Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c12.s3: Sanchi Stūpas

Indian Art: A History of Indian Art from the Earliest Times up to the Third Century A.D. c12.s3

Language: English

Sanchi Stūpas

c12.s3.1

Sanchi is only five and a half miles from Vidiśā (modern, Bhelsā) on the confluence of the rivers Vidiśā (modern, Bes) and the Vetravatī (modern, Betwā). It was the capital of Eastern Malwa or the Daśāraṇa country and the most important point on the great highway leading from Mathura to Pratisṭhāna on the Godavari. Like other great Buddhist centres springing up on the outskirts of important cities, the Saṅghārāma of Sanchi grew up on the outskirts of Vidiśā with magnificent monuments—Stūpas, temples, monasteries and memorial pillars. The world famed monuments of Sanchi are the most precious and perfect of all that Buddhism has bequeathed to posterity. The monuments flourished for twelve hundred years beginning from the reign of Aśoka. According to the Mahāvaṃsa when Aśoka was appointed governor of Ujjayinī he halted for some time at Vidiśā and married Devī, daughter of a rich merchant, who became the mother of Mahendra and Saṅgamitrā. Here was a hill named Mahā-Chetiya-giri which seems to have derived its name from the great Stūpa built on it. The hill is less than three hundred feet in height and of whale-back shape. There is a group of about sixty Stūpas known as Bhilsa Topes as follows:

c12.s3.2

At Sonari there are eight Stūpas; at Satadhārā five; at Andher three; at Bhojpur thirty-seven and at Sanchi about seven.

c12.s3.3

The most important ones are the Stūpas I, II and III at Sanchi where relics of Moggalayana and Sāriputta are preserved in Stūpa No. III. Stūpas I and III are on the main terrace and Stūpa II on the western side of the hill. There are also ancient foundations of two apsidal temples, Temple 18 near the main Stūpa to the south of it and Temple 40 with the foundations of an apsidal hall or *Maṇḍapa* at a distance in the southern area. There are five principal monasteries but built in the Gupta and medieval periods.

c12.s3.4

Stūpa I, the Mahā-Chetiya has four Gateways with the Aśokan pillar in front of the South Gateway. Stūpa II has no Gateway. Stūpa III has one Gateway.

c12.s3.5

The building activity at Sanchi began during the time of Aśoka who raised a brick-built Stūpa. The five gateways and the railings were added during the early Āndhra period about the second half of the first century B. C. There is an inscription on the south gateway top architrave facing the Stūpa, stating it to be the gift of Ananda, foreman of the artisans (*āveśin*) of King Sirī Sātakarṇi, ruler of the Andhra dynasty (Inscription No. 398, Marshall, *Monuments of Sanchi*, 1.342). During the reign of the Kuṣāṇa kings little of importance was added excepting a statue of the Buddha in red sandstone during the time of Vāsishka. In the Gupta period Sanchi once more emerged into importance, as shown by an inscription on its railing referring to the gift of a village for the Ārya Saṅgha, that is the community of the Buddhist monks residing at Kākanādaboṭa, the new name of the ancient Mahā-Chetiyagiri.¹

c12.s3.6

¹ [Text of the note is not visible on the page]

c12.s3.7

1. The monuments at Sanchi may be classified as follows according to their chronology:
(i) *Aśokan Period (274-232 B. C.)*
(a) Brick-built core of the Great Stūpa (i. e. Stūpa No. 1) 250 B. C. (16' x 10' x 3').
(b) The stone umbrella or the *harmikā* of polished Chunār sandstone.
(c) Monolithic lion-pillar, near the south gateway (*toraṇa*) of the Great Stūpa.
(d) Foundations of the apsidal hall (building No 40).
(ii) *Śuṅga Period (185 B. C. -70 B. C.)*
(a) Enlargement of the Great Stūpa (No. I)
(b) Stone covering (*śilachchhādana*) to twice its original size.
(c) Larger *chhatra*, *harmikā* and stone shaft.
(d) Ground railing.
(e) The upper terrace, 14' high from the ground and 6' in width to serve as an upper procession path.
(f) Stone pavement covering the hill top.
(g) Stūpa II—ground railing (four balustrades on ground), berm, stairway, *harmikā*, relic caskets.
(h) Stūpa III—Body and balustrades of the stairway, berm, *harmikā*, relic bones.
(i) Temple 18—Lowest floor, pillared *maṇḍapa* on the ruins of the apsidal hall.
(iii) *Āndhra Period (220 B. C.—150 A. D.)*
(a) Great Stūpa (No. 1), four gateways (25 B.C.) and extensions of the ground balustrade.
(b) Stūpa III—Ground balustrade and single gateway.
(c) Temple 18—Third floor counting from the top.
(iv) *Gupta Period (4th-5th century A. D.)* Stūpa I. Four shrines in processional path. Temple 18. Second floor. Temple 31. Plinth and pedestal beneath lotus throne of image; two pillars. Nāgi statue. Monasteries 36, 46 and 47.

c12.s3.8

THE GREAT STŪPA : The original brick Stūpa built by Aśoka was retained in tact and encased later by a large stone envelope (*śilā-āchchhadana*) during the Śuṅga period. The new structure was about twice the original Mauryan Stūpa covering an area 120' in diameter, with a total height of 54' which is the height at present. Around the original Stūpa was at first added a rubble of stone and bricks until the whole was provided with a casing of roughly dressed stones (*śileṣṭaka*) laid in even courses but without any binding cement. This offers the first instance of true stone masonry used for constructional purposes in any old Indian building. The stone facing was finished with a coat of concrete 4" thick having a fine plaster over it which is still preserved in many places. Possibly the plastered surface was finished with colours and gilding.

c12.s3.9

The Mahā-Chetiya or the Great Stūpa No. I, is a hemi-spherical dome truncated at the top. It is surrounded at its 16' height by a lofty terrace (*medhi*) which served as the upper *pradakṣiṇāpatha* girdled by a smaller railing. This high terrace was approached by a double flight of steps (*sopāna*) built on its south side. The lofty plinth around the base of the enlarged dome has an average height of 15' 6" with an average projection of 5' 9". Each *Sopāna* contains 25 steps with treads about 17" broad and with risers about 7" in height.

