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History of Indian and Eastern Architecture v2: Volume 2

History of Indian and Eastern Architecture v2

Language
English

Contents

Volume 2

Front matter

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INDIAN

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AND EASTERN

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Lieut. Colonel Spiller.

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Wm H Spiller : Lieut Col.

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A HISTORY OF INDIAN AND EASTERN ARCHITECTURE

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This image is a blank page; there is no text to transcribe.

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in 2016

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https://archive.org/details/b28711270_0002

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BY THE LATE JAMES FERGUSSON C.I.E., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.I.B.A. Member of the Society of Dilettanti, etc., etc.

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INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

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BY JAMES BURGESS, C.I.E., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Hon. A.R.I.B.A.; Hon. Member of the Imperial Russian Archaeological Society; Corresponding Member of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences; late Director of the Archaeological Survey of India, etc., etc.

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EASTERN ARCHITECTURE

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BY R. PHENÉ SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Honorary Member of the American Institute of Architects; Correspondent of the Institute of France

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WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS

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VOL. II.

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LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.

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By the late JAMES FERGUSSON C.I.E., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.I.B.A. Member of the Society of Dilettanti, etc., etc.

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INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

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By JAMES BURGESS, C.I.E., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Hon. A.R.I.B.A.; Hon. Member of the Imperial Russian Archæological Society; Corresponding Member Batavian Society; Late Director of the Archæological Survey of India, etc., etc.

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AND

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EASTERN ARCHITECTURE

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By R. PHENÉ SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Honorary Member of the American Institute of Architects; Correspondent of the Institute of France

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WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS

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VOL. II.

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LONDON JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.

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BOOK V.

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JAINA ARCHITECTURE.

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| @HCHAP. | PAGE | @HCHAP. | PAGE |
| I. Introductory . . . | 3 | nâth—Rânpur—Gwâliar—Khajurâho—Chitor . . | 23 |
| II. Jaina Caves—Orissa Caves—Bâdâmi and Aihole—Dhârâsinvâ—Ânkai—Elûrâ . . | 9 | IV. Modern Jaina Style—Sonâgarh—Jaina Temples at Ahmadâbâd—Delhi—Converted Temples . . . | 62 |
| III. Jaina Structural Temples—Lakkundi—Pâlitânâ—Girnâr—Mount Âbû—Pâras- | | V. Jaina Style in Southern India—Bettas—Bastîs . . | 70 |

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BOOK VI.

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NORTHERN OR INDO-ARYAN STYLE.

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| I. Introductory—Dravidian and Indo-Aryan Temples at Pattadakal—Modern Temple at Benares . . . . | 84 | IV. Central and Northern India—Chandrâvatî and Baroli—Kîrtti-stambhas—Temples at Gwâliar, Khajurâho, Sinnar, Udayapur, Benares, Brindâban, Kântanagar, Amritsar . . . | 132 |
| II. Orissa—History—Temples at Bhuvaneswar, Kanârak, Purî, Jâjpur, and Katak . . | 92 | V. Civil Architecture—Cenotaphs—Palaces at Gwâliar, Chitor, Amber, Dîg—Ghâts—Reservoirs—Dams . . | 164 |
| III. Western India—Dhârwâr—Brahmanical Rock-cut Temples, at Elûrâ, Bâdâmi, Elephanta, Dhamnâr, and Poona | 117 | | |

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BOOK VII.

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INDIAN SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE.

