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Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c12.s2: Stūpa of Bharhut

Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c12.s2

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Stūpa of Bharhut

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The village of Bharhut is situated six miles to the north-east of Uchahara, and nine miles nearly due south of the Satna station on the Jabulpore railway. It is exactly 120 miles to the south west of Allahabad and rather more than half way towards Jabulpore. The village belonged to the erstwhile Nagod State. It was on the ancient route which connected the north Kosala country with Chedi and Dakshiṇa-Kosala and was one of the most frequented highways which picked up the Magadha sector through the Son Valley. As indicated by the inscriptions the rich merchants and householders dedicated their wealth in raising one of the most impressive monuments of Indian art in the centre of this highway of trade. The other parallel route lay towards the west connecting Mathura with Vidiśā on the Vetravatī in Central India and with Pratishṭhāna on the Godāvarī in the south. Here the Stūpa of Sanchi occupied a position similar to that of Bharhut and the two together furnish proof of some intercontinental planning ordained by the exigencies of commercial and religious life. The two Stūpas are closely interrelated not only by their massive architecture but by the exhaustive documentation of religious ideas and art forms and especially the traditional folk cults and motifs depicted on an epic scale. Both of them adequately illustrate the art movement which submerged the country during the Śuṅga period as the natural outcome of the art consciousness generated during the Mauryan age.

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The Stūpa of Bharhut was sixtyseven ft. eight and a half inches in diameter at the base but only a very small portion was left when Cunningham visited it in 1873, viz. 10 ft. in length and 6 ft. in height. This portion was on the southeast side and contained rows of small recesses (13½ in. broad at top, 4½ in. at bottom and 8½ to 9 in. apart) for lights (*dīpamālā*) of which the number for whole of the Stūpa seemed to have been about 120 for 600 lights in each row. The whole Stūpa was built of plain bricks of 12" × 12" × 3½" size, some large ones being 5" to 6" thick. The height of the Stūpa could not be ascertained but its form with the dome and the *harmikā* can be made out from the several replicas engraved in relief on railings. The original Stūpa was made of plain bricks and stood on a strong foundation of solid stone blocks. Round the Stūpa on the ground floor stood the magnificent inner railing consisting of four quadrants and four gateways facing the four cardinal points. The *pradakṣiṇāpatha* between the Stūpa and railing had a terrace 10' 4" wide. In all there were 80 upright pillars each 7' 1" in height with a coping on the top (7' in length, 1' 10" in height, 1' 8" in width, total length of the copings 330 ft.) raising the height of the railing to about 9 ft. Between each pair of the uprights (*sthambha*) were fixed three cross-bars (*sūchī*) (1' 11¼" in length, 1' 10½" in breadth, with a thickness of 6"; in all 228 cross-bars). There were sixteen pillars in each quarter portion of the railing with four additional pillars in the return-screen in front of each gateway. Each *toraṇa* gateway comprised of two tall pillars which supported an imposing superstructure of three parallel architraves with spiral projecting ends on the two sides and separated from each other by square stone blocks and the horizontal space between each pair of such curved beams was filled by smaller pillars. The detailed architectural scheme has been described by Cunningham and discussed by Barua. Cunningham found 47 pillars of the original railing, 35 on the spot and 12 from the neighbouring villages of Baṭanmārā and Pathorā and 16 out of 40 coping stones. Pt. Brijmohan Vyās has added to the collection of the Allahabad Municipal Museum 53 pieces from the Bharhut Toraṇa-Vedikā. They included 32 pillars, one corner pillar with a front and side face, three cross bars, 14 coping stones, one fragment of a capital, 2 other blocks and a stairway. The stony frame-work of the gateways although seemingly slender has justified the principle of construction and joinery underlying it by its preservation until wilful spoliation by the hand of man brought it down for quarrying stone and bricks. The shape of the dome although only a fragment few feet in length now remains, could be known from three or four bas-reliefs on the sculptures. It shows that the original big Stūpa was hemispherical resembling a bell (*ghaṇṭākāra*) in which the ratio of the diameter to the height is less than in the case of subsequent Stūpas. The same is true of the Sanchi Stūpa. But later on there was a tendency towards cylindrical shape, which was rightly compared to a giant bubble (*mahābubbula*, Mahāvaṃsa 30. 13), as also shown by the illustration of the monuments preserved on their railing or carved slabs. A bas-relief on one of the longer rails gives a good representation of the cylindrical base, with the addition of a regular railing in the usual position surrounding the Stūpa at an about distance. On the top of the hemisphere there was a square platform, also decorated with the Buddhist railing which supported the crowning umbrella, with streamers and garlands suspended from its rim. Large flowers also spring from the top as well as from the base of the square summit, and a cylindrical ornament is hung in undulating folds completely round the hemisphere.

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chhatrāvalī, harmikā, aṇḍa, mahāvedikā, Fig. 54

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Fig. 56

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Fig. 58

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ushṇīśa, thamba, sūchī, ālambanapiṇḍikā, Fig. 55

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Fig. 57

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Fig. 59

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Fig. 61

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Fig. 60

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a] [Figure: b] [Figure: c] [Figure: d] [Figure: e

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Fig. 62

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Fig. 63 a

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Fig. 63 b

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Fig. 64 a

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Fig. 64 b

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Fig. 65

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i

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ii

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Fig. 67 a

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Fig. 66

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Fig. 67 b

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The round railing consisting of 80 upright pillars in all was divided into four quadrants and having four high gateways, *Mahā-toraṇa*, each facing a cardinal point. This was planned in accordance with a religious principle in which cosmic manifestation was conceived as a gigantic *svastika* formed by the four directions of space and known as *Diśāvrata*. This doctrine had come into existence in the Vedic period and persisted as a popular cult in which the worship of the four Mahārājika Devas was a cardinal theme as found in the planning of the Bharhut railings. At no stage in the history of the Stūpa the latter could divest itself of this basic religious belief of its fourfold division.