c12.s3.10

On the ground level there is a second processional path which is paved with stone and encircles the Stūpa. Round this is the Great Railing, a circular structure of plain solid design marked by largeness of proportions and austerity of treatment. It is 11' high and in the grandeur of its construction bears resemblance with the Stone-Henge of England. The upright pillars (*stambha*), rail bars (*sūchī*) and coping stones (*uṣṇīṣa*) are all unrelieved by carving of any kind, and in this respect they are quite unlike the *vedikā* at Bharhut which is profusely sculptured. Each of the upright pillars is 9' high from the ground and placed at an interval of 2' between each. Connecting these upright posts are three cross-bars, each 2' wide and separated only by a narrow space of 3¼" ; on the top of the pillars was placed an immense coping stone round on the upper side (*maṇḍala-uṣṇīṣa*) which reproduces the method of construction employed in wooden originals, especially the joints of the railings and the tenons of the

c12.s3.11

(v) Medieval Period (7th-9th centuries A. D.).
(i) Facing of Stūpa 6.
(ii) Temple 18. Stone pillars and walls ; terracotta tablets.
(iii) Temple 31. Reconstructed walls, pillars, lotus throne and image.
(iv) Building 40. Shrine and portion on east side of *maṇḍapa*, plinth.
(v) Temple 45. Monasteries 45 and 47--Additions in upper stratum.
(vi) Late Medieval Period (10th-11th centuries A. D.). Some additions were made to temple 18 and monasteries 40 and 47. In temple 45 existing shrine and statue in the *Garbhagriha* and some other accessory addition.

c12.s3.12

Fig. 75 w

c12.s3.13

Fig. 75 x

c12.s3.14

Fig. 75

c12.s3.15

Fig. 76

c12.s3.16

Fig. 81

c12.s3.17

Fig. 75 y

c12.s3.18

Fig. 80 x

c12.s3.19

c12.s3.20

c12.s3.21

iii

c12.s3.22

uprights were more appropriate to the work of carpenters. The triple cross-bars and the lenticular sections into which they were inserted were obviously derived from the bamboo and wooden rails of the village enclosures. [Fig. 55].

c12.s3.23

A very impressive phenomenon is the association of the whole community of lay worshippers in the construction of the railing and the gateways as shown by the small donative inscriptions engraved on them. Dr. Bühler published a collection of 378 inscriptions from this balustrade of Stūpa I and 78 from Stūpa II whereas N. G. Majumdar has given a total of 827 dedicatory epigraphs from Stūpas I, II and III. An important inscription on the east gateway of Stūpa I dated Gupta era 93 (=412-413 A.D.) records the conquest of Eastern Malwa by Chandragupta II.

c12.s3.24

GATEWAYS: The crowning glory of the Great Stūpa are its richly carved gateways. The first to be put up was the south gateway followed by the northern gateway which is the best preserved and retains most of its original features and ornamental figures as they may have appeared on the day of their first construction. The eastern and the western *toraṇas* were added later in succession. All of them were of similar design and 34' in height. Each gateway was composed of two square pillars surmounted by capitals, which in turn supported a superstructure of three architraves with voluted ends decorated beautifully by spirals. The architraves were separated from one another by four square blocks set in pairs above the capitals of the square pillars. Between each pair of square blocks were three short uprights, the open spaces between them being occupied by figures of horse- and elephant-riders to be seen from both sides The capitals are adorned with standing dwarfs or elephants or with the fore-fronts of lions set back to back. The most pleasing feature of these gateways are the female figures or caryatids standing under the dense foliage of trees and occupying the outer spaces between the lowermost architrave and the spring of the capital. In this festoon posture they are known as *toraṇa-śāla-bhañjikā* in Sanskrit literature, and it is usual for modern writers to designate them as *Vṛkṣakās* or *Yakṣīs*. Similar female figures of smaller proportions stand on the architraves immediately above them with lions or elephants placed on the volute on the two sides. The open spaces between the architraves, as said above, are occupied by figures of horsemen or elephants and their riders and lions winged or otherwise; a feature of the horses and riders being that they are carved on both sides so as to look on both directions. One of the small *Yakṣīs* is also carved on the two sides, so as to look Janus-like both on the front and the back side. On the top of the highest architrave were placed the special emblems of Buddhism, viz. Dharmachakra in the centre flanked by chawri-bearing Yakshas and Triratnas on the two sides. The scenes depicted on the gateways in bas relief follow in general the religious contents of the Bharhut Stūpa and are elaborate compositions illustrative of the many cults that were prevalent amongst the people. There are numerous representations of the sacred trees, Stūpas, scenes from Buddha's life and Jātaka stories. [Fig. 56].

c12.s3.25

HARMIKĀ RAILING: After the completion of the brick Stūpa in Aśoka's time the first adjunct to be added to it was the harmikā, i. e. the platform and railing on the summit with the crowning umbrella and post fixed in the centre. This contingent of the harmikā with its proper architectural form was found in the case of all the three principal Stūpas. The shaft of the chhatra was supported by a pedestal which took the form of a heavy stone box (Dhātugarbha-mañjūshā or relic coffer) with a lid measuring 5'7" in diameter and 1'8" in height in which the relics were once preserved. Over seventy pieces of the harmikā railings were found by Marshall with which he restored the original from of the railing. The stone of which it was made was the fine, grey-white sandstone of Nagouri which was chistle-dressed and fitted with more than usual accuracy. The harmikā railings on the summit of the Stūpa was square measuring 21'6" on each side with a diagonal of 30'1". It consisted of upright posts, cross-bars and copings as usual with other railings and each upright post spaced at even intervals was 9'11" in height including 2'6" of hammer-dressed base embedded in the masonry of Stūpa top. The diameter of the flat top of the Stūpa is only about 38'.

c12.s3.26

CROWNING UMBRELLA: In the centre of the harmikā stood a chhatra of which several pieces were found in the debris. They are relieved by most delicately defined ribs radiating on their undersides; the workmanship displaying all that exquisite precision which characterises every known specimen of the mason's craft in the Mauryan age, and which has probably never been surpassed in the stone carving of any country. (Marshall).

