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Studies in Indian Art c9: III. Some Early Symbols

Studies in Indian Art c9

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III. Some Early Symbols

5. Symbolic Images and Paintings

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Indian ritual is for the most part symbolical. The idea behind symbolism is that the external form is useful for its inner meaning. The form is only apparent, the meaning conveyed by it is real. For example, in every pūjā, a jar full of water (Pūrṇa Ghaṭa or Maṅgala Kalaśa) is sanctified for worship in the very beginning. The idea is not the adoration of the earthen pot, but the pot full of holy water is the symbol of the human body on the one hand and of the cosmos on the other. Both piṇḍa and Brahmāṇḍa, namely the individual and the universal are identified and the main object of worship is to understand the close correspondence between the two. The water contained in the pot is the symbol of the life-sap. This is only one instance. It can be said with clear understanding that the mass of religious ritual in Hinduism is a vast body of symbolism.

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The same is true with reference to Indian art, specially images in sculpture and painting. Here we have to deal mostly with images of gods and goddesses, that were either carved in stone or wood, or moulded in clay, or represented in painting; whatever be the medium, the meaning behind these images was one and the same. To understand this meaning one should make himself familiar with the language of symbolism. In Indian art this language is quite articulate and eloquent, in a series of formulas known as dhyāna-mantras of the respective deities.

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The basic point of view is that the cosmos or creation is an emanation from the Supreme Being, who is called Prajāpati or the Creator. The several powers of the Creator are the devatās. What is created is infinite nature comprising the five elements of gross matter. Thus there are basically two entities, namely the Devas and the Bhūtas, or what in modern terms may be equated as Energy and Matter. All external forms are material. They have no substance in themselves. They are merely the vehicles of the manifest glory of the Devas. The Devas are unmanifest, while matter or creation is manifest. Each form is a symbol of the formless. Cosmos is an aggregation of forms. But its source is the Supreme Unmanifest Creator. He is both formless (Arūpa), and Omniform (Viśvarūpa).

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Creation is the result of the One becoming the Many. This multiplicity is basically expressed as a Triad, which has many forms. In philosophy it is known as the three guṇas, Sattva, Rajas, Tamas; in religious worship it takes the form of three gods, Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva. The basis of Trinity is metaphysical. Its antiquity is rooted in the Vedas and elaborated in the Purāṇas. In iconography Brahmā is shown as seated on a haṃsa with a kamaṇḍalu in his hand. He has a lotus under him floating in a lake. The lotus is the symol of creation and of life. The haṃsa is the symbol of mind or the Ego which is at the root of individual manifestation. The water in the kamaṇḍalu represents unformed matter. The four faces of this deity are the symobls of the four arms of the *Svastika*, which is the basic design of the universe. Brahmā is the God of all knowledge, symbolised as the four Vedas.

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Viṣṇu is the second deity of the triad. He is the preserver. His vehicle is Garuḍa, which symbolises the sun or time. Viṣṇu’s *Cakra* is also the revolving wheel of time. It is also the *Brahmāṇḍa-Cakra*, that is the Cosmos imagined as a circle, which is infinite but bounded. Viṣṇu is known for his three steps which signify motion. The Serpent on which Viṣṇu sleeps is named Ananta or the Infinite which is the symbol of the Absolute. Viṣṇu stands for the imminent form and the cosmic serpent Śeṣa stands for the transcendent absolute or the unmanifest sub-stratum. The four arms of Viṣṇu are symbols of the *Svastika*, i.e. the fourfold pattern of Creation.

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The images of Śiva are two fold, namely in human form and in Liṅga form. The Liṅga form is literally the symbolical form, namely the life principle which has not become manifest in body. It is the unmanifest or the *Avyakta* principle not yet materialised. It is the symbol of fire or the creative principle or the primeval seed which is the source of world progenition. The opposite principle of Śiva is Pārvatī; whereas Śiva is fiery energy, Pārvatī is Soma. They both typify the father principle and the mother principle respectively. They are the cosmic parents. The male and the female conjointly become the Ardhanārīśvara. Both are essential for creation of new life, which is symbolised as their son, Kumāra or Skanda. Śiva is also shown with five heads which are the symbols of the five gross elements of matter. The moon on his head is the symbol of mind and of immortality. The snakes typify the opposite principle of death or poison or darkness or *asura*. The bull of Śiva is the symbol of Kāma or passion whom the great God brought under his control by the power of *tapas* and *samādhi*. The images of these deities are manifold but all of them illustrate the language of symbolism as adopted for the sake of religious worship.

