The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan c8: Chapter IV

The Music and Musical Instruments of Southern India and the Deccan c8

Language: English

Chapter IV

c8.1

Râga—How defined—Notes essential to composition of—Vâdi and Samvâdi notes—Modern meaning of Murchana—Examples of Murchana applied—Ancient and modern methods of performance of râga—How differing—Alâpa—Madhyamakâla—Gamakas—Classification of râgas—Popular scales for—Allied to certain passions—Peculiarities—How apportioned to seasons and hours—“Kattika,” or list of modern râgas.

c8.2

A S râga constitutes what may be called the very foundation of Indian music, it merits a chapter to itself. The term râga may be best explained as “melody type,” since it is a melodic extension of certain notes of a particular scale or mode (thât), according to certain fixed rules called the murchana.¹

c8.3

¹ The word Râga does not appear to have been used in its present technical sense until a date later than has been generally supposed. It is worthy of note that in the oldest Indian musical treatise, the Bhârata Natya S'astra, the word Râga appears hardly at all; and no special adhyaya is devoted to it, as is invariably the case in all subsequent Sanskrit treatises. The employment of râga as understood in the Sangîta Ratnâkera and subsequently was evidently unknown at the time when Bhârata wrote. But in its place there was a system of what are called by Bhârata jâtis. This word, meaning literally genus, would seem to be of kindred meaning to the old Greek musical term γένος. Some centuries later, when the Sangîta Ratnâkera was written, the term râga appears to have been substituted for jâti.

c8.4

The literal meaning of the word râga is “that which creates passion,” and hence, according to the Hindu idea, a râga signifies a succession of notes so arranged, according to prescribed rules, as to awaken a certain feeling of the mind and an effect differing, it may be, in the minutest particulars from that derivable from another râga.

c8.5

These notes can be played in any degree or movement of time without destroying the inherent character of the râga, though the mode or thât must remain the same throughout.

c8.6

The notes essential to the composition of a râga are of four kinds—viz., vâdi, samvâdi, anuvâdi, and vivâdi.

c8.7

By the vâdi is meant any note which, by reason of its continual recurrence, or by its being specially accentuated or dwelt upon, shows to the best advantage the characteristics of the râga. Hence the vâdi is called the “ Râjah ” (king), and by Hindustani musicians the “ Jân ” or life and soul of the râga.

c8.8

The samvâdi is usually either the fourth or fifth, the vâdi being taken as the tonic, or both fourth and fifth when both are admissible in the râga.

c8.9

The samvâdis are commonly arranged as follows :—

c8.10

c8.11

A list of these notes has been given because in many of the Sanskrit treatises directions are given to employ samvâdi alternating or otherwise in conjunction with the vâdi notes in the performance of certain râgas. In the text these samvâdi notes are not shown; but they are known from their respective vâdis, in much the same way that an accompanying harmony to an air used to be, in European music, often merely figured.

c8.12

In modern dispositions Panchâma is admitted as a samvâdi to Rishaba and vice versâ. According to the authorities, Nishâda cannot be samvâdi to any other note than Gandhâra, and vice versâ. Madhyama therefore can have only one samvâdi, which will be Shadja; though, according to the calculations, it is shown to have Nishâda too for its samvâdi; Nishâda will have Gandhâra only for its samvâdi.

c8.13

By the vivâdi, or enemy, is meant a note which, being inadmissible, would therefore destroy the special characteristics of any râga.

c8.14

All other notes not comprised among the foregoing are styled Anuvâdi.

c8.15

The rules for determining the succession and style of the notes composing a râga are called the murchana of that râga.

c8.16

By the murchana is meant not only the style, but also the time; it gives the relative values assigned to the different notes, the accentuation, and any peculiarity of expression or tempo essential to the correct execution of the râga, such as can only be learned by actually hearing it performed.

c8.17

In a musician's kattika, or scale book, the ascending and descending modes alone of a râga are given, no directions as to the value of the notes, &c., being assigned; indeed, often the scale itself is not given.

c8.18

All this is implied in the murchana, and without understanding the murchana it is therefore impossible to play any râga.

