大乘法苑義林章 2.19

2.19

Second, concerning the defining characteristics: regarding the characteristics of sūtra (契經), fascicle 11 of the Abhidharmasamuccaya states: 'It refers to weaving together in prose a brief exposition of the meanings that ought to be taught; that is, the brief exposition in prose among the various scriptures of the dharmas that ought to be taught is called sūtra.' Fascicle 81 [of the Yogācārabhūmi] agrees with the Abhidharmasamuccaya, meaning that it threads together meanings, expresses them directly in prose, and largely gathers their purport and essential nature. Fascicle 25 of the Yogācārabhūmi and fascicle 6 of the Xianyang do not mention prose, but merely state in general: 'The Buddha, in various places, for various sentient beings, based on various practices, preached immeasurable words associated with the aggregates, up to words associated with confirmed clarity (avetyaprasāda). Those who compiled the Dharma collected the holy words, and in order to make the true Dharma abide long, arranged them in sequence using exquisite names and phrasing, up to expounding extensively the true, good, and wonderful meanings—this is called sūtra.' This agrees with what is taught in the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra. Fascicle 15 of the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra states: 'From "Thus have I heard" up to "joyfully accepted and practiced it," everything like this is called sūtra.' However, sūtra has both a general and a specific sense: the general sense encompasses all twelve divisions. What the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra and others teach as the specific sense only encompasses the brief exposition in prose of the meanings that ought to be taught; because its characteristics differ from the remaining divisions, it is called specific. Each is based on one meaning, and they do not contradict one another.

Regarding the characteristics of geya (應頌), the Abhidharmasamuccaya and other treatises uniformly state that in the middle or at the end of the various sūtras, one repeats in verse—that is, one later repeats the meaning of the preceding prose in verse. It also states: 'Sūtras of neyārtha ought to be further explained in verse. Although expounded in prose, their meaning is not yet exhausted, so it is reiterated in verse later.' Thus it is named geya based on two meanings: first, to benefit sharp-rooted latecomers; second, to reveal the preceding neyārtha so that listeners of the Dharma understand with clarity and purity. The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra only has the first of these meanings. Fascicle 2 of the Tattvasiddhi-śāstra states: 'Either spoken by the Buddha himself or spoken by disciples, wishing to make the principles and meanings firm and undissipated—like threading flowers so they are firm in sequence—and also adorning the expressions to make people delight in them. Moreover, when meanings enter verses, they are made concise and easy to understand.'

Regarding the characteristics of vyākaraṇa (記別), the Abhidharmasamuccaya and others state: 'It refers to where noble disciples and others have passed away, and their gains, losses, and distinct places of rebirth are prophesied. This relies on the World-Honoured One prophesying the future births of the disciples, predicting cause and effect.' Moreover, various treatises state: 'Also, nītārtha sūtras are called vyākaraṇa, because vyākaraṇa discloses and explains the profound, esoteric intention.' "Ji" (記) means clear; "bie" (別) means discrimination. Clearly recording and discriminating profound and esoteric meanings is called vyākaraṇa. Where other places state that neyārtha sūtras are called vyākaraṇa, it means that because they are briefly expounded in few words, they are called neyārtha; this is not based on clearly stating profound meanings. The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra states: 'The Tathāgata bestows prophecies upon great beings: "You, Ajita! In the future there will be a king named Śaṅkha; you shall attain buddhahood in that world, named Maitreya."' This is a vyākaraṇa-sūtra. In accord with the various teachings, it is generally named vyākaraṇa based on three meanings: first, predicting disciples' causes and effects of death and birth; second, clearly explaining profound and esoteric meanings; third, prophesying the matter of bodhisattvas attaining buddhahood.