6. Pūrṇa-Kumbha or the Full Vase

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The Pūrṇa-Kumbha or the Full Vase is one of the most beautiful decorative symbols of early Indian art. It is the emblem *par excellence* of fullness, and prosperity, of life endowed with all its gifts, moral, material and spiritual. The full blooming, overflowing contents of life are comparable to the plants and foliage luxuriating from the mouth of a jar filled with the life-giving fluid. The potent contents of life must seek their inevitable expression. Just as from a well-planted seed springs into manifest form the plant with its beautiful leaves and charming flowers, so does human life manifest itself as a visible symbol of the most mysterious and attractive force enshrined in Nature. In one word it is the Pūrṇam or the *Plenum* that is life; the rest is its negation. Fullness that is within and that is without, Fullness that is in the cause and that is in the effect—it is this the most loving and assuring thing that we know of on this side of Life. The Upanishads declare the truth as follows—

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पूर्णमदः पूर्णमिदम् । पूर्णात् पूर्णमुदच्यते ॥
'That is full. This is full. From the full proceeds the full'.

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That (*adaḥ*) and This (*idam*) are like two eternal poles of the law of Life—its cathode and anode which govern this mysterious chemistry. *Plenum* or fullness is the great secret of its eternal pulsation. Fullness is felt by the presence of the quickening force that bursts forth into beauty; its absence or diminution on the other hand marks the negation of beauty, art and life.

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The Ṛigveda, the oldest document of the Aryan life concepts, bears testimony to the conception of the Pūrṇa-Kalaśa. We read there—'Overflowing is the Vase of the Yajamāna. Glory to him. As a bounteous pourer have I filled up the cup for you all to drink'¹.

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¹ आपूर्णो अस्य कलशः स्वाहा । सिक्तैव कोशं सिसिचे पिबध्यै । *Rig.* III, 32, 15.

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Pūrṇa-Kalaśa (Figs. 25-30) is made here the emblem of overflowing divine bounty held at the disposal of the Yajamāna and symbolising an alround plenitude of possessions. The fluid contents flow from the pitcher to the chalice for the sake of human satisfaction.

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There are many other references to Kalaśa in the Ṛigveda occurring in connection with the pressing of Soma and its storage in the Jar which is called Somadhāna, Soma-receptacle (VI, 69, 6; IX, 97, 33).

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The Kalaśa is made of gold, filled with milk (IV, 32, 9), and overflowing (*āpipyāna*, आपिप्यान) with the shining liquid (IV, 27, 5). A definite suggestion is made that the Soma while entering the Jar induces all kinds of beauty to reside in it—विश्वा श्रियः²

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² *Rig.* IX, 62, 19.

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Fig. 25. Sarnath

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Fig. 26. Kapiśā

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Fig. 27. Amaravati

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PŪRṆA-KUMBHAS

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Fig. 28. Sanchi

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Fig. 29. Sanchi

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Fig. 30. Amaravati

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Soma and Beauty (*Śrī*) constitute a pair. Soma stands in relation to *Śrī* as the male principle to the female. Where there is Soma, the Life-elixir, beauty essentially lives with it. Besides beauty, the Full Vase is also invoked as the witness of manifold auspicious enjoyments and blessings¹.

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¹ एतानि भद्रा कलश क्रियाम। —*Rig*, X, 32, 9

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Hence it is that the *Pūrṇa-Kalaśa* is also called the *Bhadra Ghaṭa*, the Auspicious Vase. In the *Atharvaveda* another variation of the name is found, and that is *Pūrṇa-Kumbha* (III, 12, 8). The imagery of the *Pūrṇa-Kumbha* enlivening and vegetating in manifold forms finds appropriate expression—

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"The *Pūrṇa-Kumbha* is the firm substratum of Time. We behold it manifesting in various forms"². This is a very significant passage. The endless stream of time, unfailing and inexhaustible winding out before us from eternity—what is the source of its unfathomable fullness?

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² पूर्णः कुम्भोऽधिकाल आहितस्तं वै पश्यामो बहुधा नु सन्तम्। —*Atharva*, XIX, 53, 3

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The seer explains that an overflowing *Pūrṇa-Kumbha* exists in the womb of Time and presides over the endless manifestations of the eternal and powerful time process. The latter quality is symbolized by the significant Vedic word '*Bahudhā*'. That which is in the womb of the Vase is one, invisible and indivisible. When it becomes 'many' (*bahudhā*), it manifests outside and appears at its mouth. The branches and leaves on the top of the Full Vase convey beautifully the diversified urge of the creative process. They represent its infinite fullness.

