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Studies in Indian Art c11: V. Śuṅga Art

Studies in Indian Art c11

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V. Śuṅga Art

10. The Great Stūpa of Bharhut

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The Mahāstūpa at Bharhut was discovered by Cunningham in 1873 and fully exposed in 1874. Its railings and gateways were then removed to the Indian Museum Calcutta where they still form a magnificent collection of early Indian art. The discoverer fulfilled his due obligation to the monument by publishing the famous work, 'Stupa of Bharhut', of which the excellent photographic reproductions on 57 plates are accompanied with a clear and precise text.

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The two Great Stūpas of Bharhut and Sanchi were the outcome of a continental planning, the former occupying a central position on the eastern route and the latter on the western. These two parallel routes were bee-hives of transport, the one connecting Śrāvastī and Kośāmbī with the Chedi country on the Narmadā and South Kosala, and the other leading from Mathurā to Vidiśā and Pratiṣṭhāna on the Godāvarī in the south. The eastern highway picked up the two important sectors; one from Magadha via the Sona valley and the other from seaports of Kaliṅga through the forest regions of Gondwānā. Similarly the western route received two feeders; one from Ujjaini and the other from the seaports of Bhrigukachchha and Sūrpāraka (modern Sopārā). The religious zeal of the rich merchants of these two regions deposited their wealth as treasure-troves in the form of the two great Stūpas of Bharhut and Sanchi.

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The monuments served as the two valves of the pulsating heart of Madhyadeśa sending out cultural effusions in all directions on those routes. Today we find them as epic records of the culture, society, religion and art of the teeming millions settled in the centre and on the periphery of this vast area. Through the two sparkling eyes of these Mahāchetiyas, we find access to a rich documentary of early Indian cultural institutions similar in scale to as the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata.

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The Stūpa although now associated primarily with Buddhism had a much earlier origin. It goes back to the Ṛigveda where the Golden Stūpa of Agni (हिरण्यस्तूप) is the type of the huge Pile of Splendour out of which the cosmos is produced. It was the very symbol of the life-principle conceived as the Mound of Gold or the Pillar of Fire, because in Vedic symbology gold exemplified the Seed of Life or Life itself. In pre-Buddhist tradition the Stūpa, therefore, was accepted as the monument associated with the life of a Mahāpurusha, who had truly become transformed into a "Pile of Light" or "Mound of Gold". Verily, in nature Sūrya is such a Pillar of Light or a Mound of Gold, a vast conflagration of Divine Resplendence. The Buddha who had obtained such perfection of knowledge and become the Enlightened One (भगवान्, सम्यक् सम्बुद्ध,), was truly the object of worship through the symbol of the Stūpa. As tradition says, his ashes were parcelled out into eight portions and each of them (शरीरधातु) was deposited in a commemorative Stūpa. Of these eight, seven were raised by Kshatriyas, viz. temporal powers, and the eighth by a Brāhmaṇa representing the Spiritual Authority of the Buddha. It means that the original Stūpa symbolism associated with the Buddha represented completely the two essential elements of his nature, viz. the Buddha as Chakravartī and the Buddha as Yogī which later on played an important part in the formulating of the Buddha's image, i.e. sovereign ruler with Chhatra and Chāmara and a Yogic teacher of universal Dharma seated on the diamond seat of Padmāsana.

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The Stūpa exercised its fascination on the minds of the people. The learned regarded it as a metaphysical symbol and the common man worshipped it as the visible symbol of the Great Light that once was and whose relics were still enshrined within the heart of the Stūpa. The spherical or cylindrical drum, sited on the ground and crowned by a Harmikā, or Divine Mansion (देव-सदन), was in itself a complete symbol of the Mahāpurusha, the Great Being. The Buddha was but a manifestation of the powers that inhere in that universal Purusha, whose symbol is Sūrya. As a scion of the solar dynasty, viz. the race of the Ikshvāku Kings whose descent from Sūrya was well known, he represented an individual ray of that Light which is the Divine Supernal Sun. It was, therefore, a problem for the early metaphysicians in Buddhism to fix upon an appropriate symbol to commemorate the Enlightened One. The Chakra and the Stūpa were selected as two arch-symbols by the early Buddhist teachers. The Wheel or Chakra became the symbol of Dharma, i.e. the World Order of which the Buddha was an exalted exponent. The Dhamma is the foundation and support of the cosmos, and is the perfect symbol of Time which is three-fold as the Chakra is called Tryadhva, i.e. the revolving wheel of the three times (संस्कृत, अध्वन्), i.e. present, past and future" (Edgerton, Buddhist Hybird Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 260). The Stūpa as the second symbol represents the solar light or the Sun which is the source of the power that manifest in the Dharma Chakra.

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In Vedic symbology the Stūpa of Agni as the type of the cosmic fire or the universal principle of creativity, becomes individuated at one centre in the Yajña as Yūpa, the pillar. This association is evident in the funeral mounds of Lauriā Nandangarh where the Stūpa and the Yūpa were found together, and also best illustrated in the great Stūpa of Sanchi where Aśoka erected his pillar in front of the original Stūpa.

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The symbolism or the representational basis of the Yūpa was completely transferred to the Stūpa as we find it in Buddhism. The Yūpa was comprised of the following four parts :—

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(1) The portion that is dug in the ground (निखात). This is sacred to the world of the fathers (पितृ), the departed ancestors in whose memory the Stūpa also is raised.

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(2) The portion above the dug-in-part up to the girdle-rope (ऊर्ध्व निखातादारशनाय). This is the portion sacred to the world of men (मनुष्यलोक).

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(3) The portion above the girdle up to the top-ring (यद् ऊर्ध्वं रशनाया आचपालम्) This is sacred to the world of Gods (देवलोक).

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(4) The space of two or three fingers' breadth above the top-ring (ऊर्ध्वं चपालात् द्व्यंगुलं वा त्र्यंगुलं वा). This uppermost portion is sacred to the world of the Archetypal Gods (साध्यदेव)¹.

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¹ तस्य यन्निखातम्। तेन पितृलोकं जयत्यथ यदूर्ध्वं निखातादारशनायै तेन मनुष्यलोकं जयत्यथ यदूर्ध्वं रशनाया आ चपालातेन देवलोकं जयत्यथ यदूर्ध्वं चपालाद्व्यंगुलं त्र्यंगुलं वा साध्या इति देवास्तेन तेषां लोकं जयति सलोको वै साध्यदेवैर्भवति य एवमेतद्वेद ।। शतपथ ब्रा० ३, ७, १, २५; See Eggeling, Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXXI, pp. 173—4.