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The two tall pillars of each gateway (*toraṇa-dvāra*) rose to a height of 9' 7½"; those on the east to west were comprised of four octagonal shafts (*aṭṭhaṃsika stambha*) joined together, with those on the north and south gateways square (*caturasrika*) in form. These curiously shaped pillars, are thus formed of a group of four octagons or tetragons joined together, and crowned by four distinct bell-capitals. These four capitals are covered by a single abacus on which rests a large massive capital formed of two winged lions (*sapakṣa-siṃha-saṅghāṭa*) and two winged bulls (*sapakṣa-vṛiṣa-saṅghāṭa*). [Fig. 58]. On them rested the first horizontal architrave superimposed by two more beams of similar shape and size separated from each other by carved cubical blocks. A particular feature of the *toraṇa* beams at Bharhut consists in the open-mouthed crocodile figures with curved tails occupying the projecting ends. It was on this account that the *toraṇa* itself was given the name of *śiṃśumāraśiraḥ* (Ādi Parva, 176. 15, see my articles, ‘*Śiṃśumāraśiraḥ*’, JISOA 1939; ‘Mahābhārata Notes’, *ABOI*, Vol. XXVI, pts. III-IV, 283-86). The spaces between these architraves were filled by smaller balusters which gave the whole framework the appearance of a delicate *jālī* work (*śalākā-vātāyana*). [Fig. 59]. The topmost architrave was surmounted by a conspicuous Dharmachakra supported on a base of honeysuckle design and this was on the two sides at the uppermost height of the vertical pillars flanked by two smaller triratna symbols. Cunningham was able to restore these pinnacle symbols from existing fragments.

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The upright pillars, cross-bars and copings of the Bharhut railings were elaborately carved with numerous scenes in bas-relief, some of them of Buddhist inspiration but others mostly from folk beliefs and well known decorative repertoire of early Indian art. Each series of two pillars held between it three cross-bars, and bonded at the top by coping stones (*Uṣṇīṣa*; Pāli : *Unhīsa*). The coping, or continuous architrave, which crowned the circle of pillars, is formed of massive blocks of stone each spanning two intercolumnniations. The blocks are upwards of 7 ft in length, with a height of 1 ft 10½ in. and a thickness of 1 ft 8 in. They are secured firmly to each other by long tenons fitting into corresponding mortices, and to the tops of the pillars by a stout tenon on each, which fits a socket on the underside of the coping stone. Each block is, of course, slightly curved to suit the circumference of the circle, and this curvature must have added considerably to the stability of the railing; for as each set of three tenons formed a triangle, each coping stone became an efficient tie to keep the three pillars on which it was set in their places. The entire length of the coping was 330 ft. including the returns, the whole of which was minutely and elaborately sculptured, both inside and outside. The inner face of the copings was carved over with the scenes of various Jātakas and of the flowers, fruits, necklaces, ear-rings and other personal ornaments and costly textiles, as well as many other things. On the outer face all the spaces marked off by the undulations are filled with repetitions of full-blown lotus flowers on account of which the railing received the name of padmvara-vedikā. This broad line of bas-reliefs is on both faces finished by two rich borders, the lower one consisting of a continuous row of bells (kinkiṇī-jāla) and the upper one of battlement motifs (kapiśīrshaka or prākāra-kaṇṭhaka). The carvings are bold and deep and still as sharp and perfect as when first set up. [Fig. 60].

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The pillars of the Bharhut railing are monoliths, called thabho (Skt. sthambha), being 7'1" in height, with a section of 1'10½" on the face and 1'2½" on the side. The corners have been slightly bevelled so as to make them octagonal or aṭṭhamsika as described in ancient literature. They are ornamented by a full medallion in the middle, and by a half-medallion at top and bottom, all of which were described as padma, nīlotpala, puṇḍarīka and other synonyms of the lotus flower or its compositions of petals, buds, sepals and leaves. There are also several animals and a considerable number of scenes taken from Buddhist legends and history. A few are adorned with single figures of Yakshas, Nāgas and Devatās and in one case a boldly carved soldier. There are several Jātakas also on the pillars with their labels inscribed on them. One scene illustrates the conception of Māyā Devī with the approach of the white elephant (Utkrānti). [Fig. 61]. There are also representations of the six Bodhi trees on the pillars of the six different Buddhas with their respective names inscribed on them.

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The scalloped or bevelled edges on the pillars, which seem to have been copied from the wooden originals add greatly to the decorative enrichment of the whole railing, are occupied with figures of fruits and flowers and human figures both male and female, standing on flower bosses with their hands either placed in adoration or reaching upwards for fruits. On some pillars the flowers bear elephants, winged horses, monkeys or peacocks, while parrots and squirrels hang from the branches and nibble the fruits.

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The ornamentation of the corner pillars of the entrance is quite different from that of the others. The pillars of the inner corners generally bear figures of Yakshas and Yakshiṇīs, Devatās and Nāgarājas, to whom was entrusted the guardianship of the four entrances; e. g. on the north gate Kubera Yaksha and Candrā Yakshī and on the south gate Nāgarāja Cakravāka and Chulakokā Devatā. [Fig. 62]. On the two outer corner pillars the faces are divided into three registers, separated by Buddhist railings and occupied with scenes or legends in the life of the Buddha, e.g. the historical scenes showing the visit of Ajātaśatru to Buddha, Nāgarāja Elāpatra kneeling at the foot of the Bodhi tree, visit of King Prasenajit of Kosala to the shrine of the Dharmachakra, worship of the Aśvattha and the Banyan trees of Gautama and Kāśyapa Buddhas respectively by wild elephants, etc. [Fig. 63].

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An important element in the architecture of the great railing is the cross-bars (sūchī) three of which were fitted between each pair of pillars. The total number of cross-bars in the railing was 228 of which about 80 were found. The cross-bar measures 1' 11¾" in length by 1' 10½" in breadth with a thickness of 6". The rails are beautified by circular bosses or medallions on each side, sculptured with various subjects, similar to those of the medallions of the pillars. There are few Jātakas amongst them but they present a variety of humorous scenes and flowered ornaments of sheer richness and beauty. [Fig. 64]. The rail-bars of the four entrances owing to the wider intercolumniation of the pillars, were considerably longer than those of the main railings, and their faces were occupied by oblong panels showing religious scenes such as worship of the Stūpa, the Bodhi tree and the Dharmachakra.