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According to the divine law as explained in the *Śatapatha*, the All and the Full are verily one³. Again, what is all or the whole is also full⁴ and conversely, that which is full is necessarily universal or cosmic⁵.

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³ सर्वं वै पूर्णम् —*Śat.*, IV, 2, 2, 2; V 2, 3, 1.

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⁴ सर्वं वै तत् यत् पूर्णम् —*Śat.*, IV, 2, 3, 2,

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⁵ सर्वमेतत् यत् पूर्णम्, —*Śat.*, IX, 2, 3, 43.

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The *Pūrṇa-Kumbha* is thus a charming symbol of double *entendre*, signifying the one becoming the many, and the created many attuned to the universal whole. The manifestation of the life-force from the womb is the most subtle and mysterious thing that we know of in the whole panorama of our existence. Its creation is a sacred and sublime act, an event fit for universal rejoicing. The gods seem to sing with joy when life recreates life. This process is ceaseless like the ever-unfolding process of time. What can be the secret of its inexhaustible power? The poet conceives that there is the *Kumbha* or the Full Vase enshrined in the innermost secret of the womb which contains the infant, and this vase is said to be the real progenitor by the force of its inherent mysterious powers¹. In this sense the Full Vase would be considered a representative symbol of the hidden vital force, and its fluid contents signify life itself. The infant that grows out of the womb and attains to full human majesty in due course epitomizes the virtues of the symbolical Full Vase. He is Pūrṇa, full and overflowing with prosperity and blessings (*Bhūti* and *Āśis*) and besides—

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¹ कुम्भो वनिष्ठुर्जनिता शचीभि- यस्मिन्नग्रे योन्यां गर्भोऽन्तः। —*Yajus*, XIX. 87.

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'Enjoyments, pleasures and delights gladness and rapturous ecstasies.
Laughter and merriment, dance and play have made body their home².'

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² आनन्दा मोदाः प्रमुदोऽभीमोदमुदश्च ये। हृसो नरिष्टा नृत्तानि शरीरमनु प्राविशन्॥ —*Atharva*, XI. 8. 24.

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Such is the spirit of joy and fulness in the Full Vase.

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The specific association of the *Pūrṇa-Kumbha* with dwellings and homes which it was used to adorn is explicitly stated in the description of the completion ceremony of a new house in the *Atharvaveda*³:—

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'O fair damsel, bring hither to us the *Pūrṇa-Kumbha*, filled with streams of clarified butter, blent with nectar. Bedew these drinkers with a draught of Amṛta. May the reward of our pious works (*iṣṭā-pūrta*) guard this dwelling'.³

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³ पूर्णं नारि प्रभर कुम्भमेतं घृतस्य धाराममृतेन संभृताम्। इमान् पातुनमृतेनासम्ह्यीष्टापूर्तभि रक्षत्येनाम्॥ —*Atharva*, III, 12, 8.

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Here we are brought nearer to that charming conception which is familiar from the Buddhist literature, viz., *Puṇṇaghaṭa paṭimaṇḍita ghara*, (पुण्णघट-पटिमंडित घर), a house embellished with a Full Vase (*Dhammapada Aṭṭhakathā, I, 147*).

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The representations of this delightful symbol occurs in art and sculpture and continue from the Śuṅga to the medieval period. They are seen in a pleasing variety of forms (*Figs. 25-30*).

7. Kalpavṛiksha: The Wish Fulfilling Tree

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Indian art conveys its meaning in a distinct symbol language. The lotus, the full vase (*Pūrṇa-ghaṭa*), the *Svastika*, the wheel (*Chakra*), the three jewels (*Triratna*), and the *Kalpavriksha*, part as it were of an alphabet, are being used with perfect mastery as elements of decoration; they have not only invested art, Buddhist and Brāhmanic, with endless beauty but also show it as a vehicle of ideas. These symbols formed an integral part of Indian thought for ages serving like pegs for religious and metaphysical ideas. Their meaning was ingrained in the consciousness of the people, and the art-connoisseur carried within him a subconscious reaction to these symbol forms which intensified his appreciation of an art which was rich both in external as well as inner meaning.