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This is a clear annunciation of the four-footed Great Being (चतुष्पात् महापुरुष or ब्रह्म) who becomes manifest in the cosmos as the Three Feet (त्रिपाद्) and remains unmanifest in the transcendent source as the One Foot (एकपाद्). In the Stūpa architecture this conception received complete acceptence in the form of the various portions as the foundation, the drum, the dome and the Harmikā. The Trinitarian conception received further elaboration in the building of the Stūpa as its three terraces (त्रिमेधि) and the three railings (त्रिवेदिका), viz. on the ground floor providing for the first circumambulation, the second in the middle also giving space for the next processional path and the third on the truncated top circumscribing the Harmikā. In the Hindu Temple also, of which the architecture followed similar metaphysical principle, we find this four-fold division in the form of the basement (जगती), the cubical portion (गर्भगृह or मंडोवर), the tower (शिखर), and the Kalasa placed on the Amalaka Silā as its base and surmounted on the top by the Dhvaja or the emblem of the deity, corresponding to the Yashti and Chhatra in the centre of the Harmikā. It is evident that the ancient Stūpa and the Prāsāda were developed from an identical religious consciousness and both were symbolical representations of the manifest cosmos and the unmanifest Divine. In one case the deity is the Buddha, in the other the Deva, both enshrining the Great Light. The Stūpa from this point of view, although raised on the relics of a Mahā-Purusha when he had passed away, actually was not a mournful sign but an emblem of greatest festivity. That the Great Man had entered Parinirvāna was no cause for sorrow. The idea behind it was one of universal joy and felicitation—a thanksgiving that the Mahāpurusha had appeared on earth and lighted a flame which was going to be perpetual, a light which would never be put out, a ray emanating from his forehead that would encompass all regions of space. Thus the Stūpa was, verily, the Mound of Gold (हिरण्य-स्तूप), standing as the dominant symbol of Wisdom, Dharma and Sovereign Spiritual Authority. This is shown in the numberous scenes of dance and music as well as of the varied life of gods and men amongst the carved scenes on the railings and gatways of the Stūpas, and later on as at Amarāvati and Nāgārjunikoṇḍā even on the casing slabs.

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Thus it is clear that the Stūpa raised its monumental head as a complete sample of the indigenous religious spirit rooted deep in the soil and in the hearts of the people. It was not an exotic innovation and did not depart from the belief universally held. It is, therefore, that we find the entire community of the people dedicating themselves, as shown by the donative epigraphs, to the building and the worship of the Stūpas. This is also the reason why the Stūpa did not from the outset remain exclusive but incorporated within its fold the popular cults of the Nāgas, Yakṣas, Suparṇas, Kumbhāṇḍas, and the numerous rich worlds of gods and men. Just as the various streams mingle their waters in the ocean similarly the various cults wholeheartedly contributed through the planning, decoration, imagery and the over all embellishment of the Stūpa. The building of a Mahāstūpa like that of Bharhut and Sanchi could not have been an ordinary event. It was as if the multifold life of the whole people found its ample and lofty expression in these monumental Mahāchaityas. That it was no haphazard event either, is also demonstrated by the all-out sanction which the great Buddha himself had given in its favour as his last will to Ānanda.

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"How should we honour the body (relic-bones) of the Tathāgata?" asked Ānanda.

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"O, Ānanda! You need not engage yourself in worshipping the body of the Tathāgata. But you dedicate yourself to the right meaning (सदर्त्य) expounded by the Tathāgata as so many Kṣatriyas, Brāhmaṇas, and householders are doing".

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But Ānanda out of his overpowering devotion was impervious to this suggestion of the Teacher, and he repeated the question—"How should we honour the body of the Tathāgata?"

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The Buddha knowing the devout heart of Ānanda melted and replied—"As they do for the remains of a Chakravarti King, so Ānanda! they should do for the remains of the Tathāgata. At the four cross-roads similar to the Stūpa they raise for the Chakravarti, should they raise a Stūpa for the Tathāgata.¹

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¹ Ānanda—'कथं मयं भन्ते तथागतस्स सरीरे पटिपज्जामा' ति ?' Buddha—'अब्भावटा तुम्हे आनन्द होथ तथागतस्स सरीरपूजाय । इध्च तुम्हे आनन्द सदर्त्ये घटथ,····।' Ānanda—'कथं पन भन्ते तथागतस्स सरीरे पटिपज्जतब्बं ?' ति ।' Buddha—'यथा खो आनन्द रञ्ञो चक्कवत्तिस्स सरीरे पटिपज्जन्ति, एवं तथागतस्स सरीरे पटि- पज्जतब्बं' ति ।' Ānanda—'कथं पन भन्ते रञ्ञो चक्कवत्तिस्स सरीरे पटिपज्जन्ती' ति ?' Buddha—'·······, चातुम्महापथे रञ्ञो चक्कवत्तिस्स थूपं करोन्ति । एवं······चातुम्महापथे तथा- गतस्स थूपो कातब्बो ।'

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According to this injunction a Stūpa commemorates a Chakravarti king and a Buddha. Amongst those deserving by their greatness or piety the honour of a Stūpa the Buddha also included the Pratyeka Buddhas, which denoted the honoured saints of other faiths also. This tradition of giving burial to the holy saints has been handed down to this day. It may be imagined that the Buddha was here giving his sanction to an ancient practice well known to the people and of wide acceptance by them.

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It may also be noted that in referring to the ancient tradition of the funeral mounds the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa has noted two architectural forms, viz. square (चतुःसक्ति) and round (परिमंडल) forms for a burial mound, and it is specially recorded that the monuments of the Easterners (प्राच्याः) were circular.¹

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¹ चतुःसक्ति । देवाश्चासुराश्चोभये प्रजापत्या विश्वस्पर्धन्त देवा असुरास्तत्पल्लाभ्रातव्यान्द्विभ्योऽनुदन्त तेऽदिक्काः पराभवस्तस्माथा दैव्यः प्रजाश्चतुःसक्तीनि च ताः श्मशानानि कुर्वतेऽथ या आसुर्यः प्राच्यास्त्वत्परि-मण्डलानि । शतपथ ब्रा० १३,८,१,५।

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The building of a Stūpa was a stirring event involving dimensional planning and effort. This is evident in the description given by the Mahāvaṃsa (Chapters 28—31). The Great Stūpa was known as Mahā Thūpa, or Mahā Chetiya (20.4). Its construction was known as Thūpa-Kamma or Mahāthūpārambha, and the superintendent of work as Kammādhiṭṭhāyaka (30.98). A stone-Stūpa was called Silā Thūpa. The Mahāvaṃsa specifically tells us that at the site of the Stūpa (थूपठान) a pillar was erected and in accordance with the ancient terminology, pointed out above, this pillar continued to be called a Yūpa (हारेत्वा हि तहिं थूपं थूपठानं अक्खानयि). On the appointed day the Priest and the people assembled at the chosen spot. A Full Vase (पूर्ण घट) was installed in the centre. The king walked up to it and holding out to his minister a rod (परिमभण दंडक) which was secured with a string to a fixed golden post, asked him to measure the site for the Stūpa. When this was about to be done a wise and experienced Mahāthera seeing the danger in planning a Mahāstūpa of that dimension adviced the king that he should desist from a plan of such colossal size which was difficult to achieve and restrict himself to building only a Majjima Chetiya instead of a Mahā Chetiya. The central Stūpa was called Chetiya and round it the paraphernalia of railing and gateways was called Chetiyāvaṭṭa (संस्कृत, चैत्यावर्त) i.e. the peripheral portion of the Stūpa.