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PRADAKSHIṆAPATHA :—The Stūpa was surrounded by a path of circumambulation (Pradakshiṇapatha) 10' 4" wide which lay between the great railing and the Stūpa. The whole of this space was covered with a thick flooring of lime plaster, which has lasted well even to the present day. The outer edge of the floor was finished by a line of curved curb stones, cut exactly to the circumference of the inner circle of the railing; and the pillars were set against the curb stones which just touched the diameter of the lower half medallions. The foot of each pillar, which was quite rough, rested on a square block laid directly on the earth. The terraced floor (pratikaṇṭhukā) was continued alround the outside of the railing for a width of several feet.

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OUTER RAILING :—The excavations also brought to light the remains of a second stone railing of much smaller dimensions of which each pillar was 2' 1" in height with a breadth of 7" and a coping 7" in height, the total height of the outer railing being 3' 3". Only two pillars and no less than ten specimens of coping were found but there must have been about 240 of these smaller pillars and about 750 of cross-bars most of which have disappeared. This outer railing of which the pillars were also carved, was added at a much later date most probably during the Kuṣhāṇa period

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DETAILS OF SCULPTURE :—The subjects represented in the Bharhut sculpture include about twenty Jātaka scenes, half a dozen historical scenes, more than thirty statues in high relief of Yaksha and Yakshiṇīs, Devatās and Nāgarājas,—one half of which are inscribed with their names, and representations of animals and trees. On about half of the full medallions with other objects, there are boats, horse chariots and bullock carts besides several kinds of musical instruments, and a great variety of flags, standards and other symbols of royalty. About one half of the full medallions of the cross-bars and all of the half medallions of the pillars are filled with flowered ornaments of singular beauty and delicacy of design. The sculptures may be classified as follows :

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A. Superhuman Beings :
1. Yakshas
2. Devatās
3. Nāgas
4. Apsarasas

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B. Human Beings :
1. Royal persons
2. Religious persons.

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C. Animals.

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D. Trees and Fruits.

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E. Sculptured Scenes in bas-relief :
1. Jātaka stories (more than 20 in number)
2. Historical scenes (nearly six)
3. Miscellaneous scenes—Inscribed
4. Miscellaneous scenes—Uninscribed
5. Humorous scenes.

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F. Objects of Worship :
1. Stūpas
2. Wheels (Dharmachakra)
3. Bodhi-trees
4. Foot-prints (pādukā ; Buddha pāduka)
5. Triratna symbol.

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G. Decorative ornaments.

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H. Buildings.
1. Palaces. 2. Puṇyaśālā or religious houses. 3. Vajrāsana or Bodhi-maṇḍa 4. Pillars. 5. Hermitage for ascetics. 6. Dwelling houses. Besides these there are vehicles, furnitures, utensils and musical instruments.

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SUPERHUMAN BEINGS:—Yakshas—The religious significance and antiquity of the worship of the Yakshas have already been discussed under folk arts (pp. 114. 118). There is clear and overwhelming evidence that the cult of the four regions of space formed an important item in the religious beliefs of the people, the four regions being placed under the guardianship of one deity as Savitā on the west, east, north and south (*Savitā paśchātāt, Savitā purastāt, Savitottarātāt, Savitādharātāt*, RV. 10.36.14), or under different deities as Agni on the east, Indra on the south, Varuṇa on the west, Soma on the north, Viṣṇu in the centre and Bṛhaspati above (AV. 3.27.1-6; 12 3. 55-60). The followers of this cult were known as Diśāvratika or Diśāpokkhiya. According to the Bhagavatī Sūtra a devotee of this cult in Hastināpura worshipped Soma in the east, Yama in the south, Varuṇa in the west and Vaiśravaṇa in the north. Another adherent did the same at Vārāṇasī. This drew within its fold the cult of the four Mahārājika gods with which was associated the whole conception of the fourfold cosmos or *Dik-Svastika* in popular belief, which was given a concrete form in the architectural planning of the Stūpa and its railing. We find frequent reference to the Chātummahārājika gods in Buddhist literature presiding over the four directions of space and it is thus quite natural that the builders of the earliest Buddhist Stūpas have given the most conspicuous place to these four deities on the four gateways as follows:

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According to the Buddhist cosmogony the place of Dhṛtarāṣṭra and the Gandharvas occupies the east side of the Yugandhara rock, that of Virūḍhaka and the Kumbhāṇḍas the south, that of Virūpākṣa and the Nāgas the west, and that of Vaiśravaṇa and his Yakshas the north. These four guardians of the four quarters form as it were a *Rakṣā-Pañjara*, apotropaic hegemony entrusted to the care of all the popular deities classified as Yakshas, Gandharvas, Kumbhāṇḍas (ithyphallic dwarf) and Nāgas. This arrangement is perfectly preserved in the Sanchi Stūpa. Two of these were found by Cunningham in the Bharhut Stūpa also, viz. Kubera on the north (*Kupiro-yakho*) and Virūḍhaka on the south. On the north gateway the figures of Ajakālaka Yaksha (some bucolic deity) and Candrā Yakshī were found on the pillars associated with that of Kubera. On the eastern gateway was found the figure of Sudarśanā Yakshī and in the south gateway were found carved on the pillars in addition to Virūḍhaka Yaksha the figures of Gaṅgita Yaksha and Cakravāka Nāgarāja. On the western gateway were figures of Suchiloma Yaksha and Sirimā Devatā on one pillar and on a second the figure of Supāvasa Yaksha. Dhṛtarāṣṭra was the deity of the east side but pillar bearing his sculpture has disappeared. There is however a corner pillar bearing the figure of Sudarśanā Yakshī which should have belonged to the east way. We thus see that the Bharhut Stūpa on the basis of its labels presents a more extended scheme of the tutelary deities which were once common in folk belief and admitted in the conception of the Stūpa.

