different proportions and groupings to produce the variety of substances in the world. For example, the animal organism is a compound of all the five *bhutas*. It is not merely the concomitant or efficient causes that may be heterogeneous to the material cause, as the Naiyayikas contend, but several heterogeneous substances (*bhutas*) may unite as 'material causes' to produce a new substance.

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The Vedantists resolve all activities, physical, vital, as well as psychical, into modes of motion, subtile cosmic motion.

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The Atomic Theory of the Buddhists

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The Vaibhashikas and the Sautrantikas hold that the *vayu-atoms* are touch-sensibles, having impact or pressure for their characteristic property, and by aggregation form the element *vayu*; the *tejas atoms* are colour-and-touch-sensibles, having heat for their characteristic, and by aggregation form the *tejas bhuta*; the *ap atoms* are taste-colour-and-touch-sensibles with a characteristic viscosity, and form the *ap element* by aggregation; and finally the *earth-atoms* are smell-taste-colour-and-touch-sensibles, possessing a characteristic dryness or roughness, and by their aggregation form the *earth-element*. The *bhutas* thus originated combine to form aggregates, which are classed as inorganic substances, organisms and organs.

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The Atomic Theory of the Jainas

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Of the nine categories of the Jainas, that of Ajīva (the not-Soul or non-Ego) consists of five entities, four of which are immaterial, viz., merit, demerit, space and time, and the fifth material. The last is called *pudgala* (matter), and this alone is the vehicle of Energy, which is essentially kinetic, i.e., of the nature of motion. Everything in the world of not-Soul (the non-Ego) is either an entity, or a change of state in an entity. *Pudgala* (matter) and its changes of state, whether of the nature of subtile motion or of Evolution, must furnish the *physical* as opposed to the *metaphysical* basis of all our explanations of Nature. *Pudgala* (matter) exists in two forms,—*aṇu* (atom) and *skandha* (aggregate). The Jainas begin with absolutely homogeneous mass of *pudgalas*, which, by differentiation, breaks up into several kinds of atoms qualitatively determined, and by differentiation, integration, and differentiation in the integrated, forms aggregates (*skandhas*). An *aṇu* has no parts, no beginning, middle or end. An *aṇu* is not only infinitesimal, but also eternal and ultimate. A *skandha* may vary from a binary aggregate to an infinitum. A binary *skandha* is an aggregate of two *aṇus* (atoms), a tertiary *skandha* is formed by the addition of an atom (*aṇu*) to the binary and so on *ad infinitum*. The ascending grades are (i) what can be numbered, (ii) indefinitely large, (iii) infinity of the first order, (iv) infinity of the second order, and so on.

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GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

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The specific characters of the *pudgalas* (Matter) are of two kinds, (i) those which are found in atoms as well as in aggregates, and (ii) those which are found only in aggregates. Qualities of touch, taste, smell, and colour come under the first head. The original *pudgalas* being homogeneous and indeterminate, all sensible qualities, including the infra-sensible qualities of atoms, are the result of evolution. Every atom thus evolved possesses an infra-sensible (or *potential*) taste, smell and colour, (one kind of each) and two infra-sensible tactile qualities, *e.g.*, a certain degree of roughness or smoothness (or dryness or moistness ?) and of heat or cold. *Earth-atoms*, *ap-atoms*, *etc* are but differentiations of the originally homogeneous *pudgalas* The tactile qualities appear first, but qualities of taste, smell and colour are involved in the possession of tactile qualities An aggregate (*skandha*), whether binary, tertiary, or of a higher order, possesses (in addition to touch, taste, smell and colour) the following physical characters :—(*a*) sound, (*b*) atomic linking, or mutual attraction and repulsion of atoms, (*c*) dimension, small or great, (*d*) figure, (*e*) divisibility, (*f*) opacity and casting of shadows, and (*g*) radiant heat and light.