c8.19

The murchana is never written, but is invariably taught orally; often by means of songs, &c., in the same râga.

c8.20

For example, in the kattika, the text of the râga “S’ri” is given thus:— Ascending mode—Sa, ri, ma, pa, ri, sa. Descending mode—Sa, ri, pa, dha, ni, pa, ma, ri, ga, ri, sa.

c8.21

These notes must follow each other in proper succession; for instance, when the melody is ascending, the note Ma must follow Ri; in descending, a similar method of progression must be adhered to. Hence from these notes, without breaking the rules, many melodies can be formed.

c8.22

But yet there is a certain style peculiar to each râga: certain notes must be dwelt upon, some played staccato; others with a peculiar expression, grace or tremor.

c8.23

If the notes of one of these melodies were written as No. 1 below, no two persons could play them alike; each would naturally put his own interpretation upon them. The interpretation, therefore, is supplied by the murchana, when the melody appears as No. 2:—

c8.24

No. 1. S'ri Raga.

c8.25

No. 2.² Andante. w. w. tr rall. tr w. a tempo. w. rall. w.

c8.26

When a composition is said to be in a certain râga, it means that it employs the same scale, melody-type and notes; and, in fact, illustrates the character and style of that râga in every way.

c8.27

² The grace here implied is more the “Bebung,” or vibrato, than anything else, and cannot therefore be executed upon a pianoforte. In the clavichord it consists in giving to the key a certain trembling pressure producing a pulsation of sound without any interval of silence. In stringed instruments the effect is obtained by a rocking movement of the finger without raising it from the string. This peculiar grace must be remembered as applying specially to all Indian melodies. It should be borne in mind that Indian stringed instruments, owing to the great length of their strings in proportion to the thickness, are far less confined in their intonation than are European instruments, consequently they are capable of producing an infinity of delicate grace by modification of pitch that cannot be expressed in our notation.

c8.28

How widely the characters of the various râgas differ can be told by a glance at the following short melodies, all of which show as much as possible the full murchanas of their respective râgas:—

c8.29

Andante. S'ankârabharna Râga.

c8.30

Náta Râga.

c8.31

Kómbodi Râga.

c8.32

Mukâri Râga.

c8.33

Bhupâli Râga.

c8.34

Since the early days of Indian music the essential conditions under which the râgas were composed and performed have altered greatly. Formerly, we learn, the râgas in performance were divided into four parts or movements, called respectively the Sthâyi, (2) the Antâra, (3) the Sanchari, (4) the Abhoga. The precise meaning attached to these terms, when applied thus,³ seems to have been lost in obscurity. At the present time, however, it matters little, for the modern theory teaches that in the performance of râga as a solo, two movements only are taken into consideration. These movements are known as the Alâpa and the Madhyamakâla, and answer approximately to the Adagio (perhaps rhapsody would convey a nearer meaning) and Scherzo of a sonata.

c8.35

³ For the modern interpretation of these terms, see page 86.

c8.36

To convey in writing an adequate idea of what an alâpa consists is somewhat difficult; it is not exactly a song, the music not being set to any particular words; neither is it an air, for it is not confined in its rhythm. An alâpa may be said to be rather a kind of rhapsody, which abounds with grace and embellishments of all kinds, and is formed by an extension, according to the murchana, of the notes of the râga, in such a way that all the characteristics of that râga are prominently shown, and scope is given to the performer's power of improvising.

c8.37

The phrases vary in length, some being slow, with quick modulations succeeding, and others *vice versâ*, the beats upon the accompanying strings marking the time being given at the performer's fancy.

c8.38

As a rule the voice is not employed in the performance of an alâpa; but if used at all it is either in unison with the instrument or else accompanied by a simple running accompaniment upon the open strings. Occasionally the voice is relieved by the instruments taking up the melody, varied with soft imitations in the same râga. In fact, so much is left to the taste and fancy of the musician, that it is impossible to lay down any definite rules for the constitution of an alâpa; hence, as may be imagined, in movements of this sort, there is a kind of wild charm which seems to carry with it a plaintive refrain that lingers on the mind of the listener long after the music has ceased. Perhaps the only composer who appears to have caught the entire spirit of these peculiar improvisations is Chopin; though, as far as we know, his acquaintance with Oriental music must have been limited.