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2. DEVATĀS: The Devatā figures sculptured on the pillars are all female divinities, viz. Sirimā Devatā, Chulakokā Devatā and Mahākokā Devatā. Sirimā (Sans: Śrī-Mā) was the same as Śrī-Lakshmī, the ancient goddess of fertility and wealth for whom we have the famous Śrī-Sūkta (an apocryphal of the Ṛigveda). An important feature of her representation is the stiff pose of the splayed feet as found on the gold leaf figures of mother goddesses and on a number of other small figurines on the ring stones which belong to the worship of the Śrī-Chakra. It has also been suggested that Sirimā was the same goddess as Māyā or Maiā (Sans: Mātṛikā). She was once known as Māyā Devatā (Sundarakāṇḍa, 2.49) or simply as Devatā (Sundarakāṇḍa, 20.2; Sabha Parva also). At least three representations of the Goddess Śrī-Lakshmī standing and seated on a full blown lotus springing from a Pūrṇaghaṭa and bathed by elephants are dipicted at Bharhut. [Fig. 65].

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The word Chula was derived from Sanskrit Kshudra, meaning small in contrast to Mahā big and the two Kokā Devatās were elder and younger sister divinities. The word Kokā means a lizard, a ruddy goose, a wolf, and a frog. It appears that in association with the Mother Goddess the house lizard was more commonly depicted on the ring stones and the same meaning is implied here. The figure of Mahākokā was not available to Cunningham but was recently traced by Pt. B. M. Vyās as preserved in the palace of the ruler of Nagod.

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3. NĀGAS:—Similar to the Yaksha and Śrī Lakshmī Devatā cults the Nāgas also were accepted as an element in the religious form of the Stūpa. They are mentioned as the guardian deities (Rakshitā). Amongst the five Rakshā-Maṇḍalas of the Sudarśana City in Uttarakuru visited by Māndhātā there is one presided over by the Nāga chief emerging out of waters (Udaka-niśrita). At Bharhut the figure of Erāpata Nāgarāja is shown worshipping the Bodhi Tree with his family and is half submerged in water. Iconographically he is represented as a human being with a canopy of hoods similar to the Nāga figures of Kushāṇa and later arts. On a pillar, now in the Allahabad Museum in the central medallion is a Banyan Tree below which is the five hooded Muchulinda Nāgarāja, as shown by the epigraph, sheltering an altar and the footprints of the Buddha. Muchulinda is said to have protected the Buddha during a storm. The story is depicted at Sanchi, Amaravati and Nagarjunikonda Stūpas also. The Nāga King Chakravāka is carved on the corner pillar of the south gate.

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4. APSARASAS:—A fourth class of semi-divine beings shown in the sculpture is that of Apsarasas engaged in dance and music. Urvaśī and Śachī are mentioned in the Rigveda and several others in the Yajurveda accompanying the solar car in a festive dance. At Bharhut four of them are depicted, viz. Alambusā, Miśrakeśī, Sudarśanā and Subhadrā. The scene itself is labelled as Sādika sammadam turam devānām, where Sādika is the same as Saṭṭaka (a spring festival), sammada, performance of joy, turam as tūrya, play of instrumental music in the assembly of gods (devānām).

B. Human Beings

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1. ROYAL PERSONS :—King Prasenajit of Kosala is depicted as paying a visit to the Buddha. He is seated in his chariot and arrives at the head of a procession. In the sculpture we find the representation of the famous Puṇyaśālā which Prasenajit had erected in the city of Śrāvastī for the use of the Buddha. It is a two-storied building the lower part of which is an open-pillared hall for the establishment of the Buddhist Dharmachakra; the upper storey being the Puṇyaśālā itself furnished with two gateways and a railing.

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Ajātaśatru is represented as visiting the Buddha and coming seated on an elephant at the head of a long procession. The king dismounts from the elephant and pays homage with folded hands to the throne of the Buddha. The scene is labelled as Ajātasattu Bhagavato Vamdate.

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2. RELIGIOUS PERSONS :—The sculptures include figures of ascetics (parivrājaka) wearing matted locks and bark garments; fire altars point out that the ascetics were fire worshippers. One of them labelled dīrghatapasī shows a great Vedic teacher with his pupils receiving instruction in Vedic recitation. These figures show that the sculptors were quite competent to depict religious mendicants in their traditional garb and atmosphere of an Āśrama and if the artists had been asked to portray the Buddha in a human form they could have easily done so.

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C. ANIMALS :—Two kinds of animals, natural and fabulous, are shown. The motif of the fabulous animals like the winged lion, winged horse, griffin, was quite ancient in Indian literature. In Bharhut we find a fish-tailed elephant (jalebha or jala-hasti) and crocodile with a fish tail as well as a winged horse (balāhaka-aśva). We find fourteen quadrupeds, six kinds of birds, snake, crocodile, tortoise, lizard and frog. The quadrupeds include the lion, elephant, horse, rhinoseros, wild goat, bull, deer, buck, wolf, monkey, cat, dog, sheep, hare and a squirrel. The birds comprise the cock, parrot, peacock, goose, wild duck and quail. The representation of all these animals is correct and spirited. The artists have been most successful in the treatment of monkeys and elephants whose poses and attitudes are delineated with a perfect natural charm.

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In this connection Bharhut sculptures are unique in depicting humorous scenes showing actions of monkeys in contact with men and elephants. A scene inside a circular medallion shows a giant *Yakṣa* as the principal figure in the composition seated on a low backed chair and wearing a huge turban and ornaments. With the help of a gigantic forceps pulled by an elephant the monkeys plucked the hair from inside the nostrils of the Mahā-Yakṣa. Two other scenes represent the capture of a wild elephant by monkeys who lead him along in a triumphant procession. Another scene shows a huge sea-monster (*Mahātimingala*) with widely opened mouth in the act of swallowing a boat with its crew of three men. The picture of the boat with its zigzag cut long planks, dowel joints, the oars and rudder is interesting.

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OBJECTS OF WORSHIP :—At Bharhut there is no trace of image worship but we find veneration of the Stūpa, Dharmachakra, Bodhi Vṛiksha, Charaṇa Pādukā, Buddha's hair and turban and the Triratna symbols. According to Buddhist tradition Stūpas were of three kinds : *Śarīrika*, i. e. bodily relic of the Buddha, e.g. bones, ashes, pairings of hair and nails ;

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2. UDDEŚIKA, i. e. Stūpas erected for the sake of the Buddha.

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3. PĀRIBHOGIKA, i. e. Stūpas over the articles of Buddha's personal use ; e. g. Bodhi-Maṇḍa or Buddha's seat, Bhikshā-Pātra or his turban (*chūḍa*) for which a festival was celebrated in the Sudharmā-deva-sabhā.