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*Sensible qualities.* Tactile qualities are of the following kinds :—hardness or softness, heaviness or lightness (degrees of pressure), heat or cold, and roughness or smoothness (or dryness and viscosity). Of those, the atoms (*aṇus*) possess only temperature, and degrees of roughness or smoothness; but all the four kinds of tactile qualities in different degrees and combinations characterise aggregates of matter from the binary molecule upwards The Jainas appear to have thought that gravity was developed in molecules as the result of atomic linking Simple tastes are of five kinds,—bitter, pungent, astringent, saline and the sweet Salt is supposed by some to be resolvable into sweet, while others consider it as a compound taste. Smells are either pleasant or unpleasant The simple colours are five in number—black, blue, red, yellow and white Sounds may be classed as loud or faint, bass (thick) or treble (hollow), clang or articulate speech.

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The most remarkable contribution of the Jainas to the atomic theory relates to their analysis of atomic linking, or the mutual attraction (or repulsion) of atoms, in the formation of molecules The question is raised in Umasvati's *Jaina sutras* (circa A.D 40)—what constitutes atomic linking? Is mere contact (or juxtaposition) of atoms sufficient to cause linking? No distinction is here made between the forces that bind together atoms of the same *bhuta*, and the chemical affinity of one *bhuta* to another. The Jainas hold that the different classes of elementary substances (*bhutas*) are all evolved from the same primordial atoms. The intra-atomic forces, which lead to the formation of chemical compounds, do not, therefore, differ in kind from those that explain the original linking of atoms to form molecules.

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Mere juxtaposition is insufficient; linking of atoms or molecules must follow before a compound can be produced. The linking takes place under different conditions. Ordinarily speaking, one particle of matter must be negative, and the other positive; the two particles must have two peculiar opposite qualities, roughness and smoothness (dryness and viscosity ?), to make the linking possible. But no linking takes place, where the qualities, though opposed, are very defective or feeble. We have seen that, ordinarily speaking, two homogeneous particles, i.e., both positive, or both negative, do not unite. This is the case where the qualities are equal in intensity. But if the strength or intensity of the one is twice as great as that of the other, or exceeds that proportion, then even similar particles may be attracted to each other. In every case, change of state in both the particles is supposed to be the result of this linking, and the physical characters of the aggregate depend on the nature of this linking. When particles of equal intensity (negative and positive) modify each other, there is mutual action; in cases of unequal intensity the higher intensity transforms the lower, it being apparently thought that an influence proceeds from the higher to the lower. All changes in the qualities of atoms depend on this linking. This appears to be a crude anticipation of the ionic theory of chemical combinations, very crude but immensely suggestive, and possibly based on the observed electrification of smooth and rough surfaces as the result of rubbing. The Tattvarthadhigama of Umasvati, which expounds the theory, most probably dates back to the first half of the first century A.D.

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[This may be compared to the Berzelius's Dualistic Hypothesis of chemical combination.]

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The Nyaya-Vaiseshika Chemical Theory

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The relation of the specific characters of molecules (and higher aggregates) to the original atomic qualities is reduced in the Nyaya-Vaiseshika to certain canons, as embodied in their theory of atomic combination given below.

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THEORY OF ATOMIC COMBINATION

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The four kinds of atoms are *earth, ap, tejas,* and *vayu* atoms, possessed of characteristic mass, numerical unit, weight, fluidity (or its opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion—*vega*); also characteristic potential colour, taste, smell or touch, not produced by the chemical operation of heat *Akasa* has no atomic structure and is absolutely inert, being posited only as the substratum of sound, which is supposed to travel wave-like in the manifesting medium or vehicle of *vayu* (air). Only the other four *bhutas* unite (or disunite) in atomic or molecular forms. The orthodox view is that the presence of *earth-atoms* is necessary whenever chemical transformation under the operation of heat takesplace.

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Atoms cannot exist in uncombined state in creation They may combine in one or other of the following ways:—

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1. One *earth-atom*, by an original tendency, unites with another, to form a binary molecule. In the same way binary molecules of other *bhutas* are formed. The atoms are possessed of an inherent *parispanda* (rotary or vibratory motion), and when they unite in pairs, *so long as there is no chemical operation under the action of heat corpuscles*, the original qualities of the atoms produce homogenous qualities in the binary molecules.

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The question as to the existence of a triad, a tetrad, a pentad, etc. of atoms is one of the moot points of the Nyaya-Vaiseshika. The orthodox view is that the primordial infinitesimal particles (atoms) start with an incessant vibratory motion, and an inherent impulse that drives them to unite in pairs—a sort of ‘monovalency’, as it were, exhausted with the formation of a binary molecule. The binary molecules now combine by threes, fours, fives, etc. to form larger aggregates as the variety of elementary substances, the particular collocation in any case being not only determined by physical causes, but also serving to satisfy the ends of the moral law in creation.