c8.39

Following the alâpa is the madhyamakâla, or second movement. This, as has been said before, can be compared to the Scherzo of a sonata—the music being very lively and catchy, while the tempo is quick and regular throughout.

c8.40

Like the alâpa, the madhyamakâla consists of an extension according to the proper rules of the râga; in fact, a development of thânas, explained elsewhere, reduced to a definite measure. The periods are usually shorter, and the rhythm regular throughout. The original subject is imitated and varied, as the performer's fancy may dictate, in the same râga. The whole construction of this movement is symmetrical.

c8.41

The madhyamakâla consists usually of two parts, the second only differing from the first in that the tempo is more rapid.

c8.42

In the performance of a râga there is usually a short pause between the two movements; also between the two parts of the madhyamakâla; but it is entirely optional to the player.

c8.43

The methods by which the different notes are varied, or follow each other, are styled by the Sanskrit treatises "Gámakas," and are arranged as follows:—

c8.44

1. Arohâna—ascending.
2. Avarohâna—descending.
3. Dhâlu—alternating with any given note.
4. Sphurita—repeated; ascending.
5. Kampitâ—trembling.

c8.45

6. Ahatâ—slurred.
7. Prátya-ahatâ—repeated; descending.
8. Tripastyâ—the first and second notes thrice repeated, the third twice, thus: ◡◡◡ | ◡◡◡ | — ◡ | or ◡◡◡ | ◡◡◡ | ◡◡ |
9. Andhóla—the two first notes and the fourth of short duration; the third long, thus: ◡◡—◡

c8.46

Râgas are generally classified as follows:— (i.) Sampúrna—in which all seven notes of the gamut are employed. (ii.) Shârava—in which six notes only are employed. (iii.) Oravâ—in which five notes only are employed. These three classes are again sub-divided into three, viz:— Suddha, or pure, which show the characteristic of one râga only. Salanka, or mixed, showing the characteristics of two râgas. Sankírna, or mixed, showing the characteristics of more than two râgas.

c8.47

The six original râgas are the only instances of the Suddha class; but opinions differ so widely as to the present names of these six râgas, and as to how the modern râgas have assumed their present form, that it would be nearly impossible to make any classification. The nomenclature of all the râgas differs in various parts of India; and so many and subtle are the distinctions between the different râgas, each of which has a character of its own, exclusive, if a mixed râga, of that of the râgas from which it may be derived, that to give more than a few examples would be an almost endless, if not impossible, task.

c8.48

c8.49

⁴ It may be interesting to notice that the Greek chromatic genus is represented by the scale Máyamâlavagaula, and the Greek diatonic modes thus: Dorian, Hanumatódi; Phrygian, Kârahâraprya; Lydian, Déhra-S'ankârabhárna; Hypolydian, Mátsyakaliâni; Ionic, Hârikambógi; and Æolic, Náta-Bhairavi.

c8.50

Some râgas are commonly supposed to create particular passions. Those more usually met with are the following:— Bhupâli—beauty | Náta—valour Mángari—kindness | Málava—fear Bhairavi—anger | S'ri—grandeur Bhángala—wonder

c8.51

Râgas derived from any of the above are said to possess the same inherent qualities.

c8.52

The following râgas resemble each other so closely that they are very difficult to distinguish apart, and are frequently used as tests of skill by musicians of repute :—

c8.53

Móhanna and Régupti Lálita and Vasantha Bhaúli and Bhupâli Tôdi and Deshyatôdi Ârabi and Dévagândâri Mângi and Huséni

c8.54

Durbar and Nayuki Bilahâri and Déshackshi Pántovarâli and Kârmavirdini Purvi-Kaliâni and Gamanâsrama Sâranga and Bhúpa-Kaliâni Mohanna-Kaliâni and Kaliâni-Késeri

c8.55

In the performance of certain râgas it is usual to employ accidentals in place of some of the notes shown in the text. The reason for this is not evident, but it seems to be an almost universal custom among Hindu musicians. This might be accounted for as being in imitation of Northern Indian music, in which a pure râga is seldom played, but usually a melody composed of three or four râgas. It seems far more likely, however, that the use of accidentals has been employed from the undeniable beauty that they add to a melody, much as when a change of keys is made in modulation. Examples of melodies in mixed râgas will be found upon pages 88, 89.

