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The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c8.t5: Umâsvati's Classification of Animals

The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus c8.t5

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Umâsvati's Classification of Animals

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A more thorough classification of animals is found in the ancient Jaina work, the *Tattvârthâdhigama* of Umâsvati, which the Jaina chronological lists enable us to assign with great probability to the fourth or fifth decennium after Christ (*circa* 40 A.D.). Umâsvati's classification is a good instance of classification by series, the number of senses possessed by the animal being taken to determine its place in the series. Perhaps only senses actively determining the life-habits were counted.

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I. First come animals with two senses, viz. touch (as evidenced by contractility of tissue) and taste (as involved in the selection and rejection of food). This division comprises—

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(a) *Apâdika* (Vermes without lateral appendages, Scolecids).

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(*b*) *Nûpuraka* (ring-like, with pendants, Vermes with unsegmented lateral appendages, Annelids).

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(*c*) *Gandûpada* (knotty-legged, Arthropoda, including Crustacea, Myriapoda, etc.).

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(*d*) Some forms of Mollusca, *e.g.* *Śaṅkha* (Conchifera, Lamelli-branchiata), *Śuktika* (Pearl-mussel, Lamelli-branchiata), and *Śambuka* (Helix).

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(*e*) *Jalûkâ*, Leeches (Annelids).

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II. Next come the animals with three senses, namely smell in addition to the primordial senses of touch and taste involved in the contraction of tissues and the appropriation of food. Here also well-developed and active senses alone were perhaps intended; rudimentary or dormant senses were not reckoned. This division comprises—

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(*a*) *Pipîlikâ*, Ants (Formicidæ, Hymenoptera).

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(*b*) *Rohiṇikâ*, Red-ants (Formicidæ, Hymenoptera).

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(*c*) *Upachikâ*, *Kunthu*, *Tuburaka*, Bugs and Fleas (Hemiptera, Hemimetabola).

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(*d*) *Trapusavîja* and *Karpâsâsthikâ*, Cucumber- and Cotton-weevils and Lice (Aptera, Ametabola).

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(*e*) *Śatapadî* and *Utpataka*, Spring-tails (Aptera-Ametabola).

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(*f*) *Trinapatra*, Plant-Lice.

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(*g*) *Kâṣṭha-hâraka*, Termites, White ants (Neuroptera, Hemimetabola).

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III. Then come the animals with four well-developed and active senses, *i.e.* sight, smell, taste, and touch. This division comprises—

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(*a*) *Bhramara*, *Varaṭa*, and *Sâraṅga*, Bees, Wasps, and Hornets (Hymenoptera, Holometabola).

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(*b*) *Makṣikā*, *Puttikā*, *Danśa*, and *Maśaka*, Flies, Gnats, Gad-flies, and Mosquitoes (Diptera, Holometabola). (*c*) *Vriśchika* and *Nandyāvarta*, Scorpions and Spiders (Arachnida, Arthropoda). (*d*) *Kīṭa*, Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera, Holometabola), and (*e*) *Pataṅga*, Grasshoppers and Locusts (Orthopteral Hemimetabola).

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IV. Finally come the animals (man and the Tiryyak-yonis) with five well-developed and active senses. Omitting man, this division comprises— (*a*) *Matsya*, Fishes. (*b*) *Uraga*. (*c*) *Bhujanga*. (*d*) *Pakṣi*, Birds, and (*e*) *Chatuṣpada*, Quadrupeds.

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Uraga and Bhujanga in popular use mean reptiles; but here evidently Bhujanga is taken to mean oviparous limbed animals (limbed reptiles and Batrachians) and not creatures whose movements are crooked or in the form of a bent bow; and Uraga stands for apodal reptiles, including snakes (Ophidæ).

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It will be seen that the first three divisions fall under the Invertebrata, and the fourth is identical with the Vertebrata.

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This last division (the Vertebrata) is sub-divided on a different basis, viz. the mode of reproduction. The sub-divisions are three:—

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A.—*Andaja*, oviparous (Pisces, Reptilia, and Batrachia), *e.g.* *Sarpa* (Snakes, Ophidia, Reptilia), *Godha* (Varanidæ Lizards, Reptilia), *Krikalâsa* (Chameleons, Reptilia), *Grihagolika* (Common Lizards, Lacertilia), *Matsya* (Pisces), *Kûrma* (Tortoises, Chelonia, Reptilia), *Nakra* (Crocodiles, Reptilia), *Śiśumâra* (Dolphin or Porpoise, Cetacea), and Birds proper with feather wings—the *Lomapakṣa pakṣis*.

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Porpoises are erroneously put here, being really viviparous like other Cetacea. Frogs are not mentioned in this list. The omission is strange. Perhaps (as in Suśruta) frogs were believed to be *Udvijja* (eruptive or metamorphic) and not *Andaja* (oviparous). But Suśruta mentions the frogs after the quadrupedal and centipedal Reptilia (*Kanava*, *Godheraka*, *Galagolika*, and *Śatapadî*).

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B.—*Jarâyuja*, mammals born with placenta, including all mammals other than the *Potaja* (here *Jarâyuja* is used in a restricted sense): (1) Man, (2) Cow, (3) Buffalo, (4) Goat and Sheep, (5) Horse, (6) Ass, (7) Camel, (8) Deer, (9) Yak (*Chamara*), (10) Hog, (11) Bos Gavæus (*Gâvaya*)—Ungulata, (12) Lion, (13) Tiger, (14) Bear, (15) Panther, (16) Dog, (17) Jackal, (18) Cat (Carnivora), etc.

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The Apes, though not expressly mentioned, are also to be included.

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C.—*Potaja*, a class of placental mammals comprising the Deciduata with the exception of Man, the Apes, and the Carnivora, *e.g.* *Śallaka* (Porcupine, Rodentia), *Hasti* (Elephant, Proboscidea), *Śvavit* and *Lâpaka* (Hedgehogs and other creatures that lap up, Insectivora), *Śaśa* and *Śayika* (Hare, Rabbit, and Squirrel, Rodentia), *Nakula* (Ichneumon, which though carnivorous is supposed to come under the Deciduata), *Mûṣik* (Mice, Rodentia), and the *Charma-pakṣa Pakṣis*, so-called birds with leathern wings (Bats, Chiroptera) *e.g.* *Valguli* (Flying-Fox), *Pakṣivirâla* (Flying-Cat, Micro-Chiroptera) and *Jalûkâ* (apparently meaning blood-sucking Bats or Vampires, though these are scarcely found in the Old World).

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The *Potaja* class thus comprises the following Deciduata: Proboscidea, Rodentia, Insectivora, and Chiroptera.

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The term *Potaja* is intended to signify that these animals are born without the placenta which is thrown off as an afterbirth, whereas such of the *Jarâyujas* as are not *Potajas* are born with the placenta attached to the embryo. But it is not easy to explain why Man, the Apes, and the Carnivora should not also be reckoned among the *Potajas*. An explanation is suggested below (p. 200).

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कृम्यादीनां पिपीलिकादीनां भ्रमरादीनां मनुष्यादीनां च यथासंख्यमेकैक-वृद्धानि इन्द्रियाणि भवन्ति । यथाक्रमम् । तद् यथा कृम्यादीनां अपादिक-नूपुरक-गण्डूपद-शङ्ख-शुक्तिक-शम्बूक-जलूका-प्रभृतीनां स्पर्शनरसनेन्द्रिये भवतः । पिपीलिका रोहिणिका-उपचिका-कुन्थुपुत्तुरक-त्रपुसबीज-कर्पासस्थिका-शत-पद्युत्पतक-तृणपत्र-काष्ठहारक-प्रभृतीनां त्रीणि स्पर्शनरसनघ्राणानि । भ्रमर-वरट-सारङ्ग-मक्षिकापुत्तिका-दंश-मशक-वृश्चिक-नन्द्यावर्त्त-कीट-पतङ्गादीनां चत्वारि स्पर्शनरसनघ्राणचक्षूंषि । शेषाणां च तिर्यग्यौनिजानां मत्स्योरगभु-जङ्गपक्षि-चतुष्पदानां सर्वेषां च नारकमनुष्यदेवानां पञ्चेन्द्रियाणि । (Umâsvati, *Tattvarthâdhigaṇa*, Chap. II., Sutra 24).
जरायुजानां मनुष्य-गो-महिषाजाविकाश्व-खरोष्ट्र-मृग-चमर-वराह-गवय-सिंह-व्याघ्रर्क्ष-द्वीपि-ऋ-शृगाल-मार्ज्जारादीनाम्। अण्डजानां सर्प-गोधा-कृकलास-गृहगोलिका-मत्स्य-कूर्म्म-नक्र-शिशुमारादीनाम् । पक्षिणां च लोमपक्षाणां-हंस-वाय-शुक-गृध्र-श्येन-पारावत-काक-मयूर-मद्गु-वक-बलाकादीनाम् । पोतजानां

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शशक-हस्ति-श्यावित्तापक्क-झष-झायिका-नकुल-मूषिकादीनाम् चर्मपक्षिणां च पक्षाणां जलुका-वल्गुलि-भारण्ड-पक्षिविरालादीनां गर्भेजन्म । (Umâsvati, *ibid.*, Chap. II., Sûtra 34).

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RECAPITULATION.

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The ancient Hindu classification of animals, as gathered from the authorities mentioned above, may be briefly summarised thus :—

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A.—*Kṣudrajantus*, boneless and without (red) blood. Invertebrata, divided into—

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(*a*) *Ayonija*, a-sexually generated, *e.g.* the *Svedaja*, born of moisture and heat, and the *Udvijja* (eruptive or metamorphic, *e.g.* the coccinella); and
(*b*) *Yonija*, sexually generated, *e.g.* the *Andaja*, oviparous.

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But some are both a-sexually and sexually generated, being both *Svedajas* and *Andajas*, or *Udvijjas* and *Andajas*.

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The *Kṣudrajantus* (Invertebrata) comprise—

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(I.) The *Krimis*, Vermes : (*a*) *Apâdikas* without lateral appendages (*cf.* Scolecids), (*b*) *Nûpurakas*, Annelids (a section), (*c*) *Gandûpadas*, Arthropoda (a section).
(II.) The *Jalûkâs*, Leeches, of which twelve species are described, six venomous and six innocuous (*cf.* Suśruta's careful description, *Sûtrasththâna*, Chap. XIII.).
(III.) *Kośasthas*, Shelled Animals, some forms of Mollusca, *e.g.* the *Śankhas* (Conchifera), the

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*Śuktikas* (pearl-mussels), the *Śambukas* (spiral-shelled Helix), the *Voḍikas*, etc.

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(IV.) Then the Insects, typified by the Ants, comprising—
(a) *Pipîlikâ*, *Rohiṇikâ* (ants, Hymenoptera).
(b) *Upachikâ*, *Kunthu*, *Tuburaka* (bugs and flies, Hemiptera).
(c) Cucumber- and cotton-lice (Aptera).
(d) *Śatapadî*, *Utpataka* (spring-tails, Aptera).
(e) *Triṇapatra*, grass- or plant-lice (Aptera).
(f) Termites (Neuroptera).

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(V.) Insects typified by the Hexopoda, comprising—
(a) *Bhramara*, *Varaṭa*, *Sâranga*, bees, wasps, and hornets.
(b) *Makṣikâ*, *Puttikâ*, *Danśa*, *Maśaka*, flies, gnats, gadflies, and mosquitoes.
(c) *Vriśchika* and *Nandyâvarta*, scorpions and spiders (Arachnida, Arthropoda).
(d) *Kîṭa*, butterflies and moths; and
(e) *Pataṅga*, grasshoppers and locusts.

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Suśruta-Nâgârjuna names six varieties of ants, six varieties of flies, five of mosquitoes (including one marine and one mountain kind), eight varieties of *Śatapadîs* (centipedes), thirty varieties of scorpions, and sixteen of spiders (*Lutâs*). Of the *Kîṭas*, the glow-worm and the *Tailakita* (*lit.* oil-worm) are said to be luminous (phosphorescent, *cf.* *Râjanighantu* खद्योततैलकीटौ).

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B.—The *Tiryyakyoni* animals, sexually generated animals other than such of the Ovipara as are included under the *Kṣudrajantu*, in other words, sexually generated animals possessing bones and blood—corresponding to the Vertebrata—comprise the following classes:—

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I. *Andaja*, oviparous—

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(*a*) The *Matsyas*, fishes, divided into river-water fishes and sea fishes. Suśruta names eleven species of the latter. The *Timi* (whale?) is reckoned as a sea-fish. The *Makara* (shark) is also mentioned, but the *Kurmas*, *Kumbhîras*, and *Śiśumâras* (tortoises, crocodiles, and dolphins) are excluded from the class, as also the so-called shell-fish, being placed among the *Pâdinas* and the *Kośasthas* respectively.

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(*b*) The *Uragas*, apodal reptiles, including the *Sarpas* (snakes, Ophidia). Five classes of snakes are mentioned, one non-venomous, three venomous, and one hybrid. Eighty varieties of snakes are named, but the classification is based on superficial characters, *e.g.* markings on the scales, etc., and do not touch any anatomical peculiarities. The pathological observations regarding the distinct action of the poisons of different orders seem to be good.

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(*c*) *Bhujangas*, oviparous animals with lateral, pedal appendages, both Reptiles and Batrachians. Many of these are quadrupedal and five-clawed (चतुष्पादाः कीटाः पञ्चनखाः—Dalvana).

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The *Bhujangas* include:—

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1. *Godha*, *Grihagolika* and *Krikalâsa* (Varantas lizards, common lizards, and chameleons). Suśruta names four varieties of the *Kanava*, a species of chameleon-like lizards (*cf.* *Lâdyâyana* quoted by Dalvana, *Kalpasthâna*, Chap. VIII.), also six varieties of *Galagolika* (a species of lizards), and five varieties of *Godheraka*, Varanus-like lizards, but smaller in size.

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Suśruta mentions the frogs (*Udvijja*, eruptive or metamorphic?) after the quadrupedal and centipedal Reptilia (*Kanava*, *Godheraka*, *Galagolika*, and *Śatapadî*). Eight species of frogs are named. The frogs are explained by the mythologist to have arisen from dirty water in the rainy season...प्रावृट्काले ततः (*i.e.* महेश्वरशुक्रात्) मङ्कोदके जाताः (*cf.* Dalvana, *Kalpasthâna*, Chap. VIII).

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2. *Kûrmas* and *Nakras*, tortoises and crocodiles (Chelonia and Emydosauria, Reptilia). Some species of the former are oval, others elongated (वर्तुलदीर्घादिभेदाः).

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3. *Śiśumâras*, the Delphinidæ (Odontocete cetacea).

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Suśruta's *Pâdinas* (aquatic animals having pedal or long dorsal appendages) are a conventional class formed for practical dietary purposes, and include (2) and (3) and also the *Karkatas*, crabs (Crustacea). Umâsvati's *Bhujanga* class, being a natural sub-division of Vertebrates, does not include Crustacea, which are rightly placed among the Invertebrates.

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(*d*) *Lomapakṣa pakṣi*, winged animals with feathery wings, birds proper. These are oviparous, while the winged animals with leather wings (चर्म्मपक्षपक्षिण:) are placentalia of the Deciduata class (पोतजाः).

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The Birds proper are divided into four classes :—
(1) *Plavas*, aquatic or amphibious birds, comprising the Natatores and the Grallatores. Various species are described.
(2) *Viṣkiras*, those that scatter their food in picking up.
(3) *Pratudas*, those that pierce or torment their food (fruits or grains). The enumeration of the species under (2) and (3) shows that these two classes included the Passeres (veræ and so-called), the Scansores, the Rasores, and the Columbæ.
(4) *Prasahas*, birds of prey proper (Raptores).

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Dalvana's descriptions of deer and birds are precise, turning upon coloration, habits of life, etc., *e.g.* the descriptions of the Ruru, the Kâraṇḍava, and the Kanka, expressly quoted from some (unnamed) handbooks :—

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कूलेचरमाह . . . **रुरुः शरदि शृङ्गत्‍यागी । तल्लक्षणं उच्यते—**
**“ विकटबहुविषाणः शम्बराकारदेहः सलिलतटचरित्वात् सञ्चरेभ्यः विचित्रः । त्यजति शरदि शृङ्गं रौति ”—इत्यसौ रुरुः स्यात् ।**
**कारण्डवः शुक्लहंसभेदोऽल्पः अन्ये करहरमाहुः । उक्तञ्च “ कारण्डवः काक-वक्त्रो दीर्घोङ्घ्रिः कृष्णवर्णभाक् ” इति ।**
**प्रसहानाह . . . कङ्कः दीर्घचञ्चुर्महाप्राणः । उक्तं च “ कङ्कःस्यात् कङ्क-महाक्ष्यो वायसगार्हपक्षकः । लोहपृष्ठो दीर्घपादः पञ्चाधः पाण्डुवर्णभाक्।” इति ।**

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The sources from which Dalvana derives detailed information about these varied forms of animal life are now unavailable, but these extracts abundantly testify to the minute Nature study of the Hindus.

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The Hindus had of course no idea of an anatomical classification of birds.

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The ancient writer Lâdyâyana had a much better idea of zoological description in reference to the *Kîtas* (insects and reptiles, *vide infra*).

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II.—*Jarâyujas* (viviparous, *lit.* placentalia) in the usual wider sense, comprising—

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(*a*) *Charmapakṣa pâkṣis*, leather-winged animals, which are Deciduata (*Potaja*). Charaka calls them *Mṛigapakṣiṇa* (mammal birds), and distinguishes them from the birds of prey proper, in his enumeration of the *Prasahas* (*Sutrasthâna*, Chap. XXVII.). The Bats mentioned are:—
(1) *Valguli* (flying-fox).
(2) The *Pakṣi Virâla* (flying-cat, micro-Chiroptera).
(3) The *Bharanda* (a species of micro-Chiroptera, the horse-shoe bat?).
(4) The *Jalukâ* (*lit.* aquatic or amphibious, or more probably leech, bat, blood-sucking or vampire bat?). These are placed among carnivorous animals.

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(*b*) The *Vileśaya Jarâyujas*, mammals that live in holes or burrows, including various species of Rodents and Insectivora, which are named.

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Eighteen different varieties of mice are specified (Suśruta, *Kalpasthâna*, Chap. VI.).

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(c) *Parṇamrigas*, arboreal mammals, comprising some Rodents (squirrels, etc.), a wild-cat, the sloths, and the apes (वानर).

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(d) Non-carnivorous quadrupeds (अक्रव्यादा:) :—

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(1) *Janghâlas* (*lit.* strong-legged quadrupeds, frequenting hilly and jungly tracts), comprising various species of deer (non-carnivorous wild animals, अक्रव्याद).

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(2) *Kulechara*, mammals grazing on the banks of rivers, and frequenting marshy places, comprising the elephant, the rhinoceros, the gaveya (*Bos gavæus*), the buffalo, the hog, and also several species of deer (which live in well-watered lands). These are also non-carnivorous (अक्रव्याद).

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(3) *Grâmyas* (*lit.* living in or near villages), non-carnivorous, domesticated quadrupeds, some with undivided hoof, others with cloven hoof, comprising the horse, the mule, the ass, the camel, the cow, the goat, the sheep, etc. These are all non-carnivorous. The dog and the cat are not mentioned in the list.

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(e) Carnivorous quadrupeds, *Guhâśaya* (living in natural caves or hollows, carnivorous *Kravyâda*), comprising the lion, the tiger, the wolf (of the dog class), the hyena, the bear, the panther, the cat, the jackal, etc. The Carnivora were termed *Vyâlas* or *Kravyâdas*, and the Herbivora *Pasus* (in a wider sense).

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(*f*) Man.

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The term *Jarâyuja*, in a wider sense, came to mean "viviparous," and included the above orders of animals. But the Jainas used the term *Jarâyuja* in a narrower sense to mean only those viviparous animals which come out at birth with the placenta (a-deciduata). The Deciduata (including the Proboscidea, the Rodentia, the Insectivora, the Chiroptera, etc.) were termed *Potaja*, *lit.* viviparous animals born without placenta. Man, the apes, and the Carnivora are, however, reckoned with the *Jarâyuja* (viviparous, born with placenta). Perhaps the afterbirth was observed in these cases, whereas the *Potajas* (Deciduata) may have been erroneously conceived to throw off no placenta (गर्भे जन्म, *supra*).

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Lâdyâyana appears to have made a special study of the classification of *Kîtas* (Insects and Reptiles), and is quoted by Dalvana as a great authority on the subject.

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The various forms (रूप) of *Kîtas* are to be distinguished from one another by peculiarities in the following marks:—

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(1) Dottings or markings, (2) wings, (3) pedal appendages, (4) mouth, with antennæ or nippers (मुखसन्दंश—Dalvana), (5) claws, (6) sharp, pointed hairs or filaments, (7) stings in the tail, (8) hymenopterous character (संश्लिष्टैः पक्षरोमभिः), (9) humming or other noise, (10) size, (11) structure of the body, (12) sexual organs (this is how I interpret *linga* here), and (13) poison and its action on bodies.

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*Cf.* बहुभिः बिन्दुलेखाभिः पक्षैः पादैः मुखैः नखैः
शूकैः कष्टकलांगूलैः संछिद्रैः पक्षरोमभिः ।
स्वनैः प्रमाणैः संस्थाने लिंगैश्चापि शरीरगैः
विषवीर्यैश्च कीटानां रूपज्ञानं विभाव्यते ॥

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(Quoted from Lâdyâyana by Dalvana, *Kalpasthâna*, Chap. VIII.)

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