Sculptures

c12.s3.t1.1

These may be divided into two classes, firstly scenes which are of elaborate composition and differ considerably on the four gateways, secondly simple decorative devices or symbolical objects and figures repeated many times; the latter fall into four categories: 1 Four great events in the life of the Buddha, 2 Figures of Yakshas, 3 Figures of animals or birds, 4 Floral designs.

c12.s3.t1.2

The reliefs relating to Buddha's life show his birth (Jāti), enlightenment (Sambodhi), first sermon (Dharma-Chakra-pravartana) and death (Mahāparinirvāna). The representation of the Buddha's birth takes the form of a lotus or a bunch of lotuses coming out of a Pūrṇaghaṭa; in others the figure of Māyā is seen seated on a full blown lotus; in others Māyādevī is shown standing ready for birth. Foucher identifies the figure of Śrī-Lakshmī bathed by the two Nāgas (here in the form of two elephants) with Māyādevī. The Sambodhi is represented by a throne under a Pipal tree or by the tree alone, with worshippers bringing offerings in some scenes, or in more elaborate reliefs with Māra and his hosts of demons. The turning of the Whel-of-the-Law in the Deer Park of Vārāṇasī is shown by the symbol of the Wheel sometimes placed on a throne or on the top of a pillar, the Mrigadāva being shown by the presence of two deer. The symbol of Mahāparinirvāṇa is a Stūpa attended by worshippers. The Stūpas as well as trees are shown as emblems of the seven previous Buddhas in Sanchi art also as at Bharhut.

c12.s3.t1.3

We have seen at Bharhut the fourfold scheme of the Chāturmahārājika gods carved in the gateways. They were rulers of the four quarters, and are depicted in high relief at Sanchi also. Smaller figures of Yakshas are shown on the narrow uprights between the architraves.

c12.s3.t1.4

Figures of animals or birds are as a rule arranged schematically in pairs (Saṅghāṭa). The most conspicuous positions for the animals are the faces of the "false capitals" separating the architraves. The animals are both real and legendary, sometimes with riders and sometimes without them. They include goats, horses, bulls, camels, elephants, lions and leogriffs. On the east gateway (lowest architrave inner face, north end) the riders come from a cold climate as shown by their wearing the northern dress (udīchya veśa). Winged lions (Sapaksha Siṃha) and leogriff (Siṃhavyāla) formed part of wide canvas of motifs common to India and Western Asia. The floral designs have a unique richness and exuberance which are among the greatest beauties of this monument. According to Marshall motifs taken from the plant world have at all times been handled with exquisite taste by the Indian artists, but never more exquisitely than by the sculptors of Sanchi with the exception of the honeysuckle pattern on the south gateway and the grapevine on the west gateway. Most of the plant designs are purely Indian in character and based, as they are, on the most careful and faithful observation of nature par excellence anything of which Assyrian or Persian art was capable. Lotus representing the birth of the individual and the cosmos which was the commonly accepted symbol of fertility, abundance and blooming life, is a most favourite among all floral subjects. Some of the best examples are to be seeen on the outer sides of the pillars of the gateways. Sometimes the lotus takes form of kalpalatā, the like of which we have seen at Bharhut. At others the lotus is treated as a repeat motif and worked into the form of the Tree of Life (Śrī-vriksha), made much more gorgeous by pairs of riders on lions or leogriffs as carved on the right pillar of the West Gateway. The grapevine border and the horned leonine figures point to Western Asiatic intimations in the making of this form of the Tree of Life which seems to have been adapted to accord with the Indian conception of Śrī-vriksha. The footprints of the Buddha and the *Triratna* emblem find a natural place in the reliefs on the pillars as parts of Buddhist symbolical iconography.

South Gateway

c12.s3.t2.1

This was the earliest gateway to be added to the great Stūpa. It was restored in 1882; as it stands it has three architraves. The top one shows the figure of *Śrī-Lakṣmī* standing in the midst of a lotus grove (*Padmavana*) and attended by two elephants which form a very charming representation of the scene. Foucher would take it as Māyādevī but it was more properly the cult *Śrī-Lakṣmī* (or *Sirimā Devatā* as seen at Bharhut). On the middle architrave is depicted the visit of the emperor Aśoka riding in a chariot and followed by elephant riders to the Stūpa at Rāmagrāma which was defended by Nāga guardians. Above the Stūpa are Suparṇas holding garlands. On the lowest architrave the dwarfish pot-bellied figures of squatting and sprawling *Kumbhāṇḍas* are holding pearl necklaces in their hands and spouting forth the lotus creeper of Life and Fortune from their mouth. This was a very significant motif of early Indian art relating to the cult of Kumbhāṇḍa gods whose chief was Virūḍhaka, the Lokapāla of the southern direction. It should be noted that the circular ends of the architraves on the two sides were occupied by a design of seven zones (*chakravyūha*) now termed as "spiral". The two cubicals separating the architraves on left show the Bodhi Tree and Stūpa and the Bodhi Tree and *Śrī-Lakṣmī* on right. The false capitals or the corresponding portions of the architraves themselves, both on the right and left show pairs of couchant animals with riders, e. g. horses (*haya-saṅghāṭa*), stags (*mṛiga-saṅghāṭa*). This was a decorative motif seen also on the pillars in the Western Indian caves and elsewhere at Bharhut, Mathura, etc. and occurs in the literary descriptions of the Jainas.

c12.s3.t2.2

BACKSIDE : Top Architrave—In the central section are three Stūpas alternating with four trees with thrones in front of them worshipped by human and divine figures. These represent the six previous Mānuṣī Buddhas and Gautama Buddha—three symbolised by their Stūpas and four by their Bodhi Trees. The Śirīṣa Tree belongs to Krakuchchhanda, the Udumbara to Kanakamuni, the Nyagrodha to Kāśyapa and the Pippala to Śākyamuni.

c12.s3.t2.3

On the dome of the central Stūpa is the inscription, already mentioned, referring to Ānanda, the royal architect of King *Śrī Sātakarṇi*.

c12.s3.t2.4

MIDDLE ARCHITRAVE—The story of Chhaddanta Jātaka showing the Bodhisattva born as the king of a herd of elephants besporting himself in the lotus lake and walking to the central Banyan tree, while the hunter Soṇuttara hidden among the rocks makes ready his bow.

c12.s3.t2.5

LOWEST ARCHITRAVE—It depicts the war of the relics which the chiefs of seven other clans waged against the Mallas of Kuśīnārā for the possession of the Buddha's Dhātus. In the centre of the architrave is shown the seize of Kuśīnārā. To right and left the victorious chiefs are departing in chariots and on elephants. After the war, Stūpas were erected for Buddha's relics at Rājagṛiha, Vaiśālī, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Rāmagrāma, Veṭhadipa, Pāvā and Kuśīnārā.