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According to Kanada’s view, atoms have an inherent tendency to unite, but some unite in pairs, others in triads, others in tetrads, etc. This may happen in two ways,—either by the atoms falling into groups of threes, fours, etc. direct, or by the successive addition of one atom to each preceding aggregate.

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A triad (*tryanuka*), then, holds together three atoms (*anus*), not three binary molecules (*dvyanukas*) as on the orthodox hypothesis. Similarly with tetrads, pentads, etc.

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In Prasastapada’s view, these binary molecules are grouped by threes, fours, fives, etc. to form different isomeric modifications. The variety of Earth-substances is due to differences in the arrangements of the molecules (e.g., their greater or less density and, above all, their grouping or collocation), which account for the specific characters manifested by these isomeric substances.

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According to Udayana (in Kiranavali), these original differences in molecular grouping, leading to distinctions of genera and species, however mechanically or physically explained, come under the operation of moral and metaphysical causes, i e, of ideal ends in the moral government of the Universe, which are superimposed upon the physical order, but which do not come within the scope of Natural Philosophy. An elementary substance, thus produced by primary atomic combination, may, however, suffer qualitative change under the influence of heat. The process is as follows.—(1) The impact of heat corpuscles decomposes the binary (tertiary or quarternary) molecules into homogeneous atoms possessing only the generic characters of the *bhuta* concerned;—(2) the impacts of heat particles continue, and transform the characters of the atoms, determining them all in the same way;—(3) the heat particles continue to impinge, and reunite the atoms so transformed to form binary (or other) molecules in different orders or arrangements, which account for the specific characters or qualities finally produced. The Vaiseshika holds that there is decomposition into homogeneous atoms, transformation of atomic qualities, and finally recombination, all under the influence of heat. The Nyaya, on the other hand, thinks that the molecules and larger aggregates assume the new characters under the influence of heat without decomposition into homogeneous atoms, or change of atomic characters.

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CHEMICAL COMBINATION

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Chemical combination takes place either between two or more substances which are isomeric modifications of the same *bhuta*, or between substances which are modes of different *bhutas*.

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*A. Mono-Bhautic Compounds*—The simplest compounds are *mono-bhautic* compounds, i.e., compounds of different substances which are isomeric modes of the same *bhuta*.

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(a) *Mono-bhautic compounds of the first order*.—Under the impact or impulse of heat corpuscles, the substances in chemical contact break up into their atoms. These atoms are homogeneous, possessing only the original physical and chemical characters of the *bhuta* concerned. As the specific differences between isomeric substances arise from the arrangement or collocation of the atoms, the substances lose their distinctive marks on decomposition into the latter. Under the continued impact (or, it may be, impulse) of heat particles, these atoms take on new characters. It is heat and heat alone that can cause this transformation of the colours, tastes, smells, etc., in these original *bhuta-atoms*. What particular colours, tastes, smells or physical characters will be produced in the atoms depends on (1) the nature of the constituent substances in contact, (2) the intensity or degree of the heat, and (3) the species of *tejas-corpuscles* that impinge on the atoms, or the nature of the impact.

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Now when atoms have all been determined in the same way, they begin to recombine again under the impact (or impulse) of the heat particles, giving rise to binary molecules (or tertiary, etc.); and these then form higher aggregates. It seems to be generally held that at the final step one or more atoms of one constituent substance unite with one or more atoms of the other constituent substance or substances to form a molecule of the compound; but the question is not of much significance for *mono-bhautic* compounds of the first order; as in these cases, the atoms have before this all lost their distinctive characters and become homogeneously transformed. The compound so produced will possess the new characters of the transformed atoms, so far as taste, smell, etc. are concerned; but as the molecular arrangement or structure may vary, different compound substances may result from the same components.