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The Lotus has been extolled as the prime symbol of creation, the seat and substratum of universal creative force which springs from the navel or centre of the primeval Creator. Simplified to a concise Sūtra of art, it is expressed as Brahmā, the genius of creation, seated on a full-blown lotus with a long stalk springing from the navel of Viṣṇu. That the elaborate Paurāṇic cosmogony could be treated with such mastery of form gives a vantage-ground to the artist. As the lotus floats above water, so the created cosmos emerged to the surface of the primeval deep or 'chaos', which originally was the confused mass out of which the order of the universe was evolved. The Greek word chaos is the same as Vedic 'Kha'. 'Kham' represented the great chasm or vacuum out of which was born the 'Kam', or the Plenum. 'Kha' is the navel from which the cosmic lotus takes its birth. Again 'Kha' represents the centre of the Wheel of which the spokes and the peripheral frame mark the Universe.

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The symbols of the lotus and [Figure: ] are primarily Vedic symbols. And so is the full vase or the *Pūrṇa-Ghaṭa* in which, as the seer of the Atharva Veda sings, the gods filled in one place immortality and life, prosperity and food, and many a good thing besides. Their opposites, the principles of non-life and non-riches, also lurk, with divine sufferance, in some unperceived corner of this *Pūrṇa-Kumbha*. But what is essential and auspicious for life is the brimming and overflowing aspect of the *Pūrṇa-Kumbha* symbolising the growth and creative fertility in every phase of man's being on this earth. The *Pūrṇa-Kumbha* is verily the human body or Man himself containing within him the fullest range of divine blessings and the choicest gifts to which the soul aspires. With such a perfect symbol to express the idea of fulness and prosperity the Indian artist felt enraptured, and with his genius for the beautiful he portrayed that idea in the form of a full vase overladen with foliage and adorned with girdles of flowery garlands on the neck, shoulder and base. A comprehensive study of the *Pūrṇa-Ghaṭa* and its variations as found in Indian art would be interesting. The same is the case with other symbols which enriched art as elements of decoration and at the same time gave to it deeper philosophic meaning. Not only trees and creepers but also animals and birds of various forms, e.g., *Siṃha*, *Vṛiṣha*, *Haṃsa* and *Suparṇa*, lion, bull, goose and ‘bird’, constantly appear in Indian art contributing to its richness, gaiety and freshness as it would be from al iving contact with nature.

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The symbol of the *Kalpa-vṛikṣha* has been popular both as regards its representation in sculpture and painting and description in ancient poetry and literature. It is variously known as *Kalpataru*, *Kalpadruma*, *Devataru*, etc., and from the point of view of art the *Kalpavallī* and the *Kalpalatā* are but extensions of the same motif treated with luxuriance. The central idea of the *Kalpa-vṛikṣha* is that it is the Wishing Tree which fulfils all desires. It was produced as one of the fourteen gems at the time of the gigantic churning of the ocean by the Devas and the Asuras. The auspicious conch and the auspicious cow—*Pāñchajanya* and *Kāmadhenu*—were also produced along with the Wishing Tree and they too went to the gods. They are kindred symbols with the *Kalpa-vṛikṣha* as bestowing fruition of human desires, and have been employed in Indian art and poetry with remarkable success. The phrase ‘*Kāmadughā*’ is frequent in the Vedas and is applied variously to speech (*Vāk*), Sarasvatī, the goddess of learning, Aditi, the mother of the gods, and Pṛithivī, the Great Mother personified (*Mahī-mātā*). The Wishing Tree also is called *Kāmadughā* as it grants all desires and fulfils all wishes. So long as a man is under its shade, whatever he conceives he realizes. Wealth, women and all kinds of enjoyments issue forth from its fructifying boughs.

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The Mind is the *Kalpa-vṛikṣha* or the Wishing Tree which gives us every thing for the mere thought of it. In a very real sense the Mind is the most powerful creator, the perennial source of all our enjoyments, and the inexhaustible fountain from where pleasure (*rasa*) constantly oozes out. Thought (*saṅkalpa*) is the nature and power of the Mind which makes life teem with innumerable blessings. The artists made full use of a rich conception like this, and employed the *Kalpa-vṛikṣha* as one of the symbols which adorned art both in respect of beauty of form and depth of meaning.

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At Bharhut bounteous curves of lotus creepers run in continuous bands, each bough or bud of which carries beautiful ornaments, earrings, ‘*kuṇḍalas*’ for the ears of the Prākāra-vapra design,¹ necklaces set with pearls and beads, armlets and anklets and spiral rings of various designs, delicate scarfs with flower-patterns woven in their texture, and ‘*sāris*’ with ‘*paṭī*’ ends of ‘*gomūtrikā*’ designs². The *Kalpalatā* decoration producing such ornaments is a conspicuous feature of early Indian art and it is very often repeated leaving a pleasant effect on the mind.