c12.s3.t2.6

The ends of the three berms are occupied by the Chakravyūha motif, the dies on the east and west ends by Pūrṇakumbha, Bodhi Tree worship of the three Buddhas, and the false capitals. The gateway is supported on two square pillars which are also profusely sculptured with several panels on their front, inner and back faces, e. g. the left pillar of the South Gateway shows on its front face three panels, the top one showing the worship of the Dharmachakra supported on a stepped base. The wheel has thirty-two spokes terminating in thirty-two Triratna symbols on its outer rim. The Dharmachakra is topped by a parasol and garlands and the octagonal shaft of the pillar is rooted in a Full Vase. The crowded company of worshippers and the herd of deer on the two sides makes it one of the most vivid pictures of the Buddha's Dharmachakra.

c12.s3.t2.7

FRONT FACE : Second Panel—Emperor Aśoka in his chariot with his retinue round him.

c12.s3.t2.8

INNER FACE : Top and second panels—Aśoka with his two queens at the Bodhivṛiksha-prākāra at Bodhgaya. This was the temple built by Aśoka himself around the sacred Pipal Tree. Aśoka has fainted at the sight of the withering tree.

c12.s3.t2.9

INNER FACE : Lower Panel—The worship of the Bodhisattva's hair and head-dress, same as the Chūḍāmaha in a Bharhut relief. A company of deities in the trayastrimśa heaven is worshipping the hair of the Bodhisattva. On the corresponding panel on the front face of this pillar the deities on foot, on horse back and on elephant are hastening to do homage to the Buddha's lock. The figure on elephant is Indra with his queen.

c12.s3.t2.10

LEFT PILLER : On the west face of this pillar there is a very interesting scene of which the true significance has not been understood up to now. In a meandering lotus creeper are three scenes of the Uttarakuru country showing three mithuna figures with ornaments and clothes being produced from the branches of the mythical Kalpa-vrikshas. Such Mithuna figures became a favourite motif of early Indian art being represented particularly at Bhājā in the so-called Indra panel which is actually the scene of King Māndhātā's visit to the Uttarakuru country. Here at Sanchi in the lowest wave we see the mithuna or male and female couple seated in forest with flowers, fruits, birds and lions. The female figure has a pair of anklets near her feet and holds in her hands a necklace of amulets or auspicious signs (*maṅgalaka mālā*) the use of which was considered effective to ward off evil and which was taken as a distinctive mark of the idyllic land of Uttarakuru. It may be seen that such a necklace is worn by the female figure in the couple carved in the next wave. Two such amulet strings (*maṅgalaka mālā*) are illustrated on the east pillar of the northern gateway. The couple in the lowest panel is playing on a harp and this is also seen in the Bhājā scene where seated under a Kalpavṛiksha tree they are witnessing the dance of a female figure. This became in Śuṅga art also a subject of detached terracotta plaques the meaning of which was well-understood as a version of life in the Uttarakuru land, such specimens having been found at Mathura, Rajghat and Patna.

c12.s3.t2.11

RIGHT PILLAR: Top Panel—It depicts the episode of the Buddha in the form of a Boddi Tree and the Nāgarāja Muchalinda, surrounded by four Nāgī queens with one hood only. In the middle panel are four Lokapālas with four attendants offering the begging bowls to the invisible Buddha. The bottom panel shows the merchant Prapusha and Bhallika passing through Uruvilva seated in their chariot.

c12.s3.t2.12

INNER-FACE: Top Panel shows the Bodhi Tree of Buddha Vipassin with a woman prostrating before the Throne.

c12.s3.t2.13

Middle Panel shows the grass-cutter holding a sickle who presented a sheaf of straw for spreading on the Buddha's throne.

c12.s3.t2.14

The Fourth Panel shows the Sambodhi Throne with male and female worshippers, the latter with ewers of water. Bottom Panel shows the *Chaṅkrama* or Promenade of the Buddha.

c12.s3.t2.15

The capitals on the pillars of the southern gateway consist of pairs of lions (*Siṅgha saṅghāṭa*) seated back to back, two on the front side and two on the back, on the northern and eastern gateways, of similar pairs of elephants (*Gaja saṅghāṭa*) and on the western gateway, of standing Atlantes or *Kīchaka* figures.

Northern Gateway

c12.s3.t3.1

This is the best preserved of all the four gateways which preserved the largest portion of its ornamental figures. Above the topmost beam were seven figures, a Dharmachakra in the centre and on both sides of it an attendant Yaksha, a *triratna* and a winged lion. On the edges of the main pillars are sinuous creepers including the vine.

c12.s3.t3.2

Front face of the top architrave shows Seven Mānushī Buddhas represented by their Bodhi Trees and Stūpas alternately as on the other three gateways. Middle Architrave—repetition of the Seven Bodhi Trees of the seven Mānushī Buddhas.

c12.s3.t3.3

Between the top and middle architraves there are three uprights and four detached figures of horse riders carved on two faces. The horse riders on their breasts are wearing the Śrīvatsa symbol which as an auspicious amulet is included in both the necklaces specially shown on this gateway. On the central upright is shown a wheel-topped pillar inside a railing where two parasols are planted.

c12.s3.t3.4

Lowermost architrave : On this lintel one of Sanchi's masterpieces is carved, showing the Buddha in his last but one incarnation born as Prince Vessantara who realised the Perfection of Charity (Dāna Pāramitā). Here the story is told with a great wealth of detail and has the unique distinction of covering the entire architrave, both front and back. Here we see three panels, prince Vessantara giving away his royal elephant; his banishment and saying farewell to his parents outside the city; driving away in his chariot with his family and presently parting with his chariot and horses through some Brāhmaṇas. From the point of view of carving this is one of the most vivid representations at Sanchi marked by the greatest clarity of treatment of city architecture, personal ornaments and dress as well as of the quadriga and the horses. On the soffit or underside of this architrave is a row of beautifully carved lotuses showing in the centre a red lotus (padma) framed between blue lotuses (nīlotpala). On the two die portions of these three architraves there are two Gaja-Lakshmī representations in which the goddess and the elephant are all shown seated and standing on full blown lotuses. This had become an established style for a number of other statuettes of the goddess seen in Mathura art. Between the three architraves on the two sides of the Gaja-Lakshmī figures are to be seen standing Vṛikshakas under distended boughs of mango or Aśoka trees which set the norm for such figures in later art. But the most beautiful and delicate are the toraṇa caryatids festooning the corners on the outside which are also seen in their best preserved form in a similar position on the eastern gateway.