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(b) *Mono-bhautic compounds of higher orders*:—Again, *mono-bhutic* compounds of the first order may chemically combine to form higher compounds, and as the ultimate *bhuta* substratum is the same, the process of decomposition and recomposition will be essentially the same as before. The only doubtful point is whether in this case the component compound substances are broken up only into their constituent molecules, or into the original homogeneous *bhuta-atoms*. Some of the later Vaisesnika scholiasts hold that the latter happens in every case of chemical composition, however complex; but the earlier Vaiseshika conceived that in the case of compounds of compounds, the decomposition does not proceed so far as the original *bhuta* atoms, but that it is the specifically determined atoms, constituting the molecules of the component compounds, that are transformed under the impact of the heat-corpuscles: and then one such transformed atom (one or more according to another version) from the molecule of one component unites with one similarly transformed atom (one or more according to the other version) from the molecule of the other component. In this hypothesis it is assumed that the atoms are similarly transformed, i e., become endowed with the colour, taste, smell, etc. of the product, the moment before the chemical combination takes place. Similarly, when milk is transformed into curd, one view is that the transformation takes place (under internal heat) in the constituent atoms of the milk molecules, atoms specifically determined as milk, and not in the original atoms of the *bhuta* (or *bhutas*) entering into the composition of milk. In these cases, the atomic contact is called "constituent contact", and all the atoms are equally regarded as material causes of the compound.

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B. *Hetero-Bhautic Quasi Compounds:*—The Nyaya-Vaiseshika maintains that in the case of *bi-bhautic* (or *poly-bhautic*) compounds, which are only quasi-compounds, there is another kind of contact between the heterogeneous atoms of the different *bhutas*; this may be called "dynamic contact". In some cases, it so happens that the atoms of different isomeric modes of the same *bhuta* do not chemically combine under the mere application of heat;—they require to be surrounded (and 'excited' or 'energised') by atoms of different *bhutas*. For example, in the case of the oils and fats, as well as of plant saps and fruit juices, the Earth-atoms must be dissolved in water (*ap*), and it is only when the water-atoms (*ap*-atoms) congregate round the former that dynamic intra atomic forces are set up, and the Earth-atoms (with the water atoms in dynamic contact) now take on peculiar infra-sensible characters (colours, tastes, smells) under the impact of the heat-corpuscles, and then, under further impact, fall into groupings or collocations (of a very peculiar nature to be presently explained) which determine the nature of the composite substance thus produced. Here it is the water-atoms that are dynamic, and excite the Earth atoms, and these substances, oils and fats, as well as acids, are, because of the Earth-radicles, regarded as Earth-compounds (or Earth-substances). In the above instances, *ap* (water) acts as dynamic, but *tejas* and *vayu* can also act in the same way on Earth-particles. Conversely, Earth-particles may act dynamically on the atoms of the other *bhutas*. For example, in the case of mercury and the metals which are conceived in the Nyaya-Vaiseshika to be igneous bodies (in fact they are supposed to be formed under the subterranean heat), the *tejas* corpuscles are believed to form the radicles, and the Earth-particles are dynamic.

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It was also believed that even gold can be evaporated and made to disappear by the application of intense heat. But while every *bhuta* can act dynamically as exciter or energiser, it is the earth *bhuta* alone which is capable of exercising the power of arrest or inhibition of molecular motion, or the motion of particles due to gravity as in fluids, or the power of counter-acting the tendency in a given set of atoms to fall into a peculiar order or group.

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*Oils, Fats, Milks—Dı-bhautic quasi-compounds, with ap as energiser:*—Oleaginous substances are divided by Udayana into (1) oils, derived from vegetables, (2) butters, derived from milk, and (3) fats, derived from animals. The medical schools, as we have seen, recognise animal oils as distinguished from vegetable oils. Vegetable fats are also mentioned. Vachaspati in the Tatparyyatika contends that mustard oil has not the flavour and smell characteristic of the true oils (sesamum, linseed, etc.), and is classed with the latter by convention. Judged by the flavour test, *amiksha* (the casein substance formed by mixing milk-curd with hot boiled milk) is to be classed with milk-substances. So also *takra*, whey,—but *vajina*, the thin fluid that is left after the *amīksha* (casein substance) is separated, cannot be classed as milk. It may be added that the milks and curds, as well as oils and fats derived from different species of vegetables or animals, are supposed to differ in their ultimate structural arrangement and therefore in kind; but Vallabha thinks that the *ghees* (clarified butters), prepared from different kinds of milk, are of the same kind; in other words, the milks and curds are 'polymeric', the ghees (clarified butters), 'isomeric', using these terms as before in a loose general sense. Vallabha notes that *ghees* do not differ in kind, as milks and curds do.