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The laying of the foundation was the first act in the building. Soldiers were employed for transporting pieces of broken stone (मुडपसाणक, ९.३०) which were reduced to grit form (चूर्णित) with sledge hammer (कूट). It was further pulverized by moving elephants having their feet covered with leather hoses (चम्मावनदपादेहि महाहत्थीहि महयि, २९.४). The building expert thus accomplished consolidation of the ground (भूमिया थिरभावत्य, २९.४). Then the foundation of this stony material (पासाणकोट्ठिम) was laid over with a kind of specially prepared plaster called Navanīta Mattikā which was given this name from its thin consistency like that of butter (सुपमा नवीनत मत्तिका). This ancient name was replaced later on in the Gupta period by the word Mashaka as found in the Viṣṇudharmottara Purāṇa (40.3; 41.14) in connection with the plaster used in preparing the surface for painting. This is called Masakā in the present day terminology, which is literaly the same as *Navanīta* (Sans. मक्षण—Pahlavi मसका—Sans. backformation मथकम्—Hindi, Guj. मसका). This plaster-clay was prepared by mixing lime-plaster (खरसुधा), murum-sand (मरुम्ब), brick-powder (इष्टका चूर्ण), clay (मत्तिका), realgar or red arsenic (मनोसिला) mixed with Tila oil (तिल तेल), molasses (रसोदक), pulp of the *Kapittha* fruit, *Kuruvinda* powder and some incense (सुगन्धक). This formula for preparing the *Vajra Lepa* plaster occurs also in the *Viṣṇudharmottara*, which prescribes the *Bilva* fruit for *Kapittha* and names the incense as *Guggulu* (*Viṣṇu D. P.* Chap. 40.1-3). Such foundation floor of stone grit and plaster was actually found at Bharhut by Cunningham.

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Ten crores of bricks were ordered to be stacked at different points of the compass each marked by a platform for offering flowers (पुष्पाधान, ३०.५६, i.e., पुष्पग्रहणी वेदिका, *Buddhist Hybrid Sans: Dict.* p. 218; cf. Smith, *Mathura Jain Stūpa*, plate XX). The *Chaitya* or *Dhātugarbha* was to be built with those bricks (इष्टका दसकोटियो, ३०.५६). The actual form of the dome is compared to a water bubble (महाबुम्बुल, ३०.१३). On the day when the construction was to begin the king ordered stores of clothes, garlands and food, barbers and toiletmen serving the whole people (पोरा जानपदा चेव), who had come to participate in the great festival with music and dance. With large retinue, including forty thousand well dressed persons, the king proceeded to the spot. Theras from many lands had gathered, what to say of the priests of the Island itself? (नानादेसा'पि आगच्छु बहवो भिक्खवो इध, २९.२९). Monks from Rājagṛiha, Śrāvastī, Vaiśālī, Kauśāmbī, Ujjayinī, Pāṭaliputra, Kashmīra, Vindhyāṭavī, Bodhagayā and the Greek city Alasanda were invited and assembled in large numbers to witness the foundation ceremony. After completion the brick Stūpa was covered with slabs of marrow-colour (मेदवण्णक पासाण, ३०.५१). The decorative motifs on the various parts of the Stūpa comprised the following:—अट्ठमंगलिक (*Aṣṭa Māṅgalika* symbols), पुप्फलत्ता (flower garlands), चतुप्पद पंती (rows of animals), हंसपंती (row of geese), मुत्ताकिंकिणिकजालक (festoons of pearls and small tinklers), सुवर्णघंटापंती (row of glden bells), दामानि (garlands), मुत्तादामकलोपक (clustured pearl-pendants), रविचन्दाररूपपदुमक (full lotus medallions, crescent-shaped rosettes, stellar rosettes), पुण्णघटपंती (row of Full Vases), अंजलिपग्गहा देवा (Gods holding their hands in adoration), नच्चका देवता (सदामत्तक of दिव्यावदान, groups of dancing Gods), तुरियवादकदेवता (Gods playing on musical instruments), आदासगाहकादेवा (Gods holding mirrors), पुप्फसालाधरादेवा (divine figures with flowering sticks), पदुमादिकगाहकादेवा (figures holding lotuses), रतनग्घिय पंती (row of jewels), धम्मचक्कपंती (row of Dharma Chakras), खग्गधरा (row of figures holding daggers), पातिधरा देवपंती (row of figures holding bowls, करोटपाणि देवाः of दिव्या०) and many other kinds of divine figures अच्छदेवा च' नेक्धा, ३०.६५-६८,९०-९३). Jātaka scenes were carved in the meanders of golden creepers and numerous scenes from the life of the Buddha (a list of about thirty-five scenes is being recounted), were carved on the body of the Stūpa. Figures of Mahābrahmā, Śakra, Pañchaśikha holding a Vīṇā, Māra with a thousand arms along with his female retinue, the four Mahārājika Gods, the thirty-three Gods (तेत्तिस देवपुत्ता), thirty-two divine princesses (द्वात्तिस च कुमारियो), twenty-eight Yaksha-kings (यक्खसेनापति अट्ठवीसति), were represented. All the life-scenes of the Buddha beginning from his decision in the Tushita heaven and upto his sitting on the Bodhi Maṇḍa were depicted. The Vessantara Jātaka specially was rendered in great detail (वेस्संतर जातकं तु वित्थारेन अकारयि ३०.८८). Other Jātaka scenes also were carved on the railings and slabs of the Stūpa (ये भुय्येन अकारेस जातकानि, ३०.८७).