c12.s3.t3.5

Other scenes depicted on the backside of the top and middle architraves show Chhaddanta Jātaka, the elephant king paying homage to the Bodhi Tree; and the demon hosts of Māra army at the time of Buddha's temptation (middle); the bottom lintel continuing the Vessantara Jātaka showing life in the hermitage, gift of the children, gift of the wife and the final reunion.

c12.s3.t3.6

LEFT PILLAR (front view) depicts the great miracle (Mahā-prātihārya) of the Mango Tree performed by the Buddha at Śrāvastī when he walked in the air, and flames broke out from his feet and water from his head.

c12.s3.t3.7

The second panel depicts the Jetavana showing three *Gandhakuṭīs* of Buddha with the throne in front of it. In the foreground are punchmarked coins spread as in a relief at Bharhut. In the third panel another miracle of Śrāvastī is shown in which the Buddha is soaring in the air over his *Chaṅkrama*. Panel four shows king Prasenajit going out of the city-gate of Śrāvastī to meet the Buddha in the Jetavana. Panel five is an inset of the Uttarakuru country where *dampatī* figures drinking wine and playing music are shown with the figure of Māndhātā on elephant carved below them.

c12.s3.t3.8

Inner Face—Visit of Indra to the Buddha in the Indraśaila cave. In the upper part of the panel is an artificial cave resembling in its façade many Buddhist shrines hewn in the rocks of western and central India. In front of the door is the throne which marks the presence of the Buddha. The animals, including human-faced rams, peering out from among the rocks serve to indicate the wildnesss of the spot. Below is the company of Indra in attitudes of worship; Indra himself being probably represented twice, first as the principal figure in the foreground and then with his back to the spectator, against the rocks.

c12.s3.t3.9

Second panel shows a king with his cortege issuing from a city; probably king Ajātaśatru coming out of Rājagṛiha on a visit to the Āmravana of Jīvaka. Panel three shows the Veṇuvana at Rājagṛiha with the throne of the Buddha in the centre and devotees around.

c12.s3.t3.10

Outer Side : This depicts one of the most interesting motifs in the whole range of Sanchi art, showing a golden post (*suvarṇa yaṣṭhi*) with eight parts of pegs (*nāgadanta*) for hanging golden necklace (*hemamālā*). In the treasure-houses of royal palaces and rich men’s houses such golden pillars for the storage of costly necklaces were used as visible symbols of goddess Śrī-Lakshmī since their earliest reference occurs in the apocryphal Śrī-Sūkta of the Ṛigveda where the goddess Śrī is described as *yaṣṭiṃ suvarṇāṃ hemamālinīṃ Sūryaṃ hiraṇmayīṃ Lakshmīm* (hymn 14), i. e. golden Lakshmī resplendent as the Sun, takes the form of a golden pillar loaded with golden necklaces. It appears that in the second stage the idea was connected with the symbolism of the Uttarakuru country and such a post was taken to represent a cross-section of the wealth of the Uttarakuru land in which string of golden amulet especially formed part. In a previous illustration on the southern gateway we have seen that the female figures wear such amulet strings. Here two of these strings or necklaces are shown. The left one having eleven and the right one thirteen auspicious amulet beads as follows:

c12.s3.t3.11

Left : 1 sun, 2 wheel, 3 lotus pond (*padmasara*), 4 goad (*aṅkuśa*), 5 Indra’s triangle-headed banner (Vaijayantī), 6 lotus (*paṅkaja*), 7 a pair of fish (*mīna-mithuna*), 8 Śrīvatsa, 9 battle axe (*paraśu*), 10 mirror (*darpaṇa*), 11 lotus (*kamala*).

c12.s3.t3.12

RIGHT : 1 lotus, 2 goad, 3 Kalpavṛiksha, 4 mirror, 5 Śrīvatsa, 6 Vaijayantī, 7 Paṅkaja, 8 mīna-yugala, 9 battle axe, 10 flower garland (pushpadāma), 11-12-13 wheel, two other symbols.

c12.s3.t3.13

A possession of these divine necklaces was considered apotropaic and seems to have formed part of a cult of goddess Śrī-Lakshmī, later on linked to the Uttarakuru conception. In the third stage it became associated with the physical statue of the Buddha showing him in a visible form like other symbols and therefore labelled as Bhagavato Pamāṇa-Laṭṭhi ‘Height-measuring Staff of the Blessed One’. (Marshall, II, pl. XXVII). Even one of these amulets was considered sacred and efficacious enough to ward off evil. Individual specimens have been found in early Indian art, as amongst relics of the Stūpa. In the next stage the number of auspicious signs became fixed at eight as on the Āyāga paṭṭas in Mathura (J 249 of Lucknow Museum) and this gave rise to a new name ‘Aṣṭha-maṅgalaka-mālā’ which included the following list :

c12.s3.t3.14

The Mīna-Mithuna, Deva Vimāna-gṛiha, Śrīvatsa, Vardhamāna, Triratna, Pushpadāma, Indra-Yashṭi or Vaijayantī and Pūrṇaghaṭa. The names had become popular as we find by its mention twice in the Aṅgavijjā of about the second-third century. During the Gupta period its possession was ardently desired by travellers both on land and sea and rich men. The number eight had become stereotyped since Bāṇa compares the eighteen islands encircling Bhāratavarsha to an Aṣṭhamaṅgalaka Mālā (aṣṭādaśadvīpāṣṭhamaṅgalakamālinī medinī, Harshacharita, ch. 6, p. 185).

c12.s3.t3.15

RIGHT PILLAR—Front face shows the descent of the Buddha from the heaven of the thirty-three gods; in the centre is the ladder with figures of Indra and Brahmā. Second panel shows the riderless horse depicting the Buddha’s departure from the palace (Abhinishkramaṇa). Third panel—The conversion of the Śākyas and miracle at Kapilavastu.

c12.s3.t3.16

INNER FACE—Top panel shows probably the dedication of the Stūpa containing the Buddha’s relics by the Mallas. Second panel—The offering of a bowl of honey to the Blessed One by a monkey.

c12.s3.t3.17

Third panel back—Tree and throne of the Buddha with attendant worshippers bringing offerings.

c12.s3.t3.18

It may be noted that the various life scenes like the descent from heaven, presentation of the honey cup, etc., set up a model of portrayal followed subsequently in the schools of Mathura and Gandhāra.