Mixtures Like Soups, Solutions, Etc.

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A soup is a physical mixture of a peculiar kind, from which evaporation ordinarily sets the water free. When meat is boiled in water, there is the application of heat, with chemical changes in the meat; but the combination of meat-particles and water-particles in the soup is only a physical combination, and not a chemical one. It is, of course, not a true compound, neither is it a quasi-compound like milk (in which the water-particles are energisers of the Earth-particles). Milk, for example, retains its milky substance, when it coagulates or becomes solid (this of course is also the case with *mono-bhautic* substances, whether elementary or compound, eg., water, which becomes ice); but the substance we call a soup or solution ceases to be a soup or solution, the moment it solidifies. Uddyotakara notices gruel, baths, and lyes (alkaline solutions) as mixtures of this class.

Chemical Action And Heat

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The operation of heat is, of course, universally implied in chemical combinations. Where the application of external heat is wanting, Vatsyayana, the great Doctor of the Nyaya, points to the operation of internal heat. In the case of combustion, we have seen, Vijnana-bhikshu explains the heat as latent in the Earth-substance, the fuel, from which it breaks forth. Udayana points out that the solar heat is the source of all the stores of heat required for chemical change in the world. The change of colours in grasses, for example, is due to *tejas*, in the form of latent (invisible) heat, not in the form of *agni* (fire); and the cold in winter cannot take away this store derived from the sun (Udayana,—Kiranavali). Similarly, it is under this solar heat that the unripe mango ripens, *i.e.*, changes colour, taste, smell, etc., showing that there is chemical transformation, or subtile decomposition and recomposition, going on; and this is also the case with the rusting of the metals, which is a combustion due to the solar heat, even as the conversion of food into chyle and of chyle into blood are instances of chemical action due to the internal animal heat. But the kind of contact with heat-corpuscles, in other words, the kind of chemical action which transforms colours, is supposed to differ from that which transforms flavour, and this last from that which produces a change of smell, or tactile quality (Nyayabodhini on Annam Bhatta's Tarkasamgraha). Heat and light rays are supposed to consist of indefinitely small particles, which dart forth or radiate in all directions rectilinearly with a sort of conical dispersion and with inconceivable velocity. They may either (1) penetrate through inter-atomic (or *inter-molecular*) spaces as in cases of conduction of heat, which when applied under the pot boils the water, or fries the paddy where there is no chemical action in the pot, no decomposition and recomposition of its atoms, no change in the molecular collocation; or, as with light rays in cases of translucency or transparency penetrate through the inter-atomic spaces with *parispanda* of the nature of deflection or refraction in the same way as when fluids penetrate through porous bodies; or, (2) these rays or particles may impinge on the atoms and rebound back—which explains reflection, or otherwise be obstructed by the atoms in their path, which would explain degrees of opacity, the casting of shadows, etc., all these operations being also physical, and unattended with decomposition and recomposition or alteration of molecular grouping; or lastly, (3) these rays may strike the atoms in a peculiar way, so as to break up their grouping, may transform the physicochemical characters of the atoms, and may again recombine them, all by means of continual impact with inconceivable velocity, an operation which explains all cases of chemical combination.

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ARRANGEMENT OF ATOMS IN SPACE

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The Nyaya conceives atomic magnitudes as *parimandalya*, a term indicating a spherical shape. To conceive position in Space, Vachaspati takes three axes, one proceeding from the point of sunrise in the horizon to that of sunset on any particular day (roughly speaking from the East to the West); a second bisecting this line at right angles on the horizontal plane (roughly speaking from the North to the South); and the third proceeding from the point of their section up to the meridian position of the sun on that day (roughly speaking, up and down). The position of any point in Space, relatively to another point, may now be given by measuring distances along these three directions, *i.e.*, by arranging in a numerical series the intervening points of contact, the less magnitude or distance being that which comes earlier in this series, and the greater that which comes later. The position of any single atom in space with reference to another may be indicated in this way with reference to the three axes. But this gives only a geometrical analysis of the conception of three-dimensioned Space, though it must be admitted in all fairness that by dint of clear thinking it anticipates in a rudimentary manner not only the foundation of solid (co-ordinate) geometry, but also of the geometry of position, and especially the conception of Space as a manifold, which alone can serve as the basis of a generalisation comprehending all different kinds of geometry, Euclidean and non-Euclidean.