c8.56

The most important of these râgas are the following :—

c8.57

c8.58

⁵ The Anánda-Bhairavi of this kind is very popular in Travancore and the adjacent parts.

c8.59

In the extension of some râgas a note, either above or below a particular note of the text, may be employed, although itself not an essential part of the râga. If this is done the performer will invariably take the preceding note of the text *again* before he plays that following. For example, the text may show “dha sa” (i.e., “ni” omitted). If “ni” is employed, “dha” is repeated immediately before “sa,” as “dha, ni, dha, sa,” and not “dha, ni, sa.”

c8.60

The foregoing are some of the more important of the many rules attached to the performance of râgas, and only by the strict observance of them can a piece be correctly executed.

c8.61

It is perhaps needless to add that in so intricate and scientific a system justice is seldom done except at the hands of very skilful musicians, and they are but rarely met with.

c8.62

In all the Sanskrit treatises a system seems to have been laid down by which the different râgas are apportioned to certain seasons of the year and hours of the day.

c8.63

In modern times this system, as far as the hour of the day is concerned, is still carried out, and no musician, unless specially ordered, will sing any râga out of the proper time of day apportioned for it. The reason given for this is, according to Willard, that musicians declare that the times and seasons allotted to each are those at which the divinities are at leisure to attend at the place where their favourite tune is sung, and to inspire the performer with due warmth in his execution. Superstition seems to have given birth to this absurd custom, and it still exercises a strong hold upon all professional musicians, principally from the fact that it has been handed down from time immemorial; therefore it would be considered improper to make any change. Even in educated circles among Hindus it would be thought a display of ignorance to call for a particular râga, unless for some special reason, at an improper season.

c8.64

The modern custom which lays down this hard and fast law seems to differ widely from that of all the ancient authorities, the names of the râgas now apportioned to the different periods of the day being quite at variance with the directions contained in the Sanskrit; indeed, the writer of each treatise seems to have had a classification of his own distinct from that of other authorities. At the present time musicians divide the twenty-four hours of the day into four periods, each of which is sub-divided into two parts. The following table shows at a glance the hours appointed for the performance of the popular râgas according to the Karnâtik system:—

c8.66

In Northern India, and among Hindustani musicians, a different time classification of the râgas is in use.

c8.67

The following is a list of all the râgas used in Southern Indian music, together with their modes and text, arranged precisely as in a native musician's Kattika or scale book. Notes that are specially emphasised or continually dwelt upon are underlined:—

c8.68

c8.69

c8.70

NOTE.—Râgas marked † have two readings, the other readings are given at the end of this chapter.

c8.71

c8.72

c8.73

c8.74

c8.75

c8.76

NOTE.—Râgas marked † have two readings, the other readings are given at the end of this chapter.

c8.77

SCALE OF KÂRAHÂRAPRÝA—continued.

c8.78

c8.79

SCALE OF HÂRIKAMBÓGI.

c8.80

c8.81

NOTE.—Râgas marked † have two readings, the other readings are given at the end of this chapter.

c8.82

c8.83

c8.84

NOTE.—Râgas marked † have two readings, the other readings are given at the end of this chapter.

c8.85

SCALE OF DÉHRA-S'ANKÂRABHARNA—continued.

c8.86

c8.87

SCALE OF CHALANÂTA.

c8.88

| Woodya-ravi- } chandrika } | C D E F A# B C . . . . | C B A# F E D# C |
| Ghambhrya-Nâta . | C E F G B C . . . . . | C B G F E C |
| Nâta . . . . | C D E F G A# B G B C . | C B G F D# C |
| Suddha-Nâta . | C E F G B A# B C . . . | C B A# G F D# C |
| Mâravasimânta . | C F E F G A# G C . . . | C B A# G F E D# C |