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JĀTAKA SCENES :—The Jātaka is a birth story in the previous life of the Buddha. These were extremely popular and included a number of folk tales. Later on under Mahāyānic inspiration some of them were elaborated as *Avadāna* stories of great length. The Jātakas are represented at Bharhut, Sanchi, Mathura, Gandhara and Amaravati. The following Jātakas have been identified at Bharhut :

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1. Miga Jātaka ; 2. Nāga Jātaka ; 3. Yavamajakiya Jātaka ; 4. Muggapakaya Jātaka ; 5. Laṭuvā Jātaka ; 6. Chhadantiya Jātaka ; 7. Isisiṅgiya Jātaka ; 8. Yambumane Avayesi Jātaka ; 9. Kuruṅgamiga Jātaka ; 10. Haṁsa Jātaka ; 11. Kiṁnara Jātaka; 12. Asadṛisa Jātaka ; 13. Dasaratha Jātaka ; 14. Isimiga Jātaka ; 15. Uda Jātaka ; 16. Sechchha Jātaka ; 17. Sujātogahuto Jātaka ; 18. Biḍāla-Kukkuṭa Jātaka ; 19. Magadeviya Jātaka ; 20. Bhisa Haraniya Jātaka ; 21. Vidurapaṇḍita Jātaka ; 22. Gaja-sasa Jātaka ; 23. Vessantara Jātaka.

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The architectural forms and religious contents of the Bharhut Stūpa focus attention on the origins and meanings behind this earliest monument of its kind. On the architecural side as explained above, the Stūpa was a complete symbol of the ancient Vedic conception of the cosmos in its fourfold manifestation, as accepted in its entirety by the traditional religious beliefs of the people. As such the Stūpa was a substitute of the sacrificial Yūpa in all its details. This correspondence has been set forth above (pp. 120-22). In the Vedic scheme the topmost portion of the Yūpa was the seat of the Gods which corresponds to the *harmikā* on the truncated flat top of the Stūpa, in the centre of which was raised a post named Yūpa-yashṭi mentioned even in such a late text as the Divyāvadāna. The three parasols on this staff correspond to the three heavens of Vedic conception. Similarly the three *vedikās* or railings round the three *medhis* correspond to the three worlds(*lokas*). The four entrances in the four cardinal points mark the *svastika* pattern of creation which were accepted as early as the Ṛgveda. They were later on elaborated in the Purāṇic conception of *Sumeru* on the one hand and of the Anavapata Lake and the Simeru Mountain of the Buddhists on the other. The ideal Dharma City of the Chakravartī Sovereign corresponds exactly to these fourfold conceptions of the four gateways in the four directions. This fourfold division became linked with the *Diśāvrata* cult on the one hand and the Yaksha, Nāga, Kumbhāṇḍa and Gandharva divinities on the other. The *Vedikā* was a familiar structure round the fire altar in the Vedic times and formed an essential element of construction of the sacrificial pavilion. Its original wooden form was transferred to the stone medium in the case of the monumental Stūpas. Thus all the architectural elements in the making of the Stūpa were borrowed from earlier times and are fully exemplified in the case of the Bharhut Stūpa. In the words of the Buddha himself the Stūpa monument was of hoary antiquity and there may be no doubt that its architectural form was the outcome of continuous evolution from primitive mounds of earth with a wooden log inserted in the centre to complex structures as developed at Bharhut.

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The religious formation of the Stūpa was a much more complex affair for which complete evidence is available in the Bharhut sculptures. Here we find a number of strands forming an organic whole which stands out as the complete symbol of the religious faith of a whole community integrated by common beliers traditionally handed down from the ancient-most times and accepted in simple faith A list of these religious cults as given in Jaina and Buddhist literature includes the following :—Rukkha maha, Giri maha Nadī maha, Sāgara maha, Chaitya maha, Thūpa maha, Suruja maha, Chanda maha, Yakkha maha, Nāga maha, Bhūta maha, Vishṇu maha, Skanda maha, Brahma maha, Dhanur maha, Diśā maha, Koṭṭakiriyā maha and many other names under the title of Deva-vratas, etc.

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It is clear that the religious world sculptured at Bharhut partakes of these cults of deities in an atmosphere of joy and freedom. As part of the Vriksha maha or tree-worship, we have a series of panels showing worship of the following Bodhi trees of the six Buddhas : 1. Aśvattha or Pipal, (*ficus religiosa*), known as the Bodhi Tree of Gautama Buddha. The Bodhi Tree is worshipped by royal persons, common citizens, elephants, Nāgas, etc. It is placed in a railing and at times the Bharhut sculptor has conceived its shrine (Bodhighara) as a building of great beauty with an open pavilion below and a domed top above with railings in both storeys.

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2. Banyan Tree (ficus indica), Bodhi Tree of Kāśyada Buddha; in several scenes it is depicted in a charming manner specially where a group of elepahnts are paying homage to this Tree, the scene being labelled as Bahu Hatthiko Nigode, i. e. the Nyagrodha tree of a herd of elephants.

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3. Udumbara (ficus glomerata), Bodhi Tree of the Buddha Kanakamuni.

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4. Pāṭali (bignonia suaveolens), Bodhi Tree of the Buddha Vipassin, whose name is inscribed above the medallion. The tree is depicted in full flowering state.

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5. Śāla Tree (shorea robusta), Bodhi Tree of the Buddha Viśvabhū.

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6. Śirīṣa (acacia sirisa), Bodhi Tree of the Buddha Krakuchanda. All these trees are fortunately inscribed with the names of their respective Buddhas. These constituted an essential feature in the ancient cult of tree worship as adapted to the needs of Buddhism.

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We also find here a side feature in the form of garden sports known as Prāchām Krīḍā or Udyāna Krīḍā in which women are shown as standing under the various flowering trees, especially Śāla and Aśoka and enjoying such sports as Śala-bhañjikā, Aśoka-puṣpa-prachāyikā. These are depicted at Bharhut and continued in the railings of later times.