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¹ For the meaning of the Prākāra-vapra design earrings, see ABORI, XXXIII, p.p. 19-22.

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² Pāṇini in the Gaṇasūtra ‘*gomūtra āchchhādane*’; on Sūtra V. 4. 3. refers to a cloth called ‘*gomūtrikā*’ which seems to be the ‘*sāri*’ worn by men and women in the reliefs at Bharhut and Sanchi; it seems to have derived its name from the particular ‘*gomūtra*’ form of its front pendant portion.

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The motif developed and continued later in the art of the Gupta period and even afterwards. The deep-cut foliage decorations and creepers with intertwining tendrils are a familiar feature of Gupta art, and in some of them objects of enjoyment are carved as the products of the Wishing Tree. On a beautiful pillar from Gadhwa a creeper with youthful maidens springing from its branches has entwining leaves and offshoots (*Kāmalatā*). The pillar is illustrated by Cunningham (ASR. Vol. X. Pl. VI and on p. 7)¹.

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¹ Its present whereabouts are unknown, but I am indebted to Mr. A. G. Shirreff, I.C.S., for an old outline drawing of it which is reproduced here with his kind permission.

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कामलता

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Recently, Sivaramamurti drew attention to the *Kalpa-vriksha-Kalpa-valli* motif explaining it in the light of a few literary references from Kālidāsa². The conception of an idyllic land or clime in which all kinds of human enjoyments are available to man as in a garden of paradise, is of old standing in Indian literature. We read in the story of the Mahāvāṇija Jātaka (No. 493) that a group of merchants who had set out in search of a treasure come to a mighty banyan tree with cool and pleasant shade. From its eastward branch pure and clear water trickled for them; they washed and drank their fill. One of the branches on the south gave them all things to eat:

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² Journal of Oriental Research, Vol. XIV, Pt. III, pp. 180-182.

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'Both rice and meat out in a stream it brings,
Thick porridge ginger lentle soup and many other things',
From the western branch—
'Outcame a bevy of fair girls all pranked in brave array,
And O the robes of many hues, jewels, and rings in plenty!
Each merchant had a pretty maid, each of the five and twenty'.
From the northern branch likewise—
'.........outcame a stream of gold,
Silver in handfuls, precious rings and jewels manifold.
And robes of fine Benares cloth and blankets thick and thin,
The merchants then to roll them up in bundles did begin'.

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This Tree which produced water streams, food, pretty maids and good things is the ideal *Kalpa-Vriksha* so often extolled in literature. The following Pāli gāthā sums up the virtues of this auspicious tree—

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वारिदा पुरिमा साखा अन्नपानञ्च दक्खिणा । वारिदा पच्छिमा साखा सब्बकामे च उत्तरा ॥ (Fausboell. Jāt. IV. 352)

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The idea that the tree deity gave the merchants water to drink, food to eat, beds to lie on, maidens to attend them and all treasures, has an irresistible appeal of which both the poets and the artists took full advantage to embellish their works. In the epic literature and in the Purāṇas the conception of the Wishing Tree producing all desires is extended to the idyllic land of Uttarakuru where Elysian conditions prevail, leading to an exceedingly delightful life of the inmates.

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In the Rāmāyaṇa, Sugrīva directs the monkey chiefs to go in quest of Sītā in the northern direction. There, at the end of the earth they would find the land of the Uttarakurus. "Flowers of gold as resplendent as fire are seen there in eternal bloom imbued with divine fragrance. The beautiful trees produce garments of various kinds and costly gems which are pleasant for men and women to use in all seasons; beds with beautiful coverlets and pleasing garlands; costly drinks and food of many descriptions; and to crown this all, maidens endowed with beauty, virtue and youth".¹

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In the Mahābhārata, the Elysian land of Uttarakuru with all kinds of plenty in fruits and flowers and with trees producing all objects of desire (sarvakāmaphalā Vṛkṣāḥ) is conceived in the northern direction adjacent to Meru. There, as fruits from trees, are produced: garments, ornaments and youthful pairs of men and wome (mithunāni) who draw sustenance from the nectar-like milk of the milky trees and are perfectly matched to each other in beauty, dress and appearance. The human beings in that region are happy and contented like gods being free from all sorrows and ailments, and they do not suffer the pangs of separation.²

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It appears that this description of Uttarakuru was an inherent part of the Bhuvanakośa as we find it repeated in a similar context in the Vāyupurāṇa (Chap. 45 verses 11-50). The description in the Purāṇa, besides recording what the Epic contains is much more elaborate, and we find there reference to streams of 'madhu' and 'maireya', of butter and curds, to mountains of delicious food, to groves furnished with beds, seats, cosmetics, garlands, etc. and to a great many other items of pleasure. In that region there is sweet music of every description rising from lute, flute and tabors, and hundreds andt housands of Kalpa-Vṛkṣhas produce fine and beautiful garments agreeable to wear.