Regarding the characteristics of gāthā (諷誦), the Xianyang and others state: 'It refers to what is not a repetition of prose in various scriptures, but is composed in metrical lines, spoken in two lines, three lines, four lines, five lines, six lines, and so forth—all are gāthā.' The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra states: 'Excluding sūtras and the Vinaya rules, where there are other teachings of four-line verses, such as: "Commit no evil, / cultivate all good, / purify one's own mind: / this is the teaching of all Buddhas"—this is called a gāthā-sūtra.' The meaning here is: teachings of dharmas that are not straight expositions in prose, and not nidānas, but spoken for others with a four-line verse as the head, are called gāthā. By this, the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra also has a specific sūtra. If not, why would it be excluded here? It is only because of the general sūtra. At minimum, lines can be two; at maximum, immeasurable—all are this. The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra merely cites one verse to indicate the teaching; treatises cite difficulties where it does not fill a full verse, so they only go up to six. If it were only one line, it would not form a verse, as it would be difficult to distinguish from prose. Citing a verse and a half, it says six lines; five or seven are also possible, but because they are few, they are not mentioned.

Regarding the characteristics of udāna (自說), the Yogācārabhūmi and others state: 'It refers to where no requester is shown, but in order to make the true Dharma and the true teaching abide long in the future, it is spoken without being requested—this is called udāna.' The Abhidharmasamuccaya states: 'As the verse says: "If toward such dharmas / one generates vigorous diligence, / meditates in dhyāna, and truly contemplates, / at that time one is called a brāhmaṇa." This was spoken by the Buddha to make the true Dharma abide long; the true Dharma abiding long means practice abiding.' The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra states: 'For instance, the Buddha entered dhyāna in the late afternoon, up until the next morning when he arose from dhyāna, and without anyone asking, by his knowledge of others' minds, he himself preached the Dharma, up to extensive expositions. Such scriptures spoken spontaneously without being asked are called udāna.' Although the instances pointed to differ, the underlying principle is the same. Question: Why is it that when a requester makes no utterance, it is not called requesting a teaching, yet when the Tathāgata remains silent, it is accepted as constituting an answer? Answer: Requests are of two kinds: first, mental intention; second, oral proclamation. Oral proclamation sets karma in motion and is earnest and grave; therefore it constitutes a request. A mere mental thought is slight; therefore in the scriptures it is not called a request. Answers are also of two kinds: first, silence; second, speech. Provided it gives rise to understanding, it is called an answer; it does not depend on heaviness or lightness, so it is not like asking. Moreover, in various scriptures, the Buddha knows their thoughts and immediately preaches the Dharma for them; thus even without words, it is also called a request. But to emphasize the importance of spoken words, it is given the name request; without words, it is not a request. Another question: Since there are sūtras spoken spontaneously without being asked, why are there no sūtras with questions but no answers? Answer: Among the twelve divisions, only when Dharma is spoken does it constitute a scripture; where there is no question but an answer, it can constitute a scripture. Without speech it does not constitute a scripture; where there is a question but no answer, it does not constitute a scripture. Yet in principle, where questions are set aside [unanswered], they are also called scriptures. Furthermore, in the realm of the Buddha Gandhahastin, both kinds are absent; scent performs the Buddha's work, and without speech scriptures are constituted. In this world, the Tathāgata uses sound to perform the Buddha's work; therefore without an answer, it cannot constitute a scripture. The twelve divisions of scriptures do not require a question to be called scriptures; hence there are udāna sūtras spoken spontaneously without being asked.

Regarding the characteristics of nidāna (緣起), fascicle 81 states: 'It refers to expounding dharmas based on a request. As the sūtra states: "The World-Honoured One at one time, relying on Mṛgāra's son, expounded the essentials of the Dharma for the monks." Also, it refers to all speech included in the Vinaya based on the path of causal arising for the Prātimokṣa. Also, in that place it is spoken like this: The World-Honoured One, relying on such-and-such circumstances and relying on such-and-such events, spoke such-and-such words.' This possesses three meanings to be called nidāna: first, spoken due to a request; second, rules established due to an offense; third, Dharma spoken due to an incident—as should be understood in sequence. Treatises like the Abhidharmasamuccaya only have the first two; the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra only has the latter one. The Abhidharmasamuccaya and others say: 'Nidāna means spoken due to a request; also, rules of training are formulated due to causal conditions.' The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra states: 'Like the underlying causes of the sūtra verses. For instance, in the city of Śrāvastī there was a man who caught birds with a net and released them after catching them. The World-Honoured One, knowing the origin and circumstances, spoke a verse: "Do not belittle small evils, / thinking they bring no disaster; / though water drops are tiny, / they gradually fill a large vessel." This is called a nidāna-sūtra.' This is only preaching Dharma due to an incident, so neither is complete. Only fascicle 81 is comprehensive in meaning.

Regarding the characteristics of avadāna (譬喻), the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra states: 'Like the parables spoken in the Vinaya, this is called an avadāna-sūtra.' The Abhidharmasamuccaya and others say: 'It refers to allegorical teachings in various sūtras to make the original meaning clear and pure.' Fascicle 25 says: 'It refers to where there are parable teachings.' The Abhidharmasamuccaya only mentions parables in sūtras; the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra only mentions parables in the Vinaya; the Yogācārabhūmi comprehensively mentions parables in sūtras, the Vinaya, and treatises—all are included in this.

Regarding the characteristics of itivṛttaka (本事), fascicle 81 states: 'It refers to expounding all past events of the past limit, excluding jātaka; expounding all other events of the past limit, excluding the Buddha's jātakas, is called itivṛttaka.' The Abhidharmasamuccaya states: 'That is, expounding events associated with previous lives of the noble disciples and others.' The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra states: 'As the Buddha said: "Monks, you should know that what I expounded when I appeared in the world is called sūtra; Krakucchanda Buddha called it the Drum of Amṛta; Kanakamuni Buddha called it the Mirror of Dharma; Kāśyapa Buddha called it Discriminating Emptiness." This is called itivṛttaka.' The Abhidharmasamuccaya only mentions past events of disciples, contrasting with jātaka which belongs to bodhisattvas, so it only speaks of personal events. The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra only mentions past doctrinal events. The Yogācārabhūmi comprehensively speaks of everything in the past—whether persons or doctrines, ordinary beings or noble ones—all are called itivṛttaka.

Regarding the characteristics of jātaka (本生), fascicle 25 of the Yogācārabhūmi and fascicle 6 of the Xianyang state: 'It refers to expounding the World-Honoured One's past lifetimes in various directions, whether being born or dying, practicing bodhisattva practices, or performing difficult practices—this is called jātaka.' This means expounding the World-Honoured One's past lives, having bodies of death and birth in certain places, the bodhisattva practices practiced, and all difficult practices performed—all are called jātaka. The Abhidharmasamuccaya and fascicle 81 state: 'That is, expounding original events associated with various bodhisattva practices.' The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra states: 'As when the Buddha, the World-Honoured One, originally as a bodhisattva, became a deer, a bear, a musk deer, a rabbit, up to extensively becoming a garuḍa, etc., the bodies he received—this is called a jātaka-sūtra.' The Abhidharmasamuccaya only mentions bodhisattva practices. The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra only mentions past bodhisattva bodies. The Yogācārabhūmi comprehensively speaks of both bodies and practices of past bodhisattvas—all are called jātaka.

Regarding the characteristics of vaipulya (方廣), fascicle 81 states: 'It refers to expounding the bodhisattva path, like expounding the seven stages, the four bodhisattva practices, and the one hundred and forty unshared Buddha-dharmas. Moreover, this Dharma is vast, manifold, extremely high and great, and of long duration.' The meaning here is: expounding the bodhisattva path and unshared Buddha-dharmas, the principle of the two emptineses, uprightly containing the fullness of merit and wisdom—this is called vaipulya. It exists only in the Mahāyāna and does not extend to the Hīnayāna. The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra calls it vaipulya-sūtra. The Abhidharmasamuccaya states: 'It is also called extensive demolition, and also called incomparable. Because it is the locus of benefit, peace, and joy for all sentient beings, and because it expounds vast and profound dharmas, it is called vaipulya. Being able to demolish all hindrances, it is called extensive demolition. Having no dharmas to compare with it, it is called incomparable. Being based solely on the Mahāyāna, it is called vaipulya.' Fascicle 21 of the Yogācārabhūmi states: 'Śrāvakas possess all twelve,' listing vaipulya for them. Furthermore, fascicle 3 of the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra states: 'The Mahāyāna has nine, which does not prevent the Hīnayāna from having twelve; therefore, there is also vaipulya in the Hīnayāna.' Here, the true Dharma is called "fang" (square/correct). It can also mean that the principle of cause and effect is correct, because expounding the principle of the four truths is extremely correct. Extensively setting forth and containing is called "guang" (broad); hence the Hīnayāna possesses it. The Lotus Sūtra, Yogācārabhūmi, etc., only speak of the Mahāyāna. The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra speaks of both comprehensively, and its text is the most accurate.

Regarding the characteristics of adbhutadharma (希法), fascicle 6 of the Xianyang states: 'It refers to expounding in various scriptures the shared and unshared virtues possessed by the eight assemblies of the Buddhas and disciples, as well as other supreme, extraordinary, marvelous, and profound dharmas—this is adbhutadharma.' The meaning here is: merely expounding virtues and marvelous events is called adbhutadharma. The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra states: 'When the Bodhisattva was first born, he immediately took seven steps, radiated great light illuminating the ten directions, a monkey offered honey, a white-necked dog listened to the Dharma, Māra transformed into a blue ox walking among earthen bowls causing them to bump into one another without damage. As when the Buddha was first born and entered the heavenly temple, causing the deity statues to rise and descend to pay homage—these are called adbhutadharma.' This speaks of extraordinary events of the Buddha and others as adbhutadharma, without mentioning virtues or events of disciples. The Abhidharmasamuccaya states: 'If one expounds the utmost rare and extremely marvelous dharmas of śrāvakas, great bodhisattvas, and the Tathāgatas.' It only mentions extraordinary dharmas of the noble ones, without mentioning the rest; they do not contradict each other.

Regarding the characteristics of upadeśa (論議), fascicle 81 states: 'It refers to cyclically investigating and examining the mātṛkā in various scriptures. All nītārtha sūtras are called mātṛkā, referring to where the World-Honoured One himself extensively discriminates the characteristics of dharmas. Also, noble disciples who have already seen the traces of truth, relying on their own realization, also unerringly discriminate the essential natures of dharmas; this is also called mātṛkā.' Mātṛkā is also called Abhidharma. The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra states: 'Like the various sūtras spoken by the Buddha, the World-Honoured One: if one extensively expounds and discriminates their characteristics based on theoretical debate, this is called an upadeśa-sūtra.' Fascicle 6 of the Xianyang, fascicle 25 of the Yogācārabhūmi, and the Abhidharmasamuccaya all say: 'What is upadeśa? It refers to all mātṛkā and Abhidharma that investigate the profound meanings of sūtras and proclaim the essential tenets of all scriptures—this is called upadeśa.' The Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra only mentions upadeśa spoken by the Buddha, the World-Honoured One, whereas the Xianyang and others only mention upadeśa scriptures spoken by disciples, each citing one kind. However, fascicle 81 of the Yogācārabhūmi encompasses both kinds, because it allows disciples to compose the Abhidharmapiṭaka as upadeśa scriptures. In this way, the similarities and differences in characteristics among the twelve divisions of teachings have been generally explained; may comprehensive scholars find no perplexity therein. For detailed explanations of these characteristics, see fascicles 25 and 81 of the Yogācārabhūmi, fascicle 6 of the Xianyang, fascicle 11 of the Abhidharmasamuccaya, and fascicle 15 of the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra; other places are all abridged. All apparent discrepancies have been harmonized accordingly.