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The above description of a Mahāstūpa shows the extraordinary importance of these monuments in the Buddhist world. It holds good in a large measure in the cases of such Mahāstūpas as those of Bharhut and Sanchi both from the point of view of architecture and decoration, although it is of particular appliation to the Stūpas of the Andhra country, viz. those of Amarāvatī and Nāgārjunikoṇḍa. Those latter had decorative casing slabs which in the case of Bharhut and Sanchi were plain (रूपकाने'त्य सब्बानि धातुगम्भे मनोरमे, ३०.९७). The second architectural feature in the case of the Stūpas in the Andhra region consisted in the box-like projections on the four sides joined to the main Garbha and each supporting five Āyaka Khambhas (चतुपस्सम्हि चतुरो मञ्जूसं विय योजिय, ३०.६०). Lastly the white colour of the stone (मेदवण्ण पासाण) mentioned several times (30.57, 59, 96) gives a true pointer in the direction of the Andhra Stūpas and not those of Central India which are built of red stone.

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The Stūpa of Bharhut although not in situ at present furnishes valuable evidence about the architecture of an ancient Stūpa. The shape of the dome at Bharhut as shown by its several representations (pls. IX, XIII, XXXI) resembles more a bell (घंटाकार) in which the ratio of the diameter to the height is less than in the case of subsequent Stūpas. The same is true of the Sanchi Stūpa. But later on there was a tendency towards cylindrical shape which was rightly compared to a giant bubble (महाबुब्बुल, महावंस ३०. १३), as also shown by the several illustrations of the monuments preserved on their railing or carved slabs.

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The railing of the Bharhut Stūpa with its four gateways was highly decorated with numerous motifs which set up the norm for the various elements of decoration in subsequent art. For example, one finds here a wealth of lotus medallions (Pāli, पदुमक) with many petals, sepals, corona, calyx, treated in varying forms and combinations described in literature as Utpala, Kahlāra, Śatapatra, Sahasrapatra etc. The meandering creeper is an other essential element in the decorative repertoire of the Bharhut masters. Actually it represented the Kalpalatā, the Wish-fulfilling Creeper of heavenly origin whose tendrils fulfil all desires by producing pairs of Man and Woman (मिथुन), ornaments shown hanging from the boughs like ear-rings, necklaces, girdles, anklets etc. which are represented in several shapes; costly textiles like scarves and Sārīs; wines bottled in jars of jack fruit form technically known as Panasa, and also mongo-shaped pendant containers for the lac-dye to paint the feet. The motif of the Kalpa-vriksha or the Kalpalatā (Fig. 4: a, b, c and d) belongs to the region of the Uttarakuru as found in the description given in the Mahāvāṇija Jātaka (No. 493, 352).

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A group of merchants who had set out in search of a treasure came to a mighty banyan tree with cove and pleasant shade, from its eastward branch pure and clear water trickled for them; they washed and drank their fill of it. One of the branches on the south gave them all things to eat:

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'Both rice and meat out in a stream it brings,
Thick porridge ginger lentle soup and many other things'.

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From the western branch:—

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'Out came a bevy of fair girls all pranked in brave array,
And O the robes of many hues; jewels, and rings in plenty!
Each merchant had a pretty maid, each of the five and twenty'.

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From the northern branch likewise:—

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' . . . . . out came a stream of gold,
Silver in handfuls, prescious rings and jewels manifold.
And roles of fine Benares cloth and blankets thick and thin,
The merchants then to roll them up in bundles did begin'.

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The following Pāli Gāthā sums up the virtues of this auspicious tree:—

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वारिदा पुरिमा शाखा अन्नपानञ्च दक्षिणा। नारिदा पश्चिमा शाखा सब्बकामे च उत्तरा॥ (Fausboell, Jāt., IV. 362)

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This flowery description of the idyllic land of Uttarakuru had been received from great antiquity, and is re-enforced by the literary tradition recorded in the Epic literature and Purāṇas. For example, in the Rāmāyaṇa Sugrīva directs the monkey chiefs to go in quest of Sītā in the northern direction. There, at the end of the earth they would find the land of the Uttarakurus. "Flowers of gold as resplendent as fire are seen there in eternal bloom inbued with divine fragrance. The beautiful trees produce garments of various kinds and costly gems which are pleasant for men and women to use in all seasons; beds with beautiful coverlets and pleasing garlands, costly drinks and food of many descriptions, and to crown this all, maidens endowed with beauty, virtue and youth"1.

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¹ जातरूपमयैश्चापि हुताशनसमप्रभैः। नित्यपुष्पफलास्तत्र नगाः पत्ररथाकुलाः॥४३॥ दिव्यगन्धरसस्पर्शाः सर्वान् कामान् लभन्ति च। नानाकाराणि वासांसि फलन्त्यन्ये नगोत्तमाः॥४४॥ मुक्तावैदूर्यचित्राणि भूषणानि तथैव च। सस्त्रीणां यान्यरूपाणि पुरुषाणां तथैव च॥४५॥ सर्वर्तुसुखसेव्यानि फलन्त्यन्ये नगोत्तमाः। महाईमणिचित्राणि फलन्त्यन्ये नगोत्तमाः॥४६॥ शयनानि प्रसूयन्ते चित्रास्तरणवन्ति च। मनःकान्तानि माल्यानि फलन्त्यत्रापरे द्रुमाः॥४७॥ पानानि च महाईाणि भक्ष्याणि विविधानि च। स्त्रियश्च गुणसम्पन्ना रूपयौवनलक्षिताः॥४८॥ (किष्किन्धा काण्ड, अ० ४३)

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In the Mahābhārata, the Elysian land of Uttarakuru with all kinds of plenty in fruits and flowers and with trees producing all objects of desire (सर्वकामफलाः वृक्षाः) is conceived in the nothern direction adjacent to Meru. There as fruits from trees are produced garments, ornaments and youthful pairs of men and women (मिथुनानि) who draw sustenance from the nectar-like milk of the milky trees and are perfectly matched to each other in beauty, dress and appearance. The human beings in that region are happy and contented like gods being free from all sorrows and ailments, and they do not suffer the pangs of separation¹.

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¹ उत्तराः कुरवो राजन् पुण्याः सिद्धनिषेविताः ॥२॥ तत्र वृक्षा मधुफला नित्यपुष्पफलोपमाः । पुष्पाणि च सुगंधिनि रसवन्ति फलानि च ॥३॥ सर्वकामफलास्तत्र केचिद्वृक्षा जनाधिप । अपरे क्षीरिणो नाम वृक्षास्तत्र नराधिप ॥४॥ ये क्षरन्ति सदा क्षीरं षड्रसं चामृतोपमम् । वस्त्राणि च प्रसूयन्ते फलेष्वाभरणानि च ॥५॥ मिथुनानि च जायन्ते स्त्रियश्चाप्सरसौपमाः । तेषां तु क्षीरिणं क्षीरं पिबन्त्यमृतसन्निभम् ॥८॥ मिथुनं जायते काले समं तच्चप्रवर्धते । तुल्यरूपगुणोपेतं समवेयं तथैव च ॥९॥ (भीष्मपर्व, ७. २-११)

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It appears that this description of Uttarakuru was an inherent part of the Bhuvana-kośa as we find it repeated in a similar context in the Vāyupurāṇa (Chap. 45, verses 11-50). The description in the Purāṇa, besides recording what the Epics contain is much more elaborate, and we find there references to streams of madhu and Maireya, of butter and curds, to mountains of delicious food, to groves furnished with beds, seats, cosmetics, garlands etc., and to a great many other items of pleasure. In that region there is sweet music of every description rising from lute, flute and tabors, and hundreds and thousands of Kalpavrikshas produce fine and beautiful garments agreable to wear.