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जातरूपमयैश्चापि हुताशनसमप्रभैः । नित्यपुष्पफलास्तत्र नगाः पत्ररथाकुलाः ।।४३।।
दिव्यगन्धरसस्पर्शाः सर्वान् कामान् स्रवन्ति च । नानाकाराणि वासांसि फलन्त्यन्ये नगोत्तमाः ।।४४।।
मुक्तावैदूर्यचित्राणि भूषणानि तथैव च । स्त्रीणां याम्यनुरूपानि पुरुषाणां तथैव च ।।४५।।
सर्वर्तुसुखसेव्यानि फलन्त्यन्ये नगोत्तमाः । महाहंमणिचित्राणि फलन्त्यन्ये नगोत्तमाः ।।४६।।
शयनानि प्रसूयन्ते चित्रास्तरणवन्ति च । मनःकान्तानि माल्यानि फलन्त्यपरे द्रुमाः ।।४७।।
पानानि च महार्हाणि भक्ष्याणि विविधानि च । स्त्रियश्च गुणसम्पन्ना रूपयौवनलक्षिताः ।।४८।।
—Kishkindhā kāṇḍa, ch. 43, verses 43-48.

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२ उत्तराः कुरवो राजन् पुण्याः सिद्धनिषेविताः ।।२।।
तत्र वृक्षा मधुफला नित्यपुष्पफलोपमाः । पुष्पाणि च सुगंधीनि रसवन्ति फलानि च ।।३।।
सर्वकामफलास्तत्र केचिद्वृक्षा जनाधिप । अपरे क्षीरिणो नाम वृक्षास्तत्र नराधिप ।।४।।
ये क्षरन्ति सदा क्षीरं भद्रसं चामृतोपमम् । वस्त्राणि च प्रसूयन्ते फलेष्वाभरणानि च ।।५।।
मिथुनानि च जायन्ते स्त्रियश्चाप्सरसौपमाः । तेषां ते क्षीरिणां क्षीरं पिबन्त्यमृतसन्निभम् ।।८।।
मिथुनं जायते काले समं तच्च प्रवर्धते । तुल्यरूपगुणोपेतं समवेषं तथैव च ।।९।।—Bhīṣmaparvan, 7, 2-11

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A representation of the Uttarakuru land is probably what we find at Sanchi carved on the western face of the western pillar of the south gateway of the Great Stūpa (*Marshall, 'Monuments of Sanchi', Vol. I, p. 144; Vol. II, Pl. XIXa*). In several undulating bands of a lotus creeper (one of which is reproduced here Figure 32) are youthful couples engaged in music and pleasure surrounded by birds and animals and seated under the shades of boughs overladen with costly ornaments of many kinds.

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Fig. 32. Youthful couples engaged in Music. (Sanchi)

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This representation is so close to the literary tradition given in the Epics that it appears to suggest a conscious treatment by the artist of a theme which literary tradition had made popular. The sculptors at Sanchi and Bharhut (*p. 13. Figs. 4 : a, b, c & d,*) have carved time and again the lotus creepers as producing ornaments (*muktavaidūryachitrāṇi bhūṣaṇāni*). Kālidāsa in the *Kumārasambhava*, VIII. 68, refers to necklaces (*hārayaṣṭi*) hanging from the top of *Kalpa-Vriksha* trees. In the *Meghadūta* he mentions the *Kalpa-Vriksha* as the one complete source of all objects of adornment and toilet used by the women in Alakā, for example, beautiful fabrics, wine causing love glances in the eyes, flowers and tender leaves, a variety of ornaments and lac dye for painting the feet are the *Kalpa-Vriksha* products used for female beauty make-up (*abalā-maṇḍana*).¹

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¹ वासश्चित्रं मधु नयनयोर्बिभ्रमादेशदक्षं, पुष्पोद्भवं सह किसलयैर्भूषणानं विकल्पान् । लक्षारागं चरणकमलस्यास्ययोग्यं च यस्यामेकः सूते सकलमबलामंडनं कल्पवृक्षः ॥