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The original physical arrangement of atoms is also given. Each atom is in contact with six other atoms, which gives a cubical arrangement. (Vachaspati, Tatparyyatika, Chap. IV.

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Ahnika 2, Sutra 25). This is the typical primordial arrangement; and variations in the collocation of atoms and molecules, as we have seen, were conceived to account for the variety of isomeric modes of the same *bhuta*, as well as of *mono-bhautic* and *poly-bhautic* compounds.

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The molecular arrangement in the case of the *bi-bhautic* compounds is very peculiar. Two substances, say Earth and *ap* (water), form a quasi-compound first: and each substance breaks up into atoms, when one atom of Earth comes into contact with one of *ap*. But the two do not form a binary molecule. Instead, this contact of heterogeneous atoms leads to a curious result. The atom of Earth combines with a neighbouring atom of its own class, and forms a binary molecule. Simultaneously the atom of *ap* combines with another *ap*-atom, and forms a binary molecule. Now the first binary molecule links on to the atom of *ap*, and similarly the second binary molecule links on to the atom of Earth. The moment after, the two binary molecules take on the physicochemical character of Earth and *ap* respectively, and simultaneously with the assumption of these physicochemical characters, the binary molecules enter into complex contact. In all this process, work is done only in the first instant, in the contact of an atom of Earth with one of *ap*; the resulting contacts, of atom with binary molecule and of the binary molecules with each other, involve no further expenditure of Energy. Thus we get a particle holding two binary molecules (of Earth and *ap* respectively) in complex contact, and such particles continue to be formed. In this way the particles of the two substances arrange themselves, and the peculiarity of this molecular arrangement explains the resulting mixed or compound qualities of this class of quasi-compounds.

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The whole process may be graphically represented as follows :—

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[Figure: Molecules of a bi-bhautic quasi-compound,—graphic formula of complex contact E = an atom of Earth, W = an atom of Water (*ap*) E / | / E = a binary molecule of Earth, W / | / W = a binary molecule of Water (*ap*)]

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Molecular and Atomic Motion—Parispanda.

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*Parispanda* sometimes stands for atomic and molecular motion, but more often for the subtile motion of atoms or molecules. The radical meaning of the term is whirling or rotary motion, a circling motion, but it may also include simple harmonic motion (e.g., vibration). All action, operation or work, is ultimately traced to this form of subtile motion lodged in the atoms or in the matter-stuff. The Vedanta, for example, speaks of a cosmic vibratory motion. *Akasa* in the Vedanta, as we have seen, is the first stadium in the evolution of matter, which gives off *vayu*, which gives off *tejas*, and so on; but *akasa* (Ether) itself passes through two stages before the emanation of the *sukshma-bhuta vayu*—(1) the motionless ubiquitous primordial matter-stuff (*bhutadi* in Samkhya) called *puranam kham*, and (2) a subtile integration, the pure unquintuplicated *sukshma-bhuta* called *vayuram kham* (tanmatra stage in Samkhya). It is this subtile *akasa*, in its tanmatric integration, i.e., in the derivative form, which is subject to an incessant *parispanda*. The gaseous stage of matter (the Vedantic *vayu*) is indeed matter in a state of *parispandic* motion. The Samkhya also conceives this *parispanda* to characterise every process and phenomenon of cosmic evolution *Bhutas*, organisms, mental organs, as modes of *Prakriti*, are all subject to this *parispanda* On the other hand, *Prakriti* as the *avyakta*, the a-cosmic, the unmanifest ground, with resolution only of like to like, is devoid of all *parispandic* motion. The Nyaya-Vaiseshika finds *parispanda* in all forms of matter, except *akasa* which, in that system, is non-atomic and incapable of any change or activity. But all atoms, from those of *vayu* downwards, are in incessant motion. The world at bottom is an infinitude of continually whirling (or vibratory) particles. All physical action consists in motion. The Nyaya-Vaiseshika rejects force, power, operation, except as modes of motion. But, though all action of matter on matter is thus resolved into motion, conscious activity is sharply distinguished from all forms of motion In this Nyaya-Vaiseshika differs from Samkhya-Vedanta, which, as we have seen, considered everything other than Intelligence, the *Purusha* or the transcendental Self, to arise in the course of cosmic Evolution, and therefore, to be subject to *parispandic* motion.