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The Yaksha and Nāga cults in the repertoire of the Bharhut have a preponderating share. These are tutelary divinities which had a stronghold on the minds of the people, probably greater than that of Buddhism itself. The worship of the Nāgas and of the Yakshas was almost universal and has come down to our own modern times. The Stūpa of Bharhut, and for the matter of that all subsequent Stūpas, stand witness as to in what high esteem these two cults were held by the people. In the Maha list we have one called Vaiśravaṇa-maha, i. e. worship of the God Kubera and we have evidence of it in the important statue of Kupiro-Yakho. Similarly the worship of other godlings was associated with these two cults of Yakshas and Nāgas whose names have been found on their sculptures as pointed out above. There were many such deities whose names at Bharhut we know only by the accidental labels. The Gandharvas and the Apsarasas who go together both in Brāhmanical and Buddhist mythology formed an important section of the cult of tutelary deities and have found full acceptance at Bharhut in the numerous scenes of music and dance without which the sculputures will loose much of their gaiety. The authors of the religious stone epic to be sculptured on the Stūpa were so much in love with and under the influence of the religion of the common people, rather than of Buddhism that an open admission of a large number of these common deities have become preserved. One such instance is the figure of Sirimā Devatā. In a list of the followers of different obscure religious cults we find the devotees of Śrī-Devatā, i. e. Goddess Śrī, who was the same as Śrī-Lakshmī, the ancientmost Mother Goddess referred to in the Vedas and conceived of as the consort of Nārāyaṇa. She was the daughter of the ocean showing her original connection with the Sāgara-maha and was accepted as the Goddess of Fertility and Abundance. In Bharhut figures she is depicted as being sprinkled over by two elephants and standing on a full blown lotus rising from a Pūrṇaghaṭa. This is invested with great meaning for the Full Vase with blooming lotus flowers and buds was accepted as a vivid symbol of the cosmos (bhū-padma-kośa) and the individual. In the Atharva we find mention of the Pūrṇa-kumbha-Nārī motif, the Full Vase Woman which seems to have taken the form of Śrī-Lakshmī standing on the Auspicious Jar and vitalising it with her immortal spirit. The Sirimā cult was accepted by the Buddhists, Jainas and the Hindus and was universal in each household, the Goddess being specially worshipped on the Dīpāvalī night. In Buddhist art she was accepted as the consort of Kubera side by side with Bhadrā. We find her depicted not only at Bharhut but also at Sanchī, Bodhagaya and in the Jaina caves at Udaigiri.

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The worship of the sacred objects associated with the Buddha was a development of the religious Maha cults as shown by an actual label in which the Buddha's turban and hair are worshipped as Chūḍāmaha. The cult of the Dharmachakra Pillar under the name of Skambha or Stambha was known in the Vedic literature where the cosmic pillar, axis mundi, is described in the Skambha Sūktas (AV. 10. 7 & 8). It was also a popular cult in which the pillar topped by an animal like elephant, lion or bull or a wheel is being circumambulated by worshippers, We find an example of the same at Bharhut. [Figure: Fig. 66]. We find it repeated at Mathurā also. The worship of the Chakra or Wheel was a traditional cult which originally was associated with Viṣṇu (RV. 1.155.6) but later on also became the principal Buddhist symbol. At Bharhut we find several charming scenes of the Chakra worship with the label: Bhagavato Dhammachakam. In this class also may be placed the cults of Foot-prints (pādukā) and Enlightenment Seat (Bodhi-maṇḍa); both of which as special Maha festivals derived from earlier origins coming under the influence of Buddhism.

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The association of a pillar with a religious shrine was an ancient feature. The pillar was identified with Brahman itself against a cosmic background. It was installed in every Yajña as Yūpa or sacrificial pillar. The idea of the Yajña-Yūpa was transferred to the religious shrine as Prāsāda-stambha or Deva-stambha erected in front of temples. It was also associated with the funeral ground and became known as Śmaśāna-Yūpa or Chaitya-Yūpa, as seen in the Lauriā Nandangarh Mound. Thus a universal cult of *Stambha* worship (*Stambha-maha*) glorified the Pillar as a deity. This was a broadbased pantheon in which the pillar was topped by a wheel (*Chakra-stambha*) or by a lion (*Siṃha-stambha*) or by a Garuḍa (*Garuḍa-stambha*) or by the foliage and fruits of a palm tree (*Tāla-stambha*) or by a bull (*Vṛisha-stambha*). The Chakra-topped Pillar of Aśoka was a *Dharma-Stambha*. The popular cult of *Stambha*, *Skambha*, *Yaṣṭi*, *Lakuṭa*, *Dhvaja* and *Sthūṇā* received open admittance in the religious contents of a monumental Stūpa as seen at Bharhut, Sanchi, Mathura and Amaravati.

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These ancient symbols appear singly or in combination; e.g. the pillar with the wheel, the pillar with the lion, the Pūrṇa-kumbha with the Auspicious Woman or the Pillar with the Pūrṇa-ghaṭa. The representation of Śrī-Lakṣmī standing on the mouth of the Full-Jar is depicted at Bharhut in its full glory. Śrī-Lakṣmī is the Eternal Woman of auspicious mien, associated with an over-flowing pitcher. It was a motif of the Woman and the Full Vase which had continued through the ages and was depicted at Bharhut (*Pūrṇaṃ nārī prabhara kumbhametam*, AV. 3. 12. 8). The makers of the Stūpa symbolism tackled with the problem of depicting the Pillar, Full Vase, Mahā-Chakra, the Four Great Animals and the Eternal Woman or the Goddess and gave to each one of them either singly or in combined form a place in the decoration of the Stūpa. We find clear evidence of this in the Bharhut Stūpa. The people deciphered in the alphabet of the symbols the language which was near to their heart and well understood by them.

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In this connection the cult of the Four Great Animals found a gushing admittance in the religious concept of the Stūpa. The Niddeśa referes to them as *Hasti-vrata*, *Aśva-vrata*, *Go-vrata*, *Suparṇa-vrata* amongst others and the Bharhut Stūpa shows these animals freely sculptured in a religious atmosphere. In one scene the deer and lions join in a Chaitya festival and in another the herd of elephants offers homage to the Banyan tree. These are not ordinary denizens of the forest but typical of creatures on the pilgrim's path of spiritual progress who had claims to the rank of a Bodhisattva. As deities presiding over particular *Vratas* or special cults, their religious significance in the Stūpa was an established fact.