Eastern Gateway

c12.s3.t4.1

Like the northern gateway, the eastern has been preserved in its original position although much damaged. The motifs on the capitals and false capitals are about the same, but are here treated with greater ease and freedom and the style is superior to what is seen in the other gateways.

c12.s3.t4.2

Top Architrave: Front—Seven Mānushī Buddhas shown by their Stūpas and Bodhi Trees as on other gateways.

c12.s3.t4.3

Middle Architrave—Buddha's departure from Kapilavastu, the city being shown with walls and a moat and gateway. This relief is repeated four times to show the progress of the prince.

c12.s3.t4.4

Third architrave shows the visit of Aśoka to the Bodhi tree. In the centre, the temple and trees of Bodhgaya; to the left, a crowd of musicians and devotees with water vessels; to the right, a royal retinue and a king and queen descending from an elephant and afterwards doing worship at the Tree. This is the ceremonial visit which Aśoka and his queen Tissarakkhitā paid to the Bodhi Tree, for the purpose of watering it and restoring it pristine beauty after the evil spell which the queen in a fit of jealousy had cast upon it. In the pairs of peacocks at the ends of this architrave there may be a special allusion to Aśoka, since the peacock (Pali: mora; Sans: Mayūra) was the badge of the Mauryan times. On the south voluted ends of the architrave and on the dies and false capitals are scenes of Chakra and Stūpa worship and Gaja-Lakshmī.

c12.s3.t4.5

Back of the first architrave—Seven Mānushī Buddhas depicted as usual by their thrones and Bodhi Trees.

c12.s3.t4.6

Middle Architrave—Worship of the Buddha's throne under a Bodhi tree by animal kingdom, including animals, real and mythical, birds and Nāgas.

c12.s3.t4.7

Lowest Architrave—Worship of the Stūpa by elephants. South end shows Pūrṇaghaṭa, Stūpa worship, Bodhi Tree worship and animal capital. North end depicts Stūpa worship and Pūrṇaghaṭa motif.

c12.s3.t4.8

Left Pillar—Front Face: Panels 1 and 2, the illumination and walk of the Buddha. In the second panel from the top is a temple at Bodhgaya built by Aśoka with the throne of Buddha within, and spreading through its upper windows the branches of the sacred tree. It is the illumination of the Buddha, and to right and left of the temple are four figures in an attitude of adoration, probably the guardian kings of the four quarters. Third Panel shows the miracle of the Buddha walking on the waters. The river Nirañjanā being shown in the foreground.

c12.s3.t4.9

Lowest Panel shows Bimbisāra with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rājagṛiha, on a visit to the Buddha, here symbolised by his empty throne.

c12.s3.t4.10

INNER FACE—Top Panel depicts the visit of Indra and Brahmā to the Buddha in the city of Uruvilva.

c12.s3.t4.11

Second Panel shows the victory of the Buddha over the serpents in the Fire Chapel at Uruvilva (Agniśālā) in the āshrama of Kāśyapa.

c12.s3.t4.12

Third Panel—Miracles of the wood, the fire and the offering. In the story of Kāśyapa's conversion it is related that after the miracle of the Fire Temple, a sacrifice was prepared by the Brāhmaṇa but the wood for the fire could not be split, the fire could not be made to burn and the oblation could not be offered, until in each case the Buddha gave his consent.

c12.s3.t4.13

RIGHT PILLAR—Front Face—The six inferior heavens of the Kāmāvachara gods (Kāmāvachara-deva-lokas). Starting from below they are as follows:

c12.s3.t4.14

1. Chātummahārājikaloka, heaven of the four Lokapālas;

c12.s3.t4.15

2. Trayastriṃśaddeva, heaven of the thirty-three gods ruled by Indra;

c12.s3.t4.16

3. Yamaloka, where Yama, God of Death, presides and there is no variation of night and day;

c12.s3.t4.17

4. Tushitasvarga, where the Bodhisattvas are born prior to their descent on earth and where Maitreya now resides;

c12.s3.t4.18

5. Nirmāṇaratisvarga, heaven of the gods who rejoice in their own creation;

c12.s3.t4.19

6. Purinirmitavaśavartin gods, who indulge in pleasures created for them by others and over whom Māra is king.

c12.s3.t4.20

These Shadkāmāvachara devās are six classes of gods still living in the realm of desires in which the passions are still unsubdued. Their representation here is very monotonous. Each of these six heavens is represented by the storeys of a palace, front of which is divided by pillars into three bays, the pillars in the alternate storeys being either plain or provided with elaborate Persepolitan capitals. In the central bay there sits a god, probably Indra, holding a thunder-bolt (Vajra) in his right hand and a flask containing nectar in his left. Behind him are his female attendants holding the royal umbrella and fly-whisk. In the bay to his right, seated on a slightly lower seat, is his viceroy; and to his left are the court musicians and dancers. With slight variations the same figures are repeated in each of the six heavens.

c12.s3.t4.21

Inner Face—Top Panel showing the gods beseeching the Buddha to be born on earth. Second Panel—Dream of Māyā and the conception of the Bodhisattva. Third Panel—Royal procession of King Śuddhodana going to meet the Buddha. Fourth Panel—Miracle of walking in the air. Bottom Panel—The guardian Lokapāla of this gateway, probably Dhṛtarāṣṭra, the king of the Gandharvas, but no distinctive sign is shown.

c12.s3.t4.22

Back Face—*Sambodhi* or Illumination of the Buddha depicted by the *Pipal* Tree in square railing with worshippers on either sides and celestial beings above.