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The wave-motion and current-motion or convection have been termed *gati-santana* (*gati* means velocity, *santana* denotes serial motion; motion which progresses forwards). Mere vibration has been described as *kampa-santana* or *spandana*. Charaka notes three kinds of *santanas*, serial motions, viz., those of water, sound and light. Chakrapani points out that a wave of sound travels more rapidly than a wave of water, and much less rapidly than a ray of light. The last named implies the rectilinear propagation of indefinitely minute corpuscles, in all directions, with inconceivable velocity, and a sort of conical dispersion (*cf.* Uddyotakara—Vachaspati). A wave of water implies the transmission of vibratory motion in the water particles A wave of sound is conceived by some on the analogy of a wave of water; only the air waves, or the sound waves in and through the vehicle of air waves, travel by concentric circles, not in one but in all planes (this assumes transverse waves). Others hold that the air waves, or the sound and air waves, are propagated by the transmission of the vibration in all directions, leading to conjunction and disjunction of air particles, so that the waves may be said to expand by alternate concentric spherical layers of rarefaction and condensation (this assumes longitudinal waves). The Vakya-padiya describes articulate sounds (*varnas*), and indeed all sounds (*sabdas*), as only forms of air set in motion, with rarefaction and condensation, and capable of variations of velocity and configuration (Vakya-padiya, Kanda I, Sloka 109).

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The Weight of Air

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Udayana argues that air must be a distinct and independent *bhuta*; for if air were made of the *earth-bhuta*, it would have weight, and it has none. To prove the absence of weight, he refers to an experiment.

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A small bladder made of thin membrane, filled with air, will not cause a greater descent in the scale of a balance than the same bladder weighed empty. Hence, the air possesses no weight. Then Udayana makes an interesting statement. It may be objected, he says, by one who accepts the weight of air—that this argument is inconclusive. For, a counter-experiment may be suggested. The balloon filled with smoke (or gas—*dhum*) rises in the air, whereas the air-filled balloon comes down. This would go to show that air has weight. Udayana replies that this would only show that both smoke and air have no weight. The Hindus appear to have been ignorant of the principle of Archimedes, at least as applied to gases. Vallabhacharya in the Lilavati speaks of a peculiar resistance to sinking exercised by water, which explains the tendency in certain objects to float or to come up to the surface of the water: but the description shows that he had no clear ideas on the subject (*cf*. Udayana, Kiranavali—*vayu-nirupanam*).

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For a fuller reference to the subjects dealt with in this section see "Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus" by the same author.

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| ASIA | AEGEAN, GREECE, AND WESTERN EUROPE |
| | → |
| Kish, Ur tin-bronze | |
| imitation te a che- s writings ry direc- apparatus l symbo- netal and Prepared | EARLY MINOAN. *Knossos* : Copper, gold, silver, bronze, lead Purple dye, glaze *Mycena* Glass. THE HITTITES Useful iron (c 1400 B.C), steel weapons Tin oxide glaze, cobalt glass IRON AGE (c 1200 B.C.) CLASSICAL GREECE Thales (c.624-545 B C.)—Water, primal matter. Anaximander (c 611-546 B.C.) — 'Apeiron', primal matter. Anaximenes (c. 550 B C ) — Air, primal matter. Heraclitus (c. 536-470 B.C.) --Fire, primal matter. Pythagoras (c. 570-490 B.C.) -Geometrical conception of matter. Empedocles (c. 490-430 B.C.) —Four element theory. Anaxagoras (c. 500-427 B.C.) postulated an external intelligence. Leucippus (c. 500 B.C.), and Democritus (c. 460-370 B.C ) proposed an atomic theory. All matter consists of eternal, moving, indestructible atoms, qualitatively alike but differing in size, shape and mass. Aristotle (384-322 B.C) postulated the primary matter, called '*hule*' Theophrastos (315 B.C.) described the manufacture of white lead. WESTERN EUROPE |

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