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Again the poet refers to the *Kalpa-Vriksha* 'madhu' named 'anangadīpaka' (also called 'ratiphala' in *Meghadūta* II, 3) which was served in cups of scarlet coloured gems ('lohitārka-maṇi-bhājana.' *Kumāra* 8. 75). The conception of fine garments produced from the *Kalpataru* is found not only in Kālisa (*Kalpataru-lambi amśuaka Kumār.* 8.71), but also in Bāṇabhaṭṭa who refers several times to the '*Kalpadruma dukūla*' or the '*Kalpalatā dukūla*' which was diaphanous and transparent like the slough of a snake and so light as to be tossed about even by the air of human breath (धौते निश्वासहार्यं निर्मोकशुचिनी कल्पतादुकूले, *Kādambarī* text, ed. Vaidya, p. 201, 206).²

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² From the above literary tradition we find that the *Kalpa-Vriksha* was considered as the source of the following objects of decoration and enjoyment: Ornaments: 'hārayaṣṭi', 'ābharaṇa', bhūṣaṇa-vikalpa. Garments: 'kalpatarulambi amśuka' (*Kumār.* 8, 71); 'chitravāsas' (*Megh.* II. 11); 'maṅgalya

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वासश्चित्रं मधु नयनयोर्बिभ्रमादेशदक्षं, पुष्पोद्भवं सह किसलयैर्भूषणानं विकल्पान् ।
लक्षारागं चरणकमलस्यास्ययोग्यं च यस्यामेकः सूते सकलमबलामंडनं कल्पवृक्षः ॥
—*Megha. II. 11.*

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With respect to the auspicious symbol the basic point of view was that each one of them represents the truth and power of the creative force that is in nature. For example, a single lotus flower in full bloom of its beauty is not an isolated phenomenon which depends on chance but it is the fruit of Universal system in which the minutest part is related to the whole and depends essentially for its full manifestation on the glory of the law that exists everywhere and at all times. Similarly a conch depicted as a symbol points to the whole background of Nature's laws which are operative in the ocean and the birth of aquatic life in it and the evolution of the crustacea in its waters. The same is true of a Kalpa-Vriksha or a Mithuna motif, which although singly represented, stand as dominant symbols of the whole idea of Uttarakuru. Each one of them is like a sampling of the auspicious substratum of the divine laws in the universe. Even one symbol depicted in painting or on the wall or in relief in sculpture, terracotta or stucco was considered apotropaic and auspicious like the presence of the divine. It is from this point of view that the many representations of the auspicious objects (Mangala-dravya) in stone sculpture or in toy figurines were loved and adorned, and were adopted as decorative motifs,

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kshauma' (Śak. IV), 'Kāsika' cloth and blankets of Uḍḍiyāna or Gandhāra country, known as Pāṇḍukambala in the Jātakas and in Pāṇini. Cosmetics for the body and feet: 'lakṣārāga', 'vichchhitti', etc. Wine and drinks: 'madhu' (Megha. II, 11); 'anaṅgadīpaka'; (Kumāra. VIII. 75) and 'ratiphala' (Megha. II. 3); 'mahārhāṇi pānāni' (Kishkindhā, 43. 48); 'maireya' (Vāyu, ch. 45). Beds: 'chitrāstaraṇavanti śayanāni' (Kishkindhā, 43. 47). Garlands: 'manaḥkānta mālya', (Kish. 43. 47). Food: 'vividha bhakshya', (Kish. 43-48); 'bahu sālimāṃsodana' (Jāt. IV. 352). Maidens and Couples: 'guṇasampannā rūpayauvanalakshitā striyaḥ' (Kish. 43. 48); 'nāriyo saṃlaṅkatā' (Jāt. IV. 352); 'mithunāni' and 'apsarasopamāḥ striyaḥ' (Bhishma, 7.8) Water in regaling streams (Mahāvāṇija Jāt. IV. 351).

8. Cornucopia in Literature

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In my Review of Dr. A. S. Altekar's *Catalogue of the Bayānā Hoard* (J.N.S.I., XVII, Pt. I) I had pointed out that cornucopia was a well known motif in Indian literature. Here is that evidence.