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The above tradition holds the key to many a scene on gateways and railings of the great Stūpas of Bharhut and Sanchi. For example, we find at Sanchi carved on the western face of the western pillar of the south gateway youthful couples engaged in music and pleasure (Fig. 32), surrounded by birds and animals and seated under the shade of boughs overladen with costly ornaments of many kinds (Marshall, Monuments of Sanchi, Vol. I, p. 144; Vol. II, pt. XIX a). On the entrance to the cave at Bhājā the visit of king Māndhātā to Uttarakuru is illustrated with great elaboration including the garden of the Kalpavriksha-trees and of the Mithuna couples enjoying dance and music. One of the trees in the scene is in the style of a true Kalpavriksha laden with many ornaments hanging from its branches. Another shows girls coming out of its boughs.

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On the Bharhut Stūpa the Kalpavriksha motif is a recurrent theme of decoration as illustrated by Cunningham on plates XXXIX-XLVIII. These show various ornaments like ear-pendants of the Prākāra-Vapra-Kuṇḍala type (Pl. XLI B), ear-rings of Triratna design (Pl. XLIV A), collars, necklaces, girdles, wristlets, spiral-finger-rings, spiral-anklets. On plate VII of Bharhut Vedika by S.C. Kala a beautiful armlet with triple rosettes above and a row of small pendant bells below is a high watermark of Bharhut decorative art. Amongst fabrics we have specimens of scarves bearing floral designs and also female *Sārīs*. B.M. Barua has illustrated some typical Bharhut ornaments in vol. III of his *Barhut*, pl. XXV. In several of the meandering creepers or the *Kalpalatā* motif, jack fruits and mango fruits are depicted, the former as containers of wine (मधु), and the latter of lac-dye for painting the feet of ladies (लाक्षाराग) as referred to by Kālidāsa. Kālidāsa has given a graphic picture of the Wish-fulfilling trees growing in the capital of the Yaksha king:—

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वासश्चित्रं मधुनयनयोर्विभ्रमादेशदक्षं पुष्पोद्भेदं सहकिसलयं भूषणानां विकल्पान् ।
लाक्षारागं चरणकमलन्यासयोग्यं च यस्यामेकः सूते सकलमबलामण्डनं कल्पवृक्षः ॥
(मेघदूत, २।१२)

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The *Kalpavriksha* alone provides all the dainties and fineries for the fair women of Alakā, coloured clothes for the body, intoxicating drinks for exciting glances of the eyes, and flowers for decorating the hair, ornaments of various designs and lac-paint for the feet. The same tradition in also recorded by Bāṇa Bhaṭṭa mentioning bunches of ornaments shooting forth from Wish-fulfilling creepers—परिस्फुरदाभरणसमूहेनेव कल्पलतानिबहेन, कादम्बरी (Vaidya edition, p. 186). The gift of such divine ornaments was considered as the highest blessing conferred on a human being hinted at by Kālidāsa:—

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क्षौमं केनचिदिन्दुपाण्डुतरुणा मांगल्यमाविष्कृतम् ।
(शाकुन्तल, अंक—४)

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The four kinds of female decorations comprised clothes, ornaments, flowery garlands and unguents, all of which were bestowed on them by the heavenly trees. The idyllic land of Uttarakuru did not remain a dream but its symbolic significance extended to every home and caught popular imagination as a motif both in literature and art from the earliest times right upto the classical period. The *Kalpavriksha* and *Kalpalatā* were motifs of the vegetable kingdom which in actual life represented the loving male and female relatives, father, mother, brother, husband. For example, the father typified the branch that gave ornaments; the mother the bough offering fabrics; the brother the tendril yielding unguents; the female companions the off-shoots bestowing the lac-dye for painting the feet; and the husband the youthful sapling bent low to offer jugs of hilarious wine. The home or the land of Uttarakuru or the *Kalpavriksha* is the same, producing all these auspicious blessings including the *Mithunas*, Man and Woman, the most auspicious symbol of them all. This, the land of Uttarakuru which was a heavenly region became mirrored as it were, in every home; that which was an idea in heaven became concrete and manifest for the life of the individual as Home or the Family (गृहस्थ). This had been from the remote antiquity. The Indian ideal of life which no pessimistic or negative philosophy could eradicate, and naturally, therefore, the most important decorative motif on the railings and the gateways of the Great Stūpas of Bharhut and Sanchi is the representation of the Elysium named Uttarakuru, a land of complete happiness with all the wealth of its Wish-fulfilling Trees and Creepers. It was a place of highest bliss which was the same as the Vedic *Nāka* and Buddhist *Sukhāvatī*, both implying a heaven completely free from sorrow and wants. It was a natural corollary of the positive view of life almost universally held in India that both in literature and art the *Kalpavriksha* motifs stand so pre-eminent with its deep symbolical significance. It was common to the Buddhists, the Jainas and the Bhāgavatas. In Jaina literature we read of ten kinds of *Kalpavrikshas*—मयांग वृक्ष, तूयांग वृक्ष, भूषणंगवृक्ष, ज्योतिवृक्ष, (self-luminous tree), गृहवृक्ष, भाजनांगवृक्ष, (for utensils), दीपांगवृक्ष (producing different lights), वस्त्रांगवृक्ष, भोजनांगवृक्ष, मालांगवृक्ष¹. These idealised the ten kinds of highest pleasures (दशविधमहाभोग ). It was, of course, a later elaboration of the original idea. The Bhāgavatas conceived of the *Kalpavriksha* as the tree of heaven and elaborated the theme in the story of the पारिजात flower which Krishna at the request of Satyabhāmā wrested from Indra and planted it on earth to propitiate the presiding genius of each home in the form of his own consort Lakshmi or Satyabhāmā. We may thus see that the Bharhut Stūpa and similar to it that of Sanchi form part of an essential Indian idiom long accepted by the common man for whom these monuments were raised. The *Mithuna* symbol and the *Srīvriksha* symbol travelled from the Stūpa to the Brāhmanical temple. The *Srīvriksha* became a sign or the abbreviated symbol of Śrī Lakshmi, Goddess of Abundance, Prosperity and Fertility for which the *Kalpavriksha* of Uttarakuru stood as an all embracing sign.