Western Gateway

c12.s3.t5.1

Top Architrave—Repetition of the seven Mānushī Buddhas by their Stūpas and Bodhi Trees.

c12.s3.t5.2

Middle Architrave—The sermon on the Deer Park. The Dharmachakra is set on a throne and there are numerous deer to indicate the Mṛigadāva in which the sermon was preached.

c12.s3.t5.3

Lowest Architrave—The Chhaddanta Jātaka (also shown on north and south gateways), shown as King of the elephants worshipping the Bodhi Tree.

c12.s3.t5.4

On the north end of the architraves are scenes of Gaja-Lakshmī, Stūpa worship and Bodhi Tree worship, and the usual capital of addorsed animals. The capital above the pillar consits of standing *Kumbhāṇḍa* or *Kichaka* dwarfs with hands raised aloft, a motif which is mentioned in the Sabhāparva as *Kiṅkara*, *Guhyaka* or *Antarikshachara Rākshasa*.

c12.s3.t5.5

Back view—The chief of the Mallas of Kusīnārā bearing the relics of the Buddha on his head into the town of Kusīnārā.

c12.s3.t5.6

Middle Architrave—War of the relics, also depicted on the south gateway showing the seven chiefs distinguished by their seven royal umbrellas, advancing with their armies to the city of Kusīnārā.

c12.s3.t5.7

Lowest Architrave—Temptation of the Buddha. In the centre is the temple of Bodhgaya with the *Pipal* Tree and the Throne of the Buddha within; to the right, the armies of Māra fleeing discomfitted from the Buddha; to the left, the Devas celebrating the victories of the Buddha over the evil one and exalting his glorious achievements. The *Māra-Dharshaṇa* scene set a model for its subsequent portrayal in other places and even in the Ajanta painting.

c12.s3.t5.8

The ends of the architraves on the two sides as usual show scenes of Stūpa worship, Chakra worship, winged lions, and false capitals.

c12.s3.t5.9

LEFT PILLAR : Front Face—The top panel shows a cross-section of the Uttarakuru land with four seated *mithunas* and one standing couple engaged in music and drinking under various *Kalpavrikshas* producing ornaments, In the lower panel partly defaced is the repetition of a similar scene with *Kalpavrikshas* producing ornaments and coins.

c12.s3.t5.10

INNER FACE: Top Panel—Śyāma Jātaka. Śyāma, the only son of a blind hermit and his wife, who are entirely dependent on him for support, goes to draw water and is shot with an arrow by the king of Vārāṇasī who is out hunting; thanks to the king’s penitence and his parent’s sorrow, Indra intervenes, and allows Śyāma to be healed and his parents’ sight to be restored.

c12.s3.t5.11

At the right hand top corner of the panel are the two hermitages with the father and mother seated in front of them. Below them their son Śyāma is coming to draw water from the stream. Then, to the left, we see the figure of the king thrice repeated, first shooting the lad in the water, than with bow in hand, then standing penitent with bow and arrow discarded; and in the left top corner are the father, mother and son restored to health, and by their side the god Indra and the king, the former wearing his characteristic head-dress.

c12.s3.t5.12

Second Panel—Nāgarāja Muchalinda shielding Buddha from rain.

c12.s3.t5.13

Third Panel—Only the upper part of this panel is now preserved. It appears to depict the miraculous crossing of the Ganges by the Buddha when he left Rājagṛiha to visit Vaiśālī.

c12.s3.t5.14

RIGHT PILLAR: Front Face—Top Panel—Mahākapi Jātaka. The Bodhisattva born as the king of monkeys formed a bridge across the river with his own body over which his followers crossed over to eat the fruits of a large mango tree. Brahmadatta surrounded the tree but the Bodhisattva saved his tribe. But Devadatta jumped on his back and made the heart of the Bodhisattva break. Brahmadatta seeing the good deed of the Bodhisattva and repenting of his own attempt to kill him, tended him with great care when he was dying and afterwards gave him royal obsequies.

c12.s3.t5.15

Higher up the panel is the great mango tree to which two monkeys are clinging, while the king of the monkeys is stretched across the river, from the mango tree to the opposite bank and over his body some monkeys have escaped to the rocks and jungles thereon. In the lower part of the panel, to the left, is king Brahmadatta on horse back with his soldiers.

c12.s3.t5.16

Higher up the panel the figure of the king is repeated sitting under the mango tree and conversing with the dying Bodhisattva.

c12.s3.t5.17

SECOND PANEL—*Adhyeshana* i.e. the gods led by Brahmā and Indra entreat the Buddha to show mankind the way of salvation.

c12.s3.t5.18

THIRD PANEL—Indra’s visit to the Buddha in the Indraśaila cave.

c12.s3.t5.19

LOWEST PANEL—Three rampant lions standing on the lotus tree of life and fortune. The foliage is peculiar to the early school and is never found in later art. We see here a combination of the twisted and corrugated palm leaves in combination with the lotus.

c12.s3.t5.20

INNER FACE—Sambodhi or the enlightenment of the Buddha showing the Throne, Bodhi Maṇḍa under the Bodhi Tree, and round them Māra with his daughters.

c12.s3.t5.21

SECOND PANEL—The conversion of the Śākyas in which the Buddha preaches in the Banyan Park at Kapilavastu to his father Śuddhodana and the assembled Śākya chiefs.

c12.s3.t5.22

Back—Parinirvāṇa of the Buddha, represented by a Stūpa and attendant figures.

c12.s3.t5.23

The sculptures on these four gateways with their architraves and pillars are sometimes bold being conceived independently and at others crowded in multitudinous groups as for example those in the war of relics. In other cases as in the depiction of the Vessantara Jātaka the scenes are synoptically treated and of clear composition.

c12.s3.t5.24

There is an abundance of natural scenes showing Bodhi trees and domestic and wild animals like elephants, lions and deer. There are certain marked points of contrast between Bharhut and Sanchi portrayals. At Bharhut the number of Jātaka scenes are much more in excess than at Sanchi; whereas the Bharhut sculptors took pleasure in depicting a number of minor Jātakas, the Sanchi artisans only concentrate on the great Jātakas and those also limited in number—for example, Vessantara Jātaka, Chhaddanta Jātaka (repeated several times), Śyāma Jātaka and Mahākapi Jātaka. The number of Buddha's life scenes is much in excess at Sanchi and even there the sculptors are more fond of depicting the miracles of the Master, e. g. his walking in the air, on water and the miracles in the hermitage of Kāśyapa. The historical scenes also may be said to be more frequent at Sanchi; for example, we find the visit of Ajātaśatru and Prasenajit Kosala to the Buddha and of Prasenajit visiting the mango tree at Śrāvastī, Ajātaśatru visiting the Āmravana of Jīvaka, king Śuddhodana going to meet the Buddha, and Aśoka's visit to the Bodhi-vṛiksha at Bodhgaya and the Nāga Stūpa at Rāmagrāma. The life episodes of the Buddha had become very much standardised at Sanchi, being frequently portrayed in the form of the worship of the Bodhi Tree, Dharmachakra and Stūpa.