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The presence of the *Vṛiṣabha-machchha* [Fig. 67 a], *Śiṃśumāra-śiraḥ* [Fig. 67 b], lotus rizome issuing from the mouth of a pot bellied Yakṣa [Fig. 67 c] or from his navel [Fig. 67 d] or disposed round a female figure [Fig. 67 e] or a series of full-blown lotuses—these represent marine motifs and water symbology which were certainly associated with the religious cults and formed an essential part of the assemblage of Stūpa symbolism. Some of these motifs are found depicted on ancient ring-stones; e. g. band of moving elephants [Fig. 67 f] or fabulous winged lions [Fig 67 g].

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The lotus flowers with buds and leaves and creepers play an important part in the decoration of a Stūpa. A series of lotus medallions are depicted on the upright posts and cross-bars and the copings, owing to which the railing was given the name of *Padmavara-Vedikā*; but the idea behind the decoration was that of a mammoth garland of a thousand lotus flowers named *kiñjalkinī* with which the whole body of the Stūpa and of its railing was decorated as a mark of worship. This took the form of a grand ceremonious decoration in which much labour and money was spent which formed a real item in the ceremony of Stūpa worship and also in the worship of temples and images in later times.

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One of the most important features of Stūpa decoration at Bharhut is the presence of meandering creepers showing ornaments and textiles and other objects of food and drink from the Kalpa-Vṛiksha trees or creepers in the Uttarakuru country. The true significance of this motif in the religious beliefs of her people has not yet been fully realised but the minds of the Bharhut masters were full with its significance for which they have accorded to it such a welcome.

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Actually it represented the Kalpa-latā, the Wish-fulfilling Creeper of heavenly origin whose tendrils fulfil all desires by producing pairs of Man and Woman (*mithuna*), ornaments shown hanging from the boughs like earrings, necklaces, girdles, anklets, etc. which are represented in several shapes, costly textiles like scarves and *sārīs*, wines bottled in jars of jack-fruit form, technically known as *Panasa* and also mango shaped pendent containers for the lac-dye to paint the feet of young ladies. [Fig. 68].

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The latter two fruits have been specially selected because the strong odour of the ripe jack fruit resembles that of the wine and the juice of the mango fruit is like the *lakshā-rāga*. The motif of the Kalpavṛiksha or the Kalpa-latā belongs to the region of the Uttarakuru as found in the description given in the Mahāvāṇija Jātaka (493, 352).

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A group of merchants who had set out in search of a treasure came to a mighty Banyan tree with cove and pleasant shade, from its eastward branch, pure and clear water trickled for them; they washed and drank their fill of it. One of the branches on the south gave them all things to eat :

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"Both rice and meat out in a stream it brings,

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Thick porridge ginger lentls soup and many other things”. From the western branch :

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“Out came a bevy of fair girls all pranked in brave array,
And O, the robes of many hues ; jewels and rings in plenty !
Each merchant had a pretty maid, each of the five and twenty.”

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From the northern branch likewise :

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“…out came a stream of gold,
Silver in handfuls, precious rings, and jewels manifold.
And roles of fine Benares cloth and blankets thick and thin,
The merchants then to roll them up in bundles did begin”.

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The following Pālī gāthā sums up the virtues of this auspicious tree :

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“Vāridā purimā sākhā annapānacheha dakkhiṇa
Nāridā pachchhimā sākhā sabbakāme cha uttarā.”

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(Fausboell, Jāt. IV 362)

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This flowery description of this idyllic land of Uttarakuru had been received from great antiquity, and is reinforced by the literary tradition recorded in the epic literature and Purāṇas. For example, in the Rāmāyaṇa, Sugrīva directs the monkey chiefs to go in quest of Sītā in the northern direction. There at the end of the earth they would find the land of the Uttarakurus. “Flowers of gold as resplendent as fire are seen there in eternal bloom imbued with divine fragrance. The beautiful trees produce garments of various kinds and costly gems which are pleasant for men and women to use in all seasons ; beds with beautiful coverlets and pleasing garlands, costly drinks and food of many descriptions and to crown this all, maidens endowed with beauty, virtue and youth”.¹

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¹ jātarūpamayaiśchāpi hutāśanasamaprabhāḥ / nityapushpaphalāstatra nagāḥ patrarathākulāḥ // 43 // divyagandharasaspṛśāḥ sarvān kāmān sravanti cha/nānākārāṇi vāsāṃsi phalantyanye nagottamāḥ //44// muktāvaidūryachitrāṇi bhūṣaṇāni tathaiva cha / sastriṇāṃ yanyarūpāṇi puruṣāṇāṃ tathaiva cha//45// sarvartusukhasevyāni phalantyanye nagottamāḥ / mahārhamanichitrāṇi phalantyanye nagottamāḥ//46// śayanāni prasūyante chitrāstaraṇavanti cha / maṇikāntāni mālyāni phalantyatrāpare drumāḥ //47// pānāni cha mahārhāṇi bhakṣyāṇi vividhāni cha/ striyaścha guṇasampannā rūpayauvanalakṣitāḥ//48// Kishkindhakāṇḍa, ch. 43.

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In the Mahābhārata the Elysian land of Uttarakuru with all kinds of plenty in fruits and flowers and with trees producing all objects of desire (sarvakāma-phalāḥ vrikṣāḥ) is conceived in the northern direction adjacent to Meru. There as fruits from trees are produced garments, ornaments and youthful pairs of men and women (mithunāni) who draw sustenance from the nectar-like milk of the milky trees and are perfectly matched to each other in beauty, dress and appearance. The human beings in that region are happy and contented like the gods being free from all sorrows and ailments and they do not suffer the pangs of separation.¹

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It appears that this description of Uttarakuru was an inherent part of the Bhuvanakośa as we find it repeated in a similar context in the Vāyupurāṇa (chap. 45, verses 11-50). The description in the Purāṇa, besides recording what the Epic contains, is much more elaborate, and we find there references to streams of Madhu and Maireya, of butter and curds, to mountains of delicious food, to groves furnished with beds, seats, cosmetics, garlands, etc., and to a great many other items of pleasure. In that region there is sweet music of every description rising from lute, flute and tabors, and hundreds and thousands of Kalpavṛikshas produce fine and beautiful garments agreeable to wear.