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¹ तुरियंग भोयणंगा विहूसणंगा भयंग वत्थंगा। गिह जोइ दीवियंगा भायण मल्लंग कप्पदुमा ॥ (पउमचरिय of विमलसूरी ३।१७, also बसुनन्दि, श्रावकाचार, श्लोक २५१)

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Another important motif of art, literature and cult handed down from pre-Buddhist times was that of the Yaksha (महद् यक्षम्) who moves on the surface of Waters and is stirred by Heat. In the Ṛigveda itself the idea of Yaksha was quite well known. It appears from the several references that Yaksha was considered to be a wonderful or mysterious being (न यासु चित्रं ददृशे न यक्षम्, ऋ० ७।६१।५); that it was a cult of the common folk and not of the developed minds (अमूरविश्वा, ऋ० ७।६१।५); that the Yaksha should not possess the body of the worshipper (ऋ० ७।६१।५); that there existed special places for the worship of Yakshas known as *Yaksha-sadam* (मा कस्य यक्ष सदनमिद्गुरो गा मा वेशम प्रमिनतो मापेः, ऋ० ७।४१।३). Agni, the Great God is spoken of as lord of Yaksha (यक्षस्याध्यक्षं तविषं बृहन्तम्, ऋ० १०।८८।३). In one place the Yaksha is referred to as having a beautiful form (यक्षदृशो न शुभयन्त मर्याः, ऋ ७।५६।१६). This idea of Yaksha or Yakshī being a model of beauty is much cherished in literature and inspired their representation in the art of Bharhut (*Figs 50-53*) and Sanchi as well as in Mathurā, Amarāvati and elsewhere. The youthful handsome figure or a young student is compared to that of a beautiful Yaksha pleasing to the eye (यक्षं इव चक्षुषा प्रियो वा भूयासम्, गोभिलगृह्यसूत्र, ३।४।८ मन्त्रब्राह्मण, १।७।४; द्राक्षायण गृह्यसूत्र, ३।१।२५). This belief in the benevolent Yakshas became a dominant feature of Yaksha worship who were invoked for wealth, prosperity, beauty and all kinds of good things. In the classical age Yaksha worship captured the imagination of the people.

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The Mahābhārata speaks of the Yaksha as having a huge body, a tall stature and radiant form, towering like a mountain and death-conquering (because of the flask of nectar held in his hands):—

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विरूपाक्षं महाकायं यक्षं तालसमुच्छ्रयम्, ज्वलनार्कप्रतीकाशमदृश्यं पर्वतोपमम् ।
सेतुमाश्रित्य तिष्ठन्तं ददर्श भरतर्षभ, मेघगंभीरया वाचा तर्जयन्तं महाबलम् ॥
(आरण्यकपर्व, २९७।२०)

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The colossal and massive Yakshas from Parkham (Fig. 37), Besangar, Shishupāl-garh and other places offer a commentary on the iconography as given here. Their shrines were sited mostly near ponds or pools of water (cf. सलिलस्य पृष्ठे in अथर्ववेद १०।७।८, same as सेतुमाश्रित्य तिष्ठन्तम् of the आरण्यकपर्व). Many of Yaksha images have been found near water reservoirs. The symbolism was that Agni, the Son of Waters (अपां नपात्) was symbolised by Yaksha, who was a mysterious being (the epithet अद्भुत being applied both to Agni and a Yaksha), and both being conceived of as towering pillars of light (ज्वलनार्कप्रतीकाशम्, आरण्यकपर्व, २९७।२०). Just as Agni appears on the surface of waters so is Yaksha. An earlier conception about Yaksha was that of his huge body (आत्मन् वद् यक्ष, अथर्व० १०।२।३२). This is confirmed by the independent Yaksha statues as well as by their representations at Bharhut which iconographically are beautiful and of big size.

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The Yaksha in the Atharvaveda is also called Brahma (ब्रह्म), and Yaksha-Sadana or Yaksha-Veśma was also known as Brahmapura (ब्रह्मपुर, अथर्व०, १०।२।१९-३०; शान्तिपर्व, १७१।५२).

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An epithet of Yakshapura is Aparājita (अथर्व, १०।२।३३), the same as अमृतेनावृत (अथर्व, १०।२।२९) and Avadhya (शान्तिपर्व, १७१।५२). This is exactly what the popular belief about the Yakshas was, viz. that they had the power of averting death and bestowing immortal life on their worshippers. The symbol of their deathless nature (अमृत, अवध्य, अघृष्य) was the nectar flask held in the left hand of Yaksha images.

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The popularity of Yaksha cult was very wide. We find both Yaksha Maha and Brahma Maha in the list of popular religious festivals which formed part of the cult worship in ancient India. Many such cults were known. For example, Indra Maha, Chanda Maha, Khanda (Skanda) Maha, Rudra Maha, Maunda (Mukunda) Maha, Siva Maha, Vessamaṇa Maha, Jakkha Maha, Bhūya (Bhūta) Maha, Naī (Nadī) Maha, Talāya Maha (same as Agaḍa or Avaṭa Maha), Rukkha Maha, Cheiya Maha, Pavvaya (Parvata) Maha, Ujjāna Maha, Giri Maha, Thūba Maha, Dari Maha, Sāgara Maha, Dhanur Maha, Kāma Maha, Brahma Maha, Ajjā (Āryā) Maha, Koṭṭakiriyā (Koṭṭavī Devī, a south Indian form of the Great Mother) Maha, Gaṅgā Maha (being a form of Nadī Maha), Raivataka Maha (being a form of Giri Maha), Ādiparva, Poona, 211.2) etc. The long list of these obscure but popular cults provides the background against which the popular religious scenes and images depicted on the Bharhut Stūpa specially may be studied. This also throws light on the reason why the builders of the Stūpa gave such wide welcome to the cult of Yakshas, Nāgas, Trees, Chaityas etc. As a matter of fact the Stūpa worship was one of this divine fraternity, a part of the extensive pantheon universally accepted and adored. Just as in the later temples any one of the main deities enshrined in the sanctum had the other gods and goddesses amongst his *Parivāra Devatās*, similarly the Stūpa cult gave free admittance to the other folk deities as parts of its *Vyūha*. This concord amongst the cults or deities had been a conspicuous feature of popular religion throughout the ages and was so even in the time of the Buddha and Mahāvīra. What Aśoka officially did was to initiate a mingling of these cults with Buddhism. This seems to be the intention of the perplexing words used in his Ediets—