c12.s3.t5.25

A new feature at Sanchi is the especial emphasis on depicting scenes of the Uttarakuru country where happy mithunas enjoy dance, music and drink under the Kalpavṛiksha trees. It appears that the Uttarakuru had been accepted as the land of Buddhist paradise, although still retaining its Maha character. The toranas at Bharhut are finished in crocodile-shaped volutes and those at Sanchi in the ‘spiral’ motifs (*Chakravyūha*) which was a marked difference between the two Stūpas. The *Saṅghāṭa* of the addorsed animals like the horses, elephants, deer, bulls and lions is much more emphasised at Sanchi. The Śrī-Lakṣmī depiction on the false capitals and also that of *Pūrṇakumbha* is a conspicuous feature on the Sanchi *toraṇas*. It appears that the spirit behind the Śrī-Lakṣmī cult was still alive, but more evolved at Sanchi and became assimilative of the religious beliefs about Uttarakuru on the one hand and about the nativity of the Buddha on the other; but still we should recognise its popular character as part of a folk cult. [Fig. 65].

c12.s3.t5.26

Marshall noticed the diversity of style and inequality in technique amongst the sculptors at Sanchi. The second panel on the front face of the right pillar of western gateway, the *Adhyeṣaṇa* scene shows a strong archaising tendency whereas the *Chūḷāmaha* scene on the lowest panel of the front face of the left pillar of the south gateway shows as advanced a style as anything produced by the early school. The war of the relics on the southern and western gateways exhibits a fine sense of composition and modelling. This school of Vidiśā situated on the highway between Mathura and Pratiṣṭhāna exerted a strong influence on the subsequent Mathura School of Sculpture which derived many of its ideas of composition of the various life-scenes of the Buddha in their symbolical form and also its technique and style. The southern gateway was carved by a guild of ivory workers of Vidiśā, *Vediśakehi dantakārehi rūpakammaṃ kataṃ*. The carvers have succeeded in the clear treatment of the bas-reliefs and figures either alone or in groups and based themselves on the simplicity and naturalness of their rendering. It is a great quality by which this early school was marked and which their patron, namely the wealthy merchants of Vidiśā and Ujjayinī specially liked. The sculptors were definitely advancing towards giving an increasing religious tone to the subjects handled by them as shown by the abundance of the religious symbols depicted in these bas-reliefs. Marshall criticised some of these scenes as mundane and sensuous but that was due to misunderstanding, for, as pointed out above, these were Elysian scenes of ideal happiness from the Uttarakuru land which were now put into great relief, and probably synchronised with the descriptions in the epics and Jātakas with which the scenes faithfully agree. It may also be noted that these Stūpas serve as commentaries on the many religious cults that were prevalent during the centuries prior to the Christian era and which were seeking marked embrace with Buddhism.

Stūpa II

c12.s3.t6.1

Stūpa No. II is next to Stūpa No. I the most important monument at Sanchi. It stands on a small terrace projecting out from the hillside some three-fifty yards down its western slopes. It may be stated that the construction of the three Stūpas was deliberately planned so as to enshrine the relics of the Buddha in Stūpa No. I, built in the most majestic form and sited on the most conspicuous spot, the relics of Buddha's two chief disciples, Sāriputta and Mahā Moggalāyana in Stūpa No. III on the hill-top itself and of the other great teachers and missionaries of religion who worked in the time of Aśoka in a Stūpa now labelled as Stūpa II on an artificially constructed terrace jutting from the hillside towards the plains.

c12.s3.t6.2

In size and construction Stūpa II was almost a replica of Stūpa I, the main difference between the two being the decoration of the ground railing. Its diameter exclusive of the processional path and enclosing balustrade, was 47'; its height to the top of the dome 29' and to the top of the crowning umbrella 37'. In the four quadrants of the ground railing there were 88 pillars. There were three railings, the one as the ground balustrade, the second the berm railing approached by stairways and the third on the top round the harmikā. But the ground railing is carved with many reliefs which give the balustrade its unique value and make it an outstanding landmark in the history of Indian art no less than of Buddhism. The subjects portrayed are generally similar to those on the gateways of the Great Stūpa. Among them, the four chief events of the Buddha's life are conspicuous: his birth (Jāti), his enlightenment (Sambodhi), his first sermon (Dharmachakra-pravartana), and his death (Parinirvāṇa)—each represented by its own peculiar symbol: the lotus, the Pīpal tree, the Wheel and the Stūpa. Then there are the familiar figures of Yakshas and Yakshiṇīs, many-hooded Nāgas and a host of real and fabulous animals, sometimes with riders and sometimes without, like those which adorn the false capitals on the gateways of the Great Stūpa: elephants, bulls, horses, deer, winged lions, makaras and griffins and other creatures of the fancy, also that do not occur on the gateways, such as horse-headed and fish-tailed men or centaurs with women on their backs (kinnara mithuna). Among plants, the favourite one is the lotus—magic symbol of birth and life and giver of bounteous gifts to mortals—sometimes quite simply treated, sometimes in rich and elaborate devices; among birds, the peacock, the goose, and the Sārasa are prominent; and among characteristic Buddhistic emblems other than those already mentioned, the triratna, nandipada, and śrīvatsa, and pillars crowned by lions or elephants. (Marshall).

c12.s3.t6.3

The contingent of decorative designs including flowers, animals, human beings and divine figures was traditional and borrowed from the repertoire that we find in the Vedic, Buddhist and Jaina Āgamic literature. In the description of lotus railing (padmavara vedikā) as given in the Rāyapasenīya Sutta, we find conventionalised lists of such decorative motifs. There seems to be no doubt that these motifs of ornamental decoration were being used in wooden construction for many centuries from where the stone carvers borrowed them with complete facility. The unique charm of such a railing became widely popular and accepted in such art centres as Mathura and Sarnath. The railing pillars of the earlier Jaina Stūpa at Kaṅkālī Ṭilā show as if the ground balustrade of Sanchi Stūpa II was transferred with the variety of its decorative motifs and the simple natural style of carving. The few Śuṅga pillars at Sarnath are also as if replicas of the Sanchi balustrade. The age of these reliefs on the balusrade of Stūpa II may rightly be fixed on the basis of their style and palæography of inscriptions in the last quarter of the 2nd century B. C.

First 114 of 162 passages. Read on