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1. *Mahābhārata*, Karṇaparva, Poona edn. 6. 37—

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तोयपूर्णविषाणैश्च द्वैपजंमहर्षभैः । मणिमुक्तामयैश्चान्यैः पुण्यगन्धैस्तथौषधैः ।।

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Duryodhana anointed Karṇa to the office of his *Senāpati* (commander-in-chief of the army) by pouring water on his head filled in the *viṣāṇa* of elephants, rhinoceroses and bulls, and by scattering pearls and jewels, as also using fragrant lucky herbs. Here the word *viṣāṇa* means both a horn, as of a bull and a rhinoceros, and a tusk as of an elephant. Pouring holy water on the head of the person anointed was an ancient custom employed also in the Rājasūya ceremony.

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In the above verse the Critical edn. reads *dvīpi*, a panther, which has no horn or tusk and is meaningless in this context, as against *dvipa*, an elephant, of the Vulgate text which gives excellent meaning and undoubtedly was the correct reading. MS. K 3 actually records the variant reading *dvaipa*, which I have adopted here, meaning 'of an elephant'.

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2. At the prospect of Rāma's coronation as crown-prince, Sītā expresses her joy as follows :

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दीक्षितं व्रतसम्पन्नं वराजिनधरं शुचिम् । कुरंगशृंगपाणिं च पश्यन्ती त्वां भजाम्यहम् ।।

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—*Ayodhyā*, 16. 23.

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'I shall be by your side at the lucky time when you are consecrated, by taking the holy vow, putting on the excellent deer-skin, and holding the horn of a deer in your hand (*kuraṅga-śṛṅga-pāṇi*). Here Rāma is expected to hold the *kuraṅga-śṛṅga* or cornucopia as a lucky attribute in one of his hands.

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3. At the time of Sugrīva's coronation, it is stated that he was anointed with water poured from a bull's horn :

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आहृत्य च समुद्रभ्यः सर्वेभ्यो वानरर्षभाः । अपः कनककुम्भेषु निधाय विमलं जलम् ।।
शुभैर्ऋषभशृंगैश्च कलशैश्चैव काञ्चनैः । शास्त्रदृष्टेन विधिना महर्षिविहितेन च ।।

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—*Kiṣkindhā Kāṇḍa* Ch. 26, Verses 33-34.

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'The monkey-chiefs collected water from all the seven oceans, having filled golden pitchers with it; and then with ceremonies prescribed by the texts and as directed by the sages, they bathed him with the auspicious bull-horns and golden jars'.

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Here the word is *ṛṣabha-śṛṅga*, the horn of a bull, expressly stated as a lucky object (*śubha*).

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4. In the Atharva Veda there is mention of spirits holding horns in their hands preceding on her way the newly wedded bride:

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ये पूर्वं वध्वो ३ यन्ति हस्ते शृंगाणि विभ्रतः ।

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This must have been some old custom, probably because even at that ancient period the horn was believed to be a lucky object. Perhaps they filled it with holy water for sprinkling on the way to ward off evil spirits.

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I am indebted to Dr. Moti Chandra for the information that in Central Asia they still hang ibex goat horns in the mosques, as remnants of an old custom of using such horns in the temples of Śiva by the primitive tribes there. Probably the people were the Mahāvṛiṣas (Atharva, V. 22. 5) who are stated to be neighbours of the Balhikas and the Mūjavatas.

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Pandit Shri Ambika Prasad Upadhyay of the Banaras Hindu University informs me that it is still the custom in Śiva worship to anoint the deity with water poured from horns made of silver. He also mentions that in the Śrāddha ceremony water is offered to the manes with the horn of a rhinoceros.

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This proves the very ancient belief in India that a horn was an auspicious object from which holy water should be poured as part of the religious rituals. Moreover the Śṛinga was considered as a lucky symbol also, for it must have been held as such by Rāma in the reference cited above (Ayodhyā 16.23).

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Greek cornu is the same as Sanskrit śṛinga. The Śubha Śṛinga of Indian literature is the same as "Cornu Copiae or Cornucopia which was the horn of abundance used as the symbol of plenty. In Greek mythology there are two different tales explaining its origin. One which suckled Zeus; another to the horn of the river-god Achelous, wrenched off by Herackles" (Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities, edited by F. W. Cornish, London, John Murray, 1898, p. 211). According to the same authority 'The cornucopia constantly appears in coins and works of art, especially of the Roman period, as the symbol of abundance'. I would invite experts kindly to throw further light on the antiquity and religious significance of cornucopia in classical, specially Greek, art and mythology.

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Fig. 33 Coin of Huvishka Reverse side; Goddess with cornucopia

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Fig. 34 Coin of Hippostratos; city Goddess carrying cornucopia.

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Fig. 35 Coin of Huvishka Reverse side; Goddess Ṛitā-devī holding cornucopia.

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