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अमिसा देवा हुसु ते दानी मिसा कटा

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(Minor Rock-edict 1)

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Fig. 50. Kupiro Yakho] [Figure: Fig. 51. Sirimā Devatā] [Figure: Fig. 52. Supavaso Yakho

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The deities of cults that at one time were excluded from or unmingled with (Buddhism), became now mingled under the new policy of the Emperor initiated in the form of धम्पलिपुछा with the common man (जानपदसा जनसा दसने धंमनुसथि चा धम्पलिपुछा, Rock-edict VIII, Kālsī). Aśoka realised the fact if Buddhism was to come to the people it must come through their idiom, language and cult form. The sculptors of Bharhut and Sanchi were working with the joyful visage of this new dictum. The mighty Stūpas raising their lofty heads to sky are eloquent with the voice of the people as the numerous religious scenes on them fully testify. Even the Jātaka stories depicted at Bharhut are folk tales which had hardly any true connection with the life of the Buddha as approved by the priests. These are all concessions to folk beliefs and the simple tales are of deliberate choice as alphabets of a popular level, e.g. Baka Jātaka, Miga J., Nāga J., Latuwā J., Kuruṅga Miga J., Kinnara J., Biḍāla J., Kukkuṭa J., Gaja-Sasa J., etc. These petty nursery tales have no place in the later Stūpas of Amarāvatī and Nāgārjunikoṇḍa etc. where grand themes as those of Vessantara and Māndhātā were given an honorable place as edifying tales of Buddha's spiritual preparation in previous lives.

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How many were the Yakshas, is a relevant question. The representations at Bharhut give a correct indication. In Banaras there is the belief that each village has its Yaksha or Bīr, as they now call it (cf. गाँव गाँव को ठाकुर, गाँव गाँव को बीर, a saying that I heard from a villager). This seems to be right, for almost every village has a Yaksha platform. Four such Yakshas are still in worship in the Hindu University and several others in the city, like Lahurā Bīr, Bullā Bīr, i.e., the small and the big Yakshas. This is parallel to the Chullakokā and Mahākokā Devatās of Bharhut. Yaksha worship even today is a prevaling cult amongst the people from Bengal to Saurāṣṭra and from the Himalayas to the Tamil land under several names as Bīr, Jākha, Yakas etc. At one time each locality seems to have had its Yaksha, e.g. Sākyavardhana of Kapilavastu, Puragā Yakshī of Pāṭaliputra, Māṇibhadra of Pawāyā, Avantisundarī Yakshī of Ujjayinī, Puṇṇabhadda of Champā, Suchiloma of Gayā (represented at Bharhut, referred to in the Saṃyutta Nikāya, Yakkha Suttas, chap. X), Arantuka-Tarantuka and Yakkhī Ulūkhala Mekhalā of Kurukshetra. Several lists of Yakshas are available, the most important being that of the local Yakshas in the Mahāmāyūrī. Pāṇini also had mentioned the names of four Yakshas, viz. Supāla, Viśāla, Aryamā and Varuṇa (अष्टा० ५।३।८४) after whom childern were named by the parents. The names of Varuṇa and Aryamā in this brief list should not surprise us since at one time almost all Vedic gods were robed in the list of Yaksha deities. For example, in the Āṭānāṭīya Suttanta (Dīgha Nikāya, III. 195), Indra, Sūrya, Varuṇa, Prajāpati are said to have been Yakshas like Māṇibhadda.. One of them, viz. Viśāla was the Yaksha, who gave his name to Vaiśālī. We find also reference to a Trimuka Yaksha worshipped at Banaras. Thus almost every big town or locality was carrying on with its Yaksha cult. The names of the Yakshas and Yakshīs found at Bharhut with lables engraved on them should be understood as folk deities of a local character. We know these since the short epigraphs say so, otherwise their statues on the rails and gateways would have remained unidentified as is the case with so many Yaksha figures at Sanchi and also in other places. The names of Yakshas and kindred local deities are as follows:—

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सुपवसो यखो, विरूढको यखो, गंगित यखो, सुचिलोमो यखो, कुपिरो यखो, अजकालको यखो, सुदसना यखी, चदा (चंदा) यखी, सिरिमा देवता, चुलकोका देवता, महाकोका देवता।

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Of the above list Supavasa (*Fig. 52*), was once taken as Suprāvṛisha deity of plentiful rainfall, but Barua derives it from Supravāsa, auspicious deity for travellers. Virūḍhako, Kupiro (*Fig. 50*) (Virūḍhaka and Kubera), are two of the Chātūmahārājika gods, viz. Regents of the four quarters, the other two being Dhṛitarāshṭra and Virūpāksha, the four in order being kings of the Kumbhāṇḍas, Yakshas, Gandharvas and Nāgas. Usually, Kubera alone is considered to be the king of Yakshas but here Virūḍhaka also is labelled as Yaksha. Kubera belongs to north, Dhṛitarāshṭra to east, Virūḍhaka to south, Virūpāksha to east. Gaṁgita is an unfamiliar name. But in the Sabhāparva (11.42) we read of a Goddess Gāṁgatā which appears to be synonymous with the Earth Goddess. Probably its male counterpart was worshipped as Gaṁgita Yaksha. The name of Suchiloma Yaksha appears in the *Saṁyutta Nikāya* and *Sutta Nipāta* and he is said to be worshipped on a platform in Gayā. Ajakālaka, as the name implies, seems to be a bucolic divinity associated with goatherds. A statuette of a Goat-bearing Yaksha has been found at Mathura. Sudasanā Yakshī, i.e. the Yakshī of the beautiful form, reminds of the strong literary tradition that Yakshīs were considered to be paragons of beauty. In the Vanaparva, Damayantī in the forest is asked, “Are you a Yakshī?” Chadā Yakshī is clearly Chandrā, the Moon-Goddess conceived of as a Yakshī. Sirimā refers to goddess Śrī-Lakshmī, a popular deity worshipped as a type of the Mother Goddess. The pair names Chulakokā and Mahākokā, i.e. the junior and senior Kokā Goddesses must have been of the same kind as the two Yaksha names Lahurā Bīr and Bullā Bīr, still worshipped in Vārāṇasī where Lahurā means small and Bullā as derived from Sans. *Vipula*, Prā. *Vuula*) denoted the bigger one. The word Kokā is of indefinite meaning, but occurs as early as Rigveda (VII. 104.22) where *Koka* as the pair word with *Śvā* (श्वायातं कोकयातुम्) seems to signify an wolf (see for Pāli references and this meaning, Stede, *Pali Dictionary*). In the Gupta period also it was used as a word denoting wolf (कोकस्त्वीहामृगो वृकः, इत्यमरः २।५।७). Kokāmukhasvāmin and Varāhamukhasvāmin are two names of Vishnu, but the meaning with reference to the two goddesses is not so clear excepting that they were considered to be local deities of a cult probably devoted to hunting as taken by Dr. Barua.