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| CHAP. | PAGE | CHAP. | PAGE |
| I. INTRODUCTORY . . . . | 186 | VIII. KULBARGA—The Mosque at Kulbarga—Madrasa at Bîdar—Tombs . . . . . | 262 |
| II. GHAZNΗTomb of Mahmûd—Gates of Somnâth—Minârs on the Plain . . . . . | 191 | IX. BIJÂPÛR—The Jâmi' Masjid—Tombs of Ibrâhîm and Mahmûd—The Audience Hall—Mihtari Mahall—Golkonda Tombs — Tomb of Nawâb Amîr Khân, near Tatta . . | 268 |
| III. PATHÂN STYLE—Mosque at Old Delhi — Qutb Minâr — Tomb of 'Alâu-d-Dîn—Pathân Tombs — Ornamentation of Pathân Tombs . . . . | 196 | X. MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE—Dynasties—Tomb of Muhammad Ghaus, Gwâliar—Mosque at Fathpur - Sîkrî — Akbar's Tomb, Sikandara—Palace at Delhi—The Tâj Mahall—The Motî Masjid—Mosque at Delhi — The Martinière, Begam Kothî, and Imâmbâra at Lucknow—English Tombs at Surat—Tomb at Junâgadh . . . | 283 |
| IV. JAUNPUR—Jâmi' Masjid and Lâl Darwâza . . . . | 222 | XI. WOODEN ARCHITECTURE—Mosque of Shâh Hamadân, Srinagar . . . . . | 333 |
| V. GUJARÂT—Jâmi' Masjid and other Mosques at Ahmadâbâd—Tombs and Mosques at Sarkhej and Batwâ—Buildings in the Provinces . . . | 229 | | |
| VI. MÂLWÂ — Dhâr — The Great Mosque at Mandû — The Palaces . . . . . | 246 | | |
| VII. BENGAL — Bengali roofing — Qadam-i-Rasûl Mosque, Gaur—Sonâ, Âdînah and Eklâkhî Mosques, Mâldâ — Minâr—Gateways . . . . . | 253 | | |

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HISTORY OF EASTERN ARCHITECTURE.

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BOOK VIII.

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FURTHER INDIA.

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| I. BURMA — Introductory—Types of Religious Buildings — Circular Pagodas — Square Temples, etc. — Ruins of Thatôn, Prome, and Pagân—Monasteries . . . . . | 339 | etc.—Palaces and Civil Architecture . . . . . | 371 |
| II. CAMBODIA — Introductory — The various classes of temple and their disposition—Temples of Angkor Vât, Angkor Thom, Beng Méaleâ, Ta Prohm, Banteai Kedei, Prah - khan, | | III. SIAM—Structures in the temple enclosures—Temples at Sukhodaya, Phra Pathom, Sajjanâlaya, Ayuthiâ, Lophaburi, Sangkalok and Bangkok — Hall of Audience at Bangkok | 404 |
| | | IV. JAVA—History—Boro-Budur—Temples at Mendut—On the Dieng Plateau—At Jabang—Prambânan — Suku — Near Melang, and at Panataran . | 414 |

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BOOK IX.

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CHINA AND JAPAN.

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| CHAP. | PAGE | CHAP. | PAGE |
| I. Introductory . . . | 446 | Pagodas—P'ai-lus—Domestic Architecture . . . . . | 459 |
| II. China—The origin and development of the Chinese temple and other structures—Materials employed in their buildings . . . . . | 451 | IV. Japan—Chronology—Original Sources, etc. . . . . . | 486 |
| III. Temple of the Great Dragon—Buddhist Temples—Tombs— | | V. Japanese Temples—At Hôriuji, Nara, and Nikkô—Pagodas—Palaces—Domestic Architecture . . . . . | 492 |

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| Index . . . . . . | 503 |

List of Illustrations in Volume II.

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| No. | PAGE | No. | PAGE |
| 264. Yavana Guard at Rânî-ka-naur Cave, Udayagiri | 8 | 288. Plan of Temple at Rânpur, near Sâdari | 45 |
| 265. Map: Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Orissa | 10 | 289. View in the Temple at Rânpur | 46 |
| 266. Ganesa Cave—Plan | 12 | 290. Temple of Âdinâth at Khajurâho | 50 |
| 267. Pillar in Ganesa Cave, Udayagiri | 13 | 291. Chausath Joginî Temple, Khajurâho | 51 |
| 268. Upper storey, Rânî-gumphâ | 13 | 292. The Ghantai, Khajurâho | 53 |
| 269. Lower storey, Rânî-gumphâ | 13 | 293. Temple at Gyâraspur | 54 |
| 270. Section of Rânî-gumphâ | 14 | 294. Porