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The Limits of Life

Translation of ཚའ་མཐའ་མད (ཚེའི་མཐའི་མདོ)

Language
English
Translator
Bruno Galasek-Hul
Extent
178 passages, 14,070 words
Text
complete digital text
Source
84000 · Translated by Bruno Galasek with Lama Kunga Thartse Rinpocheunder the patronage and supervision of 84000:… · CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 (84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha). Shown whole and unaltered, with its notes, on a…

Contents

Text

84000's introduction

intro.1

The Sūtra on the Limits of Life presents a detailed and systematic account of the lifespans of different beings that inhabit the universe, progressing from the lower to the higher realms of existence as outlined in early Buddhist cosmology. The Buddha describes the lifespans of beings in terms of the relationship or proportion between the lifespans of the devas of the form realm and the lifespans in the eight major hot hells, the latter being significantly longer than the former.

intro.2

The Sūtra on the Limits of Life contains content and themes that predate the advent of Mahāyāna Buddhism, and it has therefore been regarded by Tibetan tradition as a sūtra of the “Lesser Vehicle” (Hīnayāna).¹ This can also be gleaned from the opening verses of its Tibetan translation, which pay homage to the Three Jewels instead of all buddhas and bodhisattvas, as well as from the introductory scene of the sūtra, in which the Buddha is not, as is usual in the sūtras of the Mahāyāna, surrounded by a large number of bodhisattvas. In this sūtra, the Buddha, who is staying in Prince Jeta’s grove in Śrāvastī, addresses the monks directly and teaches in detail about the lifespans of the beings inhabiting the different realms of existence of the Buddhist cosmos.

intro.3

According to ancient Indian cosmology, since beginningless time the world has been inhabited not only by humans and animals but by a vast array of different kinds of beings. Moreover, according to the Abhidharma, the Buddhist cosmos is composed of three different realms that form three hierarchical cosmological levels: the desire realm, the form realm, and the formless realm.² Each of these three realms contains several sublevels inhabited by particular classes of beings. When conceptualized as manifestations of different states of consciousness, the three realms may be called spheres.³

intro.4

In the Buddhist understanding of karmic cause and effect, rebirth in one of the different realms is the karmic result of one’s former actions.⁴ Thus the ten unwholesome courses of action lead to rebirth in the three unfortunate rebirth-destinies: the realms of animals, pretas, and hell beings. Their opposites, the ten wholesome courses of action, lead to rebirth in the fortunate rebirth-destinies: the human realm and the six heavens of the desire realm.⁵

intro.5

Mastery of the stages of meditative absorption leads to rebirth on the different levels of the form realm and the formless realm. In this regard, the karmic result of mastering the first meditative absorption is rebirth in one of the three Brahmā realms. The karmic result of mastering the second meditative absorption is rebirth in the realms of the devas whose names contain the word Radiance.⁶ The karmic result of mastering the third meditative absorption is rebirth in the realms of the devas whose names contain the word Virtue.⁷ Mastering the fourth meditative absorption leads to rebirth among the devas of the Pure Abodes.

intro.6

The Pure Abodes are subdivided into two levels, and this is where the accounts of different early Buddhist schools seem to differ most. According to Theravāda sources,⁸ there are the levels of the Pure Abodes proper, with the addition of the Heaven of the Insentient Beings⁹ and the Heaven of Great Reward, respectively. These last two have their own karmic cause, namely, the attainment of a meditative absorption called the attainment of the meditative state without consciousness, an ordinary attainment of the fourth meditative absorption that can be realized by meditators who are not noble ones.¹⁰ In the Pure Abodes proper, on the other hand, only non-returners can be born, and from there they attain nirvāṇa. The account of the (Mūla-)Sarvāstivāda school seems to have two additional heavens beyond the Heaven of Perfect Virtue, which are absent from the Theravāda sources, namely, the Cloudless Heaven and the Heaven Born from Merit. According to the Mahāvyutpatti, the Cloudless Heaven and the Heaven Born from Merit are the karmic result of attaining the fourth meditative absorption. According to the Theravāda account, however, the fourth meditative absorption (ordinary and non-ordinary) is associated only with the sublevels above the Heaven of Great Reward. The Sūtra on the Limits of Life mentions these two additional heavens but does not specify whether they are the karmic result of accomplishing the third or the fourth stage of meditative absorption.

intro.7

In Buddhist cosmology, the axis mundi of the terrestrial world, which is thought to be flat, is Mount Meru. It is surrounded by the four continents and is also the axis around which rotate the sun, moon, and stars. The order of the realms of existence is vertical, with the higher realms located above Mount Meru and the hells beneath the earth. The Sūtra on the Limits of Life mentions the four continents as the places where humans live.¹¹ Moreover, the world system just outlined, which is experienced differently by the different sentient beings, is not the only world. In fact, the universe consists of numerous similar worlds or world systems just like our own. It is, however, possible for any being—except for the beings in the unfortunate destinies, who have invariably painful sense experiences—to mentally experience all the states of the fortunate and unfortunate rebirth-destinies.¹² The mental states of the devas may be experienced by humans during advanced states of meditative absorption. Moreover, rebirth-destinies are not static or permanent. Every living being has the potential to perform wholesome actions and thus accrue merit that eventually leads to rebirth in a higher realm. Although the lifespans in some of the hells seem so long as to be virtually never-ending, Buddhism does not have the notion of eternal damnation.

intro.8

The Sūtra on the Limits of Life does not provide us with a detailed account of the structure and the functioning of the universe. It rather presupposes the reader’s familiarity with such knowledge. The text’s main point, as its title indicates, is to present its audience with detailed information about the duration of life of the different forms of existence in the Buddhist universe. The Sūtra on the Limits of Life thus lists the five rebirth-destinies (those of the hell beings, pretas, animals, humans, and devas) together with their subcategories (the four continents inhabited by humans, the eight hot and the eight cold hells, and the different heavens of the form realm and the formless realm) and carves out in a systematic way the relationship between the lifespans in the heavens and the hells.

intro.9

Although the presentation of the subject matter appears very scholastic, the sūtra’s message is renunciation. Actions of body, speech, and mind bind beings to saṃsāra and lead to fortunate or unfortunate rebirth-destinies for unimaginably long periods of time. Only liberation and the veneration of objects that are worthy of veneration, e.g., the Buddha and his Saṅgha, can end this continuous cycle of death and rebirth. In the concluding section of the sūtra, the Buddha says, “I do not speak with even the slightest praise of the manifestation of existence, however small it may be, however short in duration. Why is that? Because the manifestation of existence is suffering.” Existence here refers to the five destinies, that is, all the possible kinds and places of rebirth that the sūtra portrays, from the hell Incessant Torture to the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-perception, which is the peak—the highest possible form—of existence.

intro.10

For the convenience of the reader, we present in the appendix a list of the different states of existence in the order in which they appear in the sūtra, together with their lifespans and their arithmetic relationship to the human lifespan (see ).

intro.11

On the Sanskrit, Chinese, and Tibetan Sources

intro.12

In the 1989 supplement (no. 2) of the Sanskrit-Wörterbuch der buddhistischen Texte aus den Turfan-Funden (“Sanskrit Dictionary of the Buddhist Texts from the Turfan Expeditions”), the Japanese scholar Hisashi Matsumura presented an edition of the Sanskrit text of the Āyuḥparyanta­sūtra together with a critical edition of the Tibetan translation based on five editions (the Narthang, Degé, Choné, Lhasa, and Kangxi Kangyurs). Matsumura prepared his Sanskrit edition on the basis of Raghu Vira and Lokesh Chandra’s (1959–74) facsimile edition of a manuscript from Gilgit in present-day northern Pakistan. Gilgit was an important transit zone for traveling Buddhist monks from India, Iran, and China and an important connector between South Asia and the Central Asian Silk Roads.¹³ During the reign of the Palola Ṣāhis (c. 585–720 ce), who were patrons of Buddhism, Gilgit was a flourishing Buddhist kingdom, and there is evidence that Buddhism was alive in Gilgit until at least the tenth century,¹⁴ an estimate that sits well with the date of the single Chinese translation. The Jiaoliang shouming jing 較量壽命經 was translated in 984 ce by Tianxi Zai, a Kashmiri Buddhist monk who was active as a translator in China from 980–1000 ce; however, Matsumara states that the Chinese translation appears to be based on a different version of the sūtra.¹⁵ It is still possible that Tianxi Zai brought a version of the sūtra with him to China. In any case, the editors of the Gilgit manuscript had given it the mistaken title Kālasūtra, which is the name of one of the hells mentioned in the sūtra itself. Concerning its style, the sūtra’s syntax is very repetitive, except for the fifty-two verses that make up a considerable part of the text. Some of these verses are also found in the celebrated Buddhist verse collections, the Udānavarga and the Dharmapada.¹⁶

intro.13

Oskar von Hinüber, based on an earlier observation by Gregory Schopen, was able to identify this text with the Tibetan translation of The Sūtra on the Limits of Life.¹⁷ While the order of the folios in Vira and Chandra’s edition of the Gilgit manuscripts were in disarray, Matsumura restored the order of the folios and the missing or destroyed parts of the Sanskrit text with the help of its Tibetan and Chinese translations, finding the Sanskrit to be more than ninety percent complete. Matsumura furthermore found there to be “the highest degree of congruency” between the Sanskrit text and the Tibetan translation.¹⁸ However, in the process of translating the work from both the Sanskrit and the Tibetan, we found occasional discrepancies between the Tibetan translation and the edited Sanskrit text to be more significant than Matsumura suggests.¹⁹

intro.14

As for the Tibetan translation, the translators for this particular text are listed in the Tibetan colophon as the Indian preceptor Viśuddhasiṃha and the Tibetan monk Gewé Pal. Their translation was subsequently revised and finalized by the Indian preceptor Vidyākarasiṃha and the chief editor-translator, Bandé Paltsek. All these contributors flourished during the late eighth and early ninth centuries, and so the Tibetan translation, which we have rendered into English here, would have been completed during the early translation period, a dating also attested by the text’s inclusion in the early-ninth-century Denkarma (ldan dkar ma) inventory of translations into Tibetan.²⁰ We are aware of only one Tibetan commentary on The Sūtra on the Limits of Life, a rather late Tibetan commentary by Choné Lama Drakpa Shedrup (co ne bla ma grags pa bshad sgrub, 1675–1748).²¹

intro.15

The English translation presented here is based on the Tibetan text of the Degé Kangyur. In several cases, however, we have followed the Sanskrit instead of the Tibetan, recording these choices and their rationale in the notes. For example, we adopted the Sanskrit readings of the numerals of the lifespans of the different classes of beings where they seemed to represent the more correct numbers and were furthermore corroborated by other sources. Also, where the Sanskrit text differed significantly from the Tibetan, we have recorded the Sanskrit reading in the notes.

1

Homage to the Three Jewels!

Thus did I hear at one time.²² The Bhagavān was staying in Śrāvastī, in Prince Jeta’s grove, Anāthapiṇḍada’s Park. There the Bhagavān addressed the monks: “Monks, do you wish to learn about the lifespans of beings?”

“Yes, Bhagavān, this is the right time for it! Sugata, the time is right for the Bhagavān to teach the monks the lifespans of living beings. Bhagavān, having heard the teaching from the Bhagavān, the monks will retain it.”

“Monks, listen carefully and concentrate! I will teach.²³

“Monks, the maximum lifespan in the hell realms is one eon. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the maximum lifespan in the animal realm

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is one eon. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, one day for the pretas corresponds to thirty days for humans. Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve months constitute one year, pretas have a lifespan of five hundred years by this way of calculating.²⁴ According to human years, this is fifteen thousand years. Premature death does occur.”

Then, at this time, the Bhagavān spoke these verses:

“With their mouths and throats parched, they suffer intensely.
Their bodies rise high like mountains tall.²⁵
They are all coated in hair,²⁶ their mouths are fretfully agape,²⁷
Their noses extremely thin like needles.

“Their skeleton-like, naked bodies are clad only in their own hair—
Deformed figures with hands like cups,²⁸
They suffer intensely from hunger, thirst, and fatigue.²⁹
They howl, and their aching bodies writhe.

“Constantly experiencing painful sensations, they cry out in agony.
Those who resort to jealousy and spite for others in this world,
Having committed negative actions,
Will be born in the realm of the pretas.³⁰

“Monks, the lifespan of human beings inhabiting the eastern continent Pūrvavideha³¹ is two hundred fifty years. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of human beings inhabiting the western continent Avaragodānīya³² is five hundred years. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of human beings inhabiting the northern continent Uttarakuru³³ is one thousand years. Premature death does not occur.

“Why do the human beings who inhabit the continent Uttarakuru have a lifespan of one thousand years and not experience premature death?

“Monks, the human beings inhabiting the continent Uttarakuru have no sense of mine and no notion of ownership, and their lifespan is predetermined. When they die and pass from there, they progress higher and higher,³⁴ and in the future they go to heaven. Monks, this is why the human beings inhabiting the continent Uttarakuru have a lifespan of one thousand years and do not experience premature death.”

Then, at that time, the Bhagavān spoke the following verses:

“Beings who are stricken by poverty

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Hope for the riches of others.³⁵
Because they have not served and relied on noble beings,³⁶
They will become the low and mean servants of others.

“The affluent and rich,
Possessing all kinds of enjoyments,
As well as money, grains, and servants,
Are those who have served and relied on noble beings.

“Those who live meritorious lives,
By performing virtuous actions here and now,
Will delight in great prosperity
And abundance like a deva.³⁷

“Since what is beyond the range of sense perception is not apparent,
Look directly at what is present:
When people experience happiness in this world,
That is the karmic result of former generosity.³⁸

“The humans³⁹ inhabiting the northern continent
Have no sense of mine and no notion of ownership.
They use clothing from the wish-fulfilling tree—
That is the result of former generosity.⁴⁰

“They experience neither cold nor heat,
They are free from illnesses,
And they possess perfect bodies and complexion—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.⁴¹

“On the northern continent
Grows very white rice
Whose grains are unbroken, smooth, pure, and clean—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.⁴²

“Pure light-generating crystals
Shine for beings continuously
And cook their food—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.⁴³

“They have no vegetables,
And not even a little dahl.
They always eat rice
Endowed with perfect color, smell, and taste.

“With only one serving of that food,
Until they get up from their seats
The food on their plates is inexhaustible—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.⁴⁴

“A fruit that resembles the bottle gourd⁴⁵
Grows on branches even when cut.
One can eat them off the vine—⁴⁶
That is the karmic result of former generosity.

“The rivers there carry cool water that
When drunk, does not harm the stomach
And that possesses the eight superior qualities⁴⁷—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.

“The people of Uttarakuru constantly divert themselves
With magical trees that emit music.
Their minds are always happy—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.⁴⁸

“The lovely magical music-trees,
The many magical garment-trees,
The perfect-smelling perfume-trees—
They are the karmic result of former generosity.

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“Perfume, flowers, music,
And garments too—
Whatever the heart desires
Manifests exactly as imagined.

“On lush green meadows,
With grass soft like cotton wool,
They enjoy themselves all day— [91]
That is the karmic result of former generosity.

“They are without anger.
Never begrudging or jealous,
They enjoy one another⁴⁹—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.

“During the first watch of the night⁵⁰
A rain shower falls for only an instant
And cleans the air of dust—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.

“Since they are not possessive,
Even the mother-and-son relationship is unknown to them.⁵¹
When nothing unpleasant exists, sorrow is nonexistent⁵²—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.

“Mothers can even leave their children
On empty roads and go their way,
Because milk trickles from everyone’s thumbs—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.

“No one cries there.
When someone dies, they just leave the body and go on their way.
Birds come and clean the island of the corpses—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.

“The whole of Uttarakuru is enclosed by a moat,
Within which Uttarakuru’s inhabitants safely enjoy and divert themselves
With songs and dance, most beautiful to behold—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.

“The people there live for one thousand years,
And they certainly use it up.
They do not die prematurely⁵³—
That is the karmic result of former generosity!⁵⁴

“Having fully enjoyed this beauty and abundance,⁵⁵
Even though they will have to forsake their human bodies,
They will take rebirth among the devas⁵⁶—
That is the karmic result of former generosity.

“Monks, the lifespan of the humans of the southern continent of Jambudvīpa⁵⁷ is not fixed; it varies.⁵⁸ More precisely, monks, the maximum lifespans of the humans of Jambudvīpa are unlimited, eighty thousand years, one hundred years, and ten years.⁵⁹

“Monks, the lifespan at the present time of the humans of Jambudvīpa amounts to one hundred years.⁶⁰ Monks, presently those among the humans of Jambudvīpa who live long can reach an age of one hundred years, or a little more than that, when looked after with proper care.⁶¹

“Monks, during a lifespan of one hundred years, people undergo ten stages.⁶²

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At the first stage, they are infants, feeble and lying on their back. At the second stage they are children, disposed to playing. At the third stage, as youths, they chase after pleasure. At the fourth stage they are endowed with physical strength and strong enthusiasm. At the fifth stage they possess prudence and self-confidence.⁶³ At the sixth stage they are experienced and more given to reflection. At the seventh stage they practice religion with all their heart.⁶⁴ At the eighth stage they are venerable and people of distinction.⁶⁵ At the ninth stage they are old, fragile, and weakened by age. At the tenth stage life is exhausted and only death remains.⁶⁶ Monks, in a hundred years, their lives undergo those ten stages.

“Monks, living for one hundred years, they live for one hundred times each the three seasons: one hundred winters, one hundred summers, and one hundred rains.⁶⁷ Living three seasons one hundred times each, they live for twelve months one hundred times: four months each of winters, four of summers, and four of rains. Living for twelve months one hundred times, they live for twenty-four times one hundred half-months, or two thousand four hundred half-months: eight half-months each of winters, eight half-months of summers, and eight half-months of rains. Living twenty-four times one hundred half-months, they live for thirty-six thousand days: twelve thousand days each of summer, winter, and rains.

“Living for thirty-six thousand days, they eat seventy-two thousand meals, except for when there is something that prevents them from eating.⁶⁸ These meal interruptions are as follows: when they are angry, they do not eat; when they suffer, they do not eat; when impoverished,⁶⁹ they do not eat; during fasting,⁷⁰ they do not eat; because of loss, they do not eat; because of gain, too, they do not eat; when sleeping, they do not eat; when drunk,

6

they do not eat; due to being drowsy, they do not eat. Thus, in sum, the meals that are eaten and the meals that are not eaten are altogether seventy-two thousand meals during one lifetime, including the milk from their mother that they have drunk.

“Monks, I have expounded and itemized the lives of human beings in Jambudvīpa in terms of seasons, months, half months, days, meals, and even the interruptions to meals.⁷¹

“Monks, fifty human years corresponds to one day and night in the life of the devas belonging to the retinue of the Four Great Kings. Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve months constitute one year, the lifespan of the devas belonging to the retinue of the Four Great Kings is five hundred divine years by this way of calculating. According to human years, this is nine million years. Premature death does occur.

“This—that is, nine million years—corresponds to one day and night for the beings⁷² in the great hell Revival.⁷³ ⁷⁴ Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve such months constitute one year, the lifespan of beings in the great hell Revival is, by this way of calculating, five hundred years. In human years, this is 1 trillion 620 billion years. Premature death does occur.”

Then, at that time, the Bhagavān spoke the following verses:

“By committing harmful actions
With body, speech, and mind,
And whatever other actions that bring harm,
Beings are reborn in the hell Revival.
For one thousand times ten million years
They are tortured and killed, only to be revived.

“People who kill other people,
Because they are tied to one another by hatred,
Will, by virtue of this karma,
Be reborn in Revival.

“Monks, one hundred human years corresponds to one day and night for the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three. Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve such months constitute one year, the lifespan of the devas of the Heaven of the Thirty-Three is one thousand divine years by this way of calculating.

7

According to human years, this is thirty-six million years. Premature death does occur.

“This—that is, thirty-six million years—corresponds to one day and night for the beings in the great hell Black Thread.⁷⁵ Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve such months constitute one year, the lifespan of beings in the great hell Black Thread is one thousand years by this way of calculating. According to human years, this is 12 trillion 960 billion years.⁷⁶ Untimely death⁷⁷ does occur.”

Then, at that time, the Bhagavān spoke the following verses:

“Those who harm⁷⁸ their father or mother,
Or buddhas or śrāvakas,
Will be born in the great hell Black Thread
And experience painful bodily sensations.

“Those who are lackadaisical and brag about it,⁷⁹
And people who create discord among friends,
Are reborn in Black Thread.
Likewise, those who repeatedly tell lies⁸⁰
Are reborn in the great hell Black Thread
Because of that karma.

“Monks, two hundred human years corresponds to one day and night for the devas of the Heaven Free from Strife. Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve such months constitute one year, the lifespan of the devas of the Heaven Free from Strife is two thousand divine years by this way of calculating. According to human years this is 144 million years.⁸¹ Premature death does occur.

“This—that is, one hundred forty-four million years—is one day and night for the beings in the great hell Crushing.⁸² Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve such months constitute one year, the lifespan of the beings in the great hell Crushing is two thousand years by this way of calculating. According to human years, this is 103 trillion 680 billion years.⁸³ Premature death does occur.”

Then, at that time, the Bhagavān spoke the following verses:

“Having committed the threefold⁸⁴ unwholesome deeds,
And having neglected the threefold wholesome ones,
Through this karma one will be reborn
In the great hell Crushing.⁸⁵

“Having slain cows,⁸⁶ goats, water buffalo,

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Game, fowl,⁸⁷ pigs,
Or other such animals,
One will be reborn in Crushing.

“Monks, four hundred human years corresponds to one day and night for the devas of the Heaven of Joy. Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve such months constitute one year, the lifespan of the devas of the Heaven of Joy is four thousand divine years by this way of calculating. According to human years, this is 576 million years. Premature death does occur.

“This—that is, five hundred seventy-six million human years—corresponds to one day and night for the beings in the great hell Wailing.⁸⁸ Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve such months constitute one year, the lifespan of the beings in the great hell Wailing is four thousand years by this way of calculating. According to human years, this is 829 trillion 440 billion years.⁸⁹ Premature death does occur.”

Then, at that time, the Bhagavān spoke the following verses:

“Those whose hands are smeared with blood,
Whose appearance is dreadful, fierce, and terrifying,
Through their evil conduct
Will forever go to Wailing.

“Flatterers and conjurers,⁹⁰ and those who use deceit to cheat others,⁹¹
May not utter terrifying sounds,
But because they ruin people,
They will burn in hell for a long time.

“Monks, eight hundred human years corresponds to one day and night for the devas of the Heaven of Delighting in Emanations. Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve such months constitute one year, the lifespan of the devas of the Heaven of Delighting in Emanations is eight thousand years by this way of calculating. According to human years, this is 2 billion 304 million years. Premature death does occur.

“This—that is, 2 billion 304 million years—corresponds to one day and night for the beings inhabiting the great hell Loud Wailing. Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve such months constitute one year, the lifespan of the beings inhabiting the great hell Loud Wailing⁹²

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is eight thousand years by this way of calculating. According to human years, this is 6 quadrillion 635 trillion 520 billion years.⁹³ Premature death does occur.”

Then, at that time, the Bhagavān spoke the following verses:

“Those who are obstructed by the thicket of wrong views
And blinded by the veil of craving
Will certainly go to Loud Wailing⁹⁴
Due to their evil conduct.

“People who violate friendship and confidentiality⁹⁵
Will burn in the blazing,
Bloodcurdling hell Loud Wailing,
Where they are imprisoned in a circular house.⁹⁶

“There, swords will cut to pieces the bodies
Of people who have engaged in backbiting.
Vultures, crows, owls, and dogs
Will shake their bodies to and fro before devouring them.

“Monks, one thousand six hundred⁹⁷ human years corresponds to one day and night for the devas of the Heaven of the Masters of Others’ Creations.⁹⁸ Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve such months constitute one year, the lifespan of the devas of the Heaven of the Masters of Others’ Creations is sixteen thousand years by this way of calculating. According to human years, this is 9 billion 216 million years. Premature death does occur.

“This—that is, nine billion two hundred sixteen million years—corresponds to one day and night for the beings inhabiting the great hell Heat.⁹⁹ Since thirty such days constitute one month, and twelve such months constitute one year, the lifespan of the beings inhabiting the great hell Heat is sixteen thousand years by this way of calculating. According to human years this is 53 quadrillion 84 trillion 160 billion years.¹⁰⁰ Premature death does occur.”

Then, at that time, the Bhagavān spoke the following verses:

“Those who repeatedly¹⁰¹ afflict¹⁰²
Good monks and brahmins,¹⁰³
As well as their father and mother,¹⁰⁴
Will be reborn in Heat.

“Someone who inflicts a lot of pain
On many beings in this world
Will be reborn in Heat
On account of this karma.

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“Monks, do you want to hear about the lifespan of beings who have been reborn in the Blistering Hell?”¹⁰⁵

“Yes, Bhagavān, the time is right for that. Sugata, this is the right time for it. We, the monks, having heard the teaching from the Blessed One about the lifespan of beings that have been reborn in the Blistering Hell, will retain the teaching well.”¹⁰⁶

“Monks, in that case, listen carefully and concentrate! I will teach. Monks, it is like this: Imagine a container¹⁰⁷ with a capacity of twenty khārī¹⁰⁸ that contains a full measure of twenty khārī of Kosalan sesame seeds and is filled to the brim with them. Now imagine that someone were to remove a single seed from that container every hundred years.¹⁰⁹ I say, monks, that the contents of that container holding twenty khārīs of sesame seeds would quickly be emptied out completely by this method, but, monks, not so the lifespan of beings who have been reborn in the Blistering Hell.

“Twenty times the lifespan in the Blistering Hell is that in the Bursting Blister Hell.¹¹⁰ Twenty times the lifespan in the Bursting Blister Hell is that in the Hell of Chattering Teeth. Twenty times the lifespan in the Hell of Chattering Teeth is that in the Hell of Lamentation. Twenty times the lifespan in the Hell of Lamentation is that in the Cold Whimpering Hell. Twenty times the lifespan in the Cold Whimpering Hell is that in the Splitting Open Like a Blue Lotus Hell. Twenty times the lifespan in the Splitting Open Like a Blue Lotus Hell is that in the Splitting Open Like a Lotus Hell. Twenty times the lifespan in the Splitting Open Like a Lotus Hell is the Great Splitting Open Like a Lotus Hell.¹¹¹ Devadatta’s¹¹² partisan,¹¹³ the monk Kokālika, because he felt anger toward¹¹⁴ the monks Śāriputra and Maudgalyāyana,¹¹⁵ will be reborn in the Great Splitting Open Like a Lotus Hell with his own body.¹¹⁶

“Therefore, monks, you should train the mind thus: not even toward the burnt stump of a tree should you generate an attitude of hatred, let alone toward a conscious being! You should train in that way, monks!”

Then, at this point, the Bhagavān spoke the following verses:¹¹⁷

“Some people are born

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,
With a hatchet in their mouth,
With which they only cut themselves
When speaking words of evil.

“Those who praise the ones who are to be reproached
And those who reproach the ones who are to be praised
Accumulate with their mouths that evil,
Due to which they cannot find happiness.

“This is a small sin:
Losing all one’s wealth through gambling.
This is a great sin:
Getting angry at the Tathāgata.¹¹⁸

“Those who abuse the noble ones,
Having thus directed evil words and thoughts against them,
Will go to hell for one hundred thousand nirarbudas
And thirty-six arbudas.¹¹⁹

“Speaking untruth with a mind intending evil
Is what destroys one and hurls one into hell.¹²⁰
A mind that is not tainted by these stains,
That is blameless, is steadfast.

“Monks, the lifespan of beings inhabiting the great hell Intense Heat¹²¹ is half an eon. Premature death does occur.”

Then, at that point, the Bhagavān spoke the following verses:

“Having abandoned wholesome actions
Through which one is reborn in heaven,
And having done harmful actions here, in this world,
One is reborn in Intense Heat.

“Those who harm good ascetics or brahmins,
Or their father or mother,
Or any other teacher
Will boil in Intense Heat.

“Monks, the lifespan of the beings in the great hell Incessant Torture¹²² is one eon. Premature death does occur. This is where the fool Devadatta was reborn with his own body because he split the undivided Saṅgha¹²³ and, with evil intentions, drew the Tathāgata’s blood¹²⁴ and beat a nun, who was an arhantī, to death.”¹²⁵

Then, at that time, the Bhagavān spoke the following verses:¹²⁶

“Those who are so foolish as to treat with contempt and reject
The teaching of those noble ones who worthily live according to the truth,
Because they have resorted to evil views,
Cultivate a deadly fruit, like the fruit of the thorny bamboo.¹²⁷ ¹²⁸

They should only speak benevolently.
They should not speak maliciously.

12

When they speak benevolently, things will turn out well.
When they speak maliciously, they will burn.

When fools utter malicious speech,
They become enchained.
Only fools speak maliciously;
Noble ones never utter them!¹²⁹

“Having committed heinous acts in this world,
Which lead to unfortunate rebirth-destinies,
Through this karma,
One will be reborn in Incessant Torture.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven of Brahmā’s Retinue¹³⁰ is half an eon. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven of Brahmā’s Ministers is three quarters of an eon.¹³¹ Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven of Great Brahmā is one eon.¹³² Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven of Limited Radiance is two eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven of Boundless Radiance is four eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven of Luminous Radiance¹³³ is eight eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven of Limited Virtue¹³⁴ is sixteen eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven of Boundless Virtue¹³⁵ is thirty-two eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven of Perfect Virtue¹³⁶ is sixty-four eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Cloudless Heaven¹³⁷ is one hundred twenty-five eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven Born from Merit¹³⁸ is two hundred fifty eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven of Great Reward¹³⁹ is five hundred eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of both the Insentient Beings and the devas of the Unlofty Heaven¹⁴⁰ is one thousand eons.¹⁴¹ Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in Sorrowless Heaven¹⁴²

13

is two thousand eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven of Sublime Vision¹⁴³ is four thousand eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Heaven of Great Vision¹⁴⁴ is eight thousand eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas in the Highest Heaven ¹⁴⁵ is sixteen thousand eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas belonging to the Sphere of the Infinity of Space is twenty thousand eons.¹⁴⁶ Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas belonging to the Sphere of the Infinity of Consciousness is forty thousand eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas belonging to the Sphere of Nothingness is sixty thousand eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, the lifespan of the devas belonging to the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-perception is eighty thousand eons. Premature death does occur.

“Monks, from the hell Incessant Torture up to the Sphere of Neither Perception nor Non-perception—which, monks, is the peak of existence—these states respectively demarcate the upper and lower limits of the whole of existence. These states are the manifestation of existence. They are the places where living beings of the five rebirth-destinies come and go, live, die, and are reborn. Enough with the manifestation of existence!¹⁴⁷ I do not speak with even the slightest praise of the manifestation of existence, however small it may be, however short in duration.¹⁴⁸ Why is that? Because the manifestation of existence is suffering. Take, for instance, something that is impure: when even a little of it stinks, how much more so does a lot of it! In the same way, I do not speak with even the slightest praise of the manifestation of existence, however small it may be, however short in duration. Why is that? Because, monks, the manifestation of existence is suffering. Ordinary, worldly people, uneducated in the Dharma,¹⁴⁹ continually cycle again and again in the five rebirth-destinies;

14

again and again they rush to the hells, again and again to the animal realm, again and again to evil states, to unfortunate rebirth-destinies, to destruction. Therefore, monks, you should train in this way: ‘I shall strive to cut off the stream of existence at any point and not let saṃsāra unfold!’ Monks, you should train in this way!”

After the Blessed One had thus spoken, the monks were deeply overjoyed and rejoiced in the Blessed One’s words.

Colophon

This was translated by the Indian preceptor Viśuddhasiṃha and the monk Gewé Pal. It was revised and finalized by the Indian preceptor Vidyākarasiṃha and the chief editor-translator Bandé Paltsek.

Notes

notes.1

1. This is how the sūtra is classified in the Degé edition of the Kangyur, which no doubt followed the classification of the text in the Denkarma catalog (see Herrmann-Pfandt 2008, 156, no. 284). The term Hīnayāna is problematic for its derogatory connotations. On the problems with the common distinction of two “vehicles” (Hīnayāna/Mahāyāna), see Skilling 2013, 75–79.

notes.2

2. Skt. kāmāloka/kāmadhātu, rūpaloka/rūpadhātu, and arūpaloka/arūpadhātu/ārūpyadhātu. We have adopted Gethin’s English translations of these terms (Gethin 1998, ch. 5, especially pp. 116–17). This summary of the Buddhist understanding of the cosmos according to the Abhidharma follows Gethin 1998 and The Sūtra on the Limits of Life itself. Gethin’s account follows mainly the Abhidharma tradition of the Theravādins. The accounts of other early Buddhist schools are largely in agreement and deviate only in certain details.

notes.3

3. Thus, kāmāvacara, rūpāvacara, and arūpāvacara in Sanskrit. Skt. avacara here means the range or scope of the mind’s activity, i.e., what is or can be experienced.

notes.4

4. Realms of existence (also sublevels) here translates Skt./Pāli bhūmi (see Gethin 1998, 116).

notes.5

5. The ten wholesome courses of action are usually expressed as the opposites of the ten unwholesome courses of action, thus, e.g., not killing living beings (Skt. aprāṇātighāta), etc. The Skt. collective term for the fortunate rebirth-destinies is sugati; the Tib. is bde ’gro.

notes.6

6. The Heaven of Limited Radiance, the Heaven of Boundless Radiance, and the Heaven of Luminous Radiance.

notes.7

7. The Heaven of Limited Virtue, the Heaven of Boundless Virtue, and the Heaven of Perfect Virtue.

notes.8

8. For the Theravāda account, see Gethin 1998, 116–17.

notes.9

9. Alternative translations that are often met with in secondary literature are “unconscious devas” or “unconscious beings,” “Concept-Free Gods,” etc. R. Sharf (Sharf 2014) argues that the Insentient Beings constitute a nominal category, necessitated by the internal logic of the Abhidharma system of meditation that designates a certain divine state of existence which, according to the Buddhist conception of the cosmos, is located in the form realm, and which is characterized by no conscious experience at all. This state of total mental calm is said to be the specific result of a meditative absorption called the attainment of the meditative state without consciousness (asaṃjñi­samāpatti or asaṃjñā­samāpatti). This appears to be phenomenologically indistinguishable from the cessation of sensation and conceptualization (samjñā-vedayita-nirodha or, in short, nirodha-samāpatti), a praised state of meditative absorption that is achieved only by non-returners or arhats as a result of mastering the complete sequence of the eight absorptions. We have adopted the translation “Insentient Beings” from Robert Sharf (see Sharf 2014). A good alternative translation may be “Concept-Free Gods,” since it is not at all clear that this state entails a complete loss of consciousness, although in nontechnical usage Skt. saṃjñā can have this meaning (e.g., in expressions like vilupta-saṃjñā, “lost consciousness”).

notes.10

10. “Ordinary” here means that this state is also attained by ordinary persons (pṛthagjana), i.e., those who have not achieved one of the stages that characterize noble persons (ārya-pudgala). Vasubandhu explains in the AKBh (AKBh(P), 68–69 on AK II.42): “To which bhūmi does it belong? 42b. In the Fourth Dhyāna. In order to cultivate this absorption, the ascetic should have entered the Fourth Dhyāna. Why does one cultivate it? 42c. Through desire for deliverance. The ascetic falsely imagines that āsaṃjñika, the non-consciousness that constitutes the result of the non-conscious absorption, is true deliverance. Āsaṃjñika, being retribution, is necessarily morally neutral. As for the non-conscious absorption, it is 42d. Good. It produces as its retributive result the five skandhas of a nonconscious god, who, as we know, is conscious at birth and at death […]. This absorption is cultivated only by Pṛthagjanas. 42f. Not by Āryans. The Āryans consider this absorption as a precipice, a calamity, and do not value entering it. On the contrary, Pṛthagjanas identify non-consciousness (āsaṃjñika) with true deliverance; they have no idea of ‘going out’ with respect to it; hence they cultivate the absorption that leads to it. But Āryans know that the impure cannot be true deliverance. Hence they do not cultivate this absorption” (tr. Pruden 1988–90, vol. 1, 223–24; the numbers followed by letters in the citation indicate the pādas of the verse that is commented upon).

notes.11

11. Detailed explanations on the traditional concepts of the universe can be found, e.g., in Vasubandhu’s AKBh (= Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, ch. 3, especially pp. 451–74 (vol II) or in Jamgön Kongtrul 2003, ch. 2).

notes.12

12. Cf. Gethin 1998, 121–22.

notes.13

13. See Neelis 2011, 61–62.

notes.14

14. See Sarao 2012, 55.

notes.15

15. The title of the Chinese translation is given by Matsumura as Fo-shuo chiao-liang shou-ming ching. The sūtra is found in Taishō no. 759 (Taishō shinshū daizōkyō, vol. 17, pp. 601al–604a22). See Matsumura 1989, 73. For more information on this version of the sūtra, see Lewis R. Lancaster, “K 1105,” The Korean Buddhist Canon: A Descriptive Catalogue.

notes.16

16. For example, the verses 42–46 in Matsumura’s Sanskrit edition (cf. – in this translation) correspond to Udānavarga, Vācavarga (varga VIII), verses 2–6; see Bernhard 1965, 161–63. The sūtra does not indicate that these verses are found also in other Buddhist works.

notes.17

17. See Matsumura 1989, 72.

notes.18

18. See Matsumura 1989, Introduction: pp. 72–75. Matsumura has also published his own Japanese annotated translation of the Āyuḥparyanta­sūtra, which unfortunately could not be consulted in its original language by the present translator. Those who read Japanese are referred to Hisashi Matsumura, “Bonbun Kyōryōjumyō-kyō,” Review of International Buddhist University Faculty of Letters 14 (1982): 59–81.

notes.19

19. Occasionally the Tibetan translation contains unexpected and unusual terms when compared to the Mahāvyutpatti, the famous Sanskrit–Tibetan lexicon used to help standardize translations in the massive state-sponsored translation program of the early translation period in Tibet. For example, Skt. verse 40 (cf. ) has in Tib. dge slong (“[fully ordained] monk”) instead of the expected dge sbyong for the Sanskrit śramaṇa. However, Skt. verse 48 (cf. ) pādas ab, which is identical to the passage in verse 40, does have the expected translation equivalent dge sbyong. To give another, perhaps more substantial, example, the Sanskrit text lists the Insentient Beings and the devas of the Unlofty Heaven with different lifespans, five hundred and one thousand eons respectively, while the Tibetan translation lists these two classes of devas together as having the same lifespan, namely, one thousand eons. See Matsumura 1989, 86 (Sanskrit) and 99 (Tibetan), paragraphs 57 and 58.

notes.20

20. The Denkarma catalog is dated to c. 812 ce. See Herrmann-Pfandt 2008, p. 156, no. 284.

notes.21

21. For detailed information on Drakpa Shedrup, see Treasury of Lives. The larger first part of this commentary contains a concise, summarized version (don bsdus) of the two Karma­vibhaṅga­sūtras (Toh 338 and Toh 339; see Galasek-Hul and Lama Kunga Thartse Rinpoche 2023 and 2021), which largely follows the structure of Toh 339. The second part of Drakpa Shedrup’s text contains the commentary on The Sūtra on the Limits of Life. While Drakpa Shedrup’s commentary does not add any new information that is not available from the sūtra itself, it does stand out for its conciseness and very clear language.

notes.22

22. This is the standard sūtra beginning, which is missing in the Skt. edition of our text. We know from other Buddhist texts in Skt. that the formulaic beginning of sūtras may also be translated as, “This I have heard: At one time the Bhagavān was staying at…,” etc. (Skt. evam mayā śrutaṃ. ekaṃ samayaṃ bhagavā…, etc.) The matter continues to be debated by scholars. However, our translation follows the punctuation as found in the Tib. translation of the Āps, and in the majority of the Tib. translations of Skt. sūtras.

notes.23

23. According to the Tib. The Skt. text additionally contains the monks’ reply: “ ‘Yes, master,’ the monks replied to the Bhagavān. Then the Bhagavān spoke to the monks thus: (evaṃ bhadanteti. te bhikṣavo bhagavataḥ pratyaśroṣuḥ. atha bhagavān tān bhikṣūn idam avocat; Matsumura 1998, 75).”

notes.24

24. According to the Tib. For a similar passage, cf. dwags po thar rgyan in Guenther 1971, 62. It is interesting to note that syntax and lexis in a parallel passage in the dwags po thar rgyan are very similar to that of the Āps: rgyal chen rigs bzhi’i tshe tshad ni gang yin pa de ni dmyal ba yang sos kyi nyin zhag gcig yin la | de sum cu la zla ba gcig| zla ba bcu gnyis la lor brtsis pa’i yang sos kyis rang lo lnga brgya thub bo | | mi lo ltar na bye ba phrag ’bum drug khri nyis stong yod do||. The Skt. locution appears to be idiomatic and is difficult to render literally in English (Matsumura 1989, 75, paragraph 4): tena rātri(ṃ)divasena tṛṃśad rāt[r]akeṇa māsena, dvādaśa māsakena saṃvatsareṇa, tayā saṃvatsara[ga]ṇanayā paṃca varṣaśatāni pretānām āyuṣaḥ pramāṇaṃ.

notes.25

25. For the Skt. āśraya in the sense of “body,” cf. BHSD; the Tib. translation has lus (“body”), which is not attested as a standard translation equivalent for āśraya in the Mvy. For a similar passage in the Divyāvadāna describing the appearance of the pretas, see .

notes.26

26. A similar passage describing the appearance of pretas can be found in the Divyāvadāna, tr. Rotman 2008, 47: “Soon five thousand pretas who looked like scorched wooden pillars, raised up skeletons covered with hair from head to toe, with stomachs like mountains and mouths like pinholes, surrounded Śroṇa Koṭikarṇa” (yāvat pañcamātraiḥ pretasahasrair dagdha­sthūṇāsadriśair asthi­yantravaducchritaih svakeśa­roma­praticchannaiḥ parvatodara­saṃnibaiḥ sūcī­chidropama­mukhair anuparivāritaḥ Śroṇaḥ Koṭīkarṇaḥ. Ed. Cowell & Neil 1886, 7).

notes.27

27. Tib. kha gdangs gnam du lta, Skt. vidāritonmukhā (“with their mouths turned up and gaping”). The image that is being invoked here is perhaps that of extreme hunger that makes them gape their mouths and turn their faces upward in anxious expectation of any food or drink that might come their way.

notes.28

28. We interpret the Skt. compound kapālapāṇayo (ghorāḥ) as a karmadhāraya here (see Matsumura 1989, 76, v. 2c). For the only other occurrence of this term in Skt. Buddhist texts that we have come across so far, see Mahāvadāna­sūtra, where it clearly means “having/carrying a bowl in his hand” (see Mahāvadāna­sūtra, 16, §36.6, passim). The Tib. reads somewhat differently and its meaning is unclear: gzugs mi sdug pa ’greng zhing thod pa thogs (“Their deformed bodies stand erect and they hold bowl[s]”). Lama Kunga Rinpoche suggests either of two interpretations of the Tib.: (1) They are holding (skull?-)cups or bowls in their hands (constantly searching for food?); or (2) some feature of ugliness—referring to the form of their foreheads?—is being described (but the wording in Tib. is obscure). In later Skt. kapālapāṇi is used as an epithet of Śiva.

notes.29

29. The Tib. omits vyasana.

notes.30

30. The Tib. translators changed the order of the pādas of the Skt. verses 2–4 (Matsumura 1989, pp. 75–76) from six lines (= 12 verse-quarters) with 12 syllables per line (= the Skt. meter vaṃśastha) to eight lines (= two verses?) with nine syllables each. The content, however, is mostly identical. My translation follows more closely the Tib. translation here.

notes.31

31. Tib. shar gyi lus ’phags, “Majestic Body” (Jamgön Kongtrul 2003, 113). Skt. variant: Prāgvideha (so in AKBh; see also BHSD, s.v.). We leave the names of the four great continents untranslated in the main body of the text since the original form of the words in Skt. Buddhist literature is not consistent. For extensive explanations on the Buddhist world system itself, see Jamgön Kongtrul 2003, pp. 107–47; for the AKBh, see Pruden 1988–90, vol. 2, ch. 3.

notes.32

32. Tib. nub kyi ba lang spyod, “Bountiful Cow” (Jamgön Kongtrul 2003, 113). Variants of the name in Skt. and Pāli: Aparagoyāna, Goyānīya (Pāli), Aparagodānika, °godānīya (Mahāvastu), Godānīya (AKBh), Avaragodānīya (Mūla­sarvāstivāda­vinaya, Gilgit), Aparagoḍānī (Lalitavistara), Aparagodāni (Dharmasaṃgraha); see BHSD.

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