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The above tradition holds the key to many a scene on the gateways and railings of the great Stūpas of Bharhut and Sanchi. For example, we find at Sanchi carved on the western face of the western pillar of the south gateway youthful couples engaged in music and pleasure surrounded by birds and animals and seated under the shade of boughs overladen with costly ornaments of many kinds. On the entrance to the cave at Bhājā the visit of king Māndhātā to Uttarakuru is illustrated with great elaboration including the garden of the Kalpavṛiksha trees and of the Mithuna couples enjoying dance and music. One of the trees in the scene is in the style of a true Kalpavṛiksha laden with many ornaments hanging from its branches. Another shows girls coming out of its boughs.

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On the Bharhut Stūpa the Kalpavṛiksha is a recurrent theme of decoration as illustrated by Cunningham on plates XXXIX-XLVIII. These show various ornaments like ear-pendents of the prākāra vapra-kuṇḍala type [Fig. 69 a], earrings of Triratna design [Fig. 69 b], collars, necklaces, girdles, wristlets, spiral finger-rings, spiral anklets [Fig. 69 c]. A beautiful armlet with triple rosettes above and a row of small pendent

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1. uttarāḥ kuravo rājan puṇyāḥ siddhanishevitāḥ // 2 //
tatra vṛikshā madhuphalā nityapushpaphalopamāḥ /
pushpāṇi cha sugandhāni rasavanti phalāni cha // 3 //
sarvakāmaphalāstatra kechidvṛikshā janadhipa /
apare kshīriṇo nāma vṛikshāstatra naradhipa // 4 //
ye ksharanti sadākshīraṁ shadrasaṁ chāmṛitopamam /
vastrāṇi cha prasūyante phaleśvābharaṇāni cha // 5 //
mithunāni cha jāyante striyaścāpsarasopamāḥ /
teṣāṁ tu kshīriṇāṁ kshīraṁ pibantyamṛitasannibham // 8 //
mithunaṁ jāyate kāle samaṁ tachcha pravartate /
tulyarūpaguṇopetaṁ samaveśaṁ tathaiva cha // 9 // Bhīshmaparva, 7. 2-11.

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bells below is a high watermark of Bharhut decorative art. Amongst fabrics we have specimens of scarves bearing floral designs and also female *sārīs*. In several of the meandering creepers of the Kalpalatā motif jack fruits and mango fruits are depicted, the former as containers of wine (*madhu*) and the latter of lac dye for painting the feet of ladies (*lākṣārāga*) as referred to by Kālidāsa. Kālidāsa has given a graphic picture of the wishfulfilling trees growing in the capital of the Yaksha king:

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*Vāsaścitraṁ madhu nayanayorvibhramā deśadakṣaṁ puṣpodbhedaṁ*
*saha kisalayairbhūṣaṇānāṁ vikalpān |*
*Lākṣārāgaṁ caraṇakamalanyāsayogyaṁ cha yasyāmekaḥ sūte*
*sakalamabalāmaṇḍanaṁ kalpavṛkṣaḥ || Meghadūta, 2 / 11.*

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The Kalpavṛkṣa alone provides all the dainties and fineries for the fair women of Alakā, coloured clothes for the body, intoxicating drinks for exciting glances of the eyes, and flowers for decorating the hair and ornaments of various designs and lac paint for the feet. The same tradition is also recorded by Bāṇa mentioning bunches of ornaments shooting forth from Wish-fulfilling creepers:

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*“Pariṣphuradābharaṇasamūheneva kalpalatānivahena,*
(Kādambarī, Vaidya edition, p. 186).

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The gift of such divine ornaments was considered as the highest blessing conferred on a human being hinted at by Kālidāsa :—

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*“Kśaumaṁ kenachidindupāṇḍutaruṇā māṅgalyamāviṣkṛtam”*
(*Śākuntalam*, aṅka 4)

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The four kinds of female decorations comprised clothes, ornaments, flowery garlands and unguents, all of which were bestowed on them by heavenly trees. The idyllic land of Uttarakuru did not remain a dream but its symbolic significance extended to every home and caught popular imagination as a motif both in literature and art from earliest times right up to the classical period. The Kalpavṛkṣa and Kalpalatā were motifs of vegetable kingdom which in actual life represented the loving male and female relatives, father, mother, brother and husband. For example, the father typified the branch that gave the ornaments; the mother the bough offering fabrics; the brother the tendril yielding unguents; the female companions the off-shoots bestowing the lac dye for painting the feet; and the husband the youthful sappling bent low to offer jugs of hilarious wine. The home or the land of Uttarakuru or the Kalpavṛkṣa is the same producing all these auspicious blessings including the *Mithuna*, Man and Woman, the most auspicious symbol of them all. This, the land of Uttarakuru which was a heavenly region became mirrored as it were, in every home; that which was an idea in heaven became concrete and manifest for the life of the individual as Home or the Family (grihastha). This had been from the remote antiquity. The Indian ideal of life which no pessimistic or negative philosophy could eradicate, and naturally, therefore, the most important decorative motif on the railings and gateways of the great Stūpas of Bharhut and Sanchi is the representation of the Elysium, named Uttarakuru, a land of complete happiness with all the wealth of its Wish-fulfilling trees and creepers. It was a place of the highest bliss which was the same as the Vedic Nāka and Buddhist Sukhāvatī, both implying a heaven completely free from sorrow and wants. It was a corollary of the positive view of life almost universally held in India that both in literature and art the Kalpavriksha motifs stand so preeminent with its deep symbolical significance. It was common to the Buddhists, the Jainas and the Bhāgavatas. In Jaina literature we read of ten kinds of Kalpavrikshas—madyāṅgavriksha, turyāṅgavriksha, bhūshaṇāṅgavriksha, jyotivriksha (self-luminous tree), grihavriksha, bhājanaṅgavriksha (for utensils), dīpāṅjavriksha (producing different lights), vastrāṅgavriksha, bhojanāṅgavriksha, mālaṅga vriksha.¹

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