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Next to Yaksha, or perhaps equally strong and ancient, was the cult of the Nāga, for which abundant evidence is available throughout Vedic, Purāṇic, Buddhist and Jaina literatures, and also in the country-wide folklore and forms of popular worship devoted to Nāga deities. The many-sided material from both literature and art has been brought together in Dr. Vogel’s *Indian Serpent Lore* and also was early propounded (in 1868) by James Fergusson in his *Tree and Serpent Worship*. It appears that the religious atmosphere round about Bharhut as a central place on the route of popular travel was saturated with elements of Nāga worship which have found a due place in the art of the Mahāstūpa. Elāpatra, king of the Nāgas, pays his homage to the Buddha in a very graphic scene (Fig. 54) (एलापत्र नागराजा भगवतो व (') दते). Another Nāga at Bharhut is Chakavāko, a name apparently of local significance.

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The Nāga motif appears to go hand in hand with Yaksha. Both have their source in the Vedic tradition and in the local cults. There is a Nāga or Ahi serpent in the legend of Indra, viz. Vṛitra whose conflict with Indra forms the main plank of the great myth in the Ṛigveda. There is the Nāga Muchālinda as an important motif in Buddha's life and similarly a Nāga in the life of Mahāvīra, Kṛishṇa and also in the religious conception of Mahādeva Śiva. These are all pointers to a metaphysical pattern based on the eternal conflict of light and darkness, of good and evil, of the celestial powers and the chthonic spirits, Suparṇa and Nāga, or as the Brāhmaṇas mention the feud between Sauparṇeyas and Kādravyas. Here also we may point in short that the Yaksha stand for the immortal elixir of life (यक्षत्वममरत्वं च, वाल्मी० रामा० ३. ११. ९४), and the Nāga for poison symbolising the principle of death; but just as the Yakshas are both good and evil similarly the Nāgas also may be of benign character and worthy of worship as Devatā. This is possible when they are under the control or influence of a deity as Indra, Śiva etc. The same motif was assimilated in Buddhism as part of the Buddha's life and that takes the form of the Nāga paying homage to the Buddha.

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The worship of the Tree (वृक्ष मह) was also of equal popularity and its place in higher religion was admitted from the earliest times when Brahman himself was spoken of as the Forest, the Tree (ब्रह्म तद्वनं स उ वृक्ष आस, तैत्तिरीय ब्राह्मण, २. ८. ९६; see also Ṛigveda, X.81.4). The religious masters at Bharhut accepted the Tree cult but in the context of the Bodhi Tree of the Seven Mānushi Buddhas.

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The Stūpa of Bharhut was 67' 8½" in diameter at the base but only a very small portion was left when Cunningham visited it, viz. 10' in length and 6' in height. This portion was on the south east-side and contained rows of small recesses (13½" broad at top, 4½" at bottom and 8½" to 9" apart) for lights of which the number for whole of the Stūpa seems to have been about 120 for 600 lights in each row. The whole Stūpa was built of plain bricks of 12"×12" size, some large ones being 5" to 6" thick. The height of the Stūpa could not be ascertained but its form with the dome and the Harmikā can be made out from the several replicas engraved in relief on railings. The orginal Stūpa was made of plain bricks and stood on a strong foundation of solid stone-blocks. Round the Stūpa on the ground floor stood the magnificent inner railing consisting of four quadrants and four gateways facing the cardinal points. The Pradakshiṇā-patha between the Stūpa and railing had a terrace 10' 4" wide. In all there were eighty upright pillars each 7' 1" in height with a coping on the top (7' in length, 1' 10" in height, 1' 8" in width, total length of the copings 330') raising the height of the railing to about 9'. Between each pair of the uprights were fixed three cross-bars (सूची) (1' 11½" in length, 1' 10½"

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Fig. 53. Chulakokā Devatā

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Fig. 54. Erāpata Nāgarāja; Firstly the five-hooded Nāgarāja is shown in his natural form; then in the right corner accompanied by his queen and daughter; and lastly kneeling down and paying homage to Bodhi Tree.

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Fig. 55. Medallion Male Bust (Bharhut)

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Fig. 56. Medallion Female Bust (Bharhut)

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in breadth, with a thickness of 6"; in all 228 cross-bars). There were sixteen pillars in each quarter portion of the railing with four additional pillars in the return-screen in front of each gateway. The tall pillars of each gateway rose to a height of 9' 7½"; those on the east and west sides were comprised of four octagonal shafts standing together, while those on the north and south gatways square in form. These pillars supported an imposing superstructure of three parallel architraves separated from each other by square stone blocks, and the horizontal space between each pair of carved beams was filled by smaller pillars. A particular feature of the *Torana* beams at Bharhut consists in the open-mouthed crocodile figures with curved tails occupying the projecting ends. It was on the account that the *Torana* itself received the name *Śiṃśumāra Śiraḥ*, as given in the Mahābhārata (Ādi Parva I, 176.15; see my articles, *Śiṃśumāra Śiraḥ*, J.I.S.O.A, 1939; Mahābhārata Notes, A.B.O.I. Vol. XXVI, pts, III-IV, pp. 283-86). The topmost architrave was surmounted by a conspicuous Dharmachakra supported on a base of honey-suckle design and this was on the two sides at the uppermost height of the vertical pillars flanked by two smaller *triratna* symbols. Cunningham was able to restore these pinnacle symbols from existing fragments. The detailed architectural scheme has been described by Cunningham and discussed by Barua. Cunningham found 49 pillars of the original railing, 35 on the spot and 12 from the neighbouring villages of Batanmara and Pataora and 16 out of 40 coping stones. Pt. Brij Mohan Vyās has added to the collection of the Allahabad Municipal Museum 44 pieces from the Bharhut Torana Vedikā. "They included 32 pillars, 1 corner pillar with a front and side face, 3 cross-bars, 14 coping stones, 1 fragment of a capital, 2 other blocks and a stair-way.¹

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¹ S. C. Kala, *Bharhut Vedikā*, p, 14.

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The building of the four gateways with triple horizontal beams must have received minute attention from the architects of the Stūpa, for these monuments bear witness not only to the lasting strength of the stony framework, as testified by standing structures at Sanchi, but also bespeak of the artistic charm by their harmonious scheme of the several elements and also by the detailed and minute decoration which is precise, meaningful and informed with much vitality. There is marked degree of restraint in the carvings producing the impression that the sculptors were brought up in a long tradition of such work irrespective of the medium in which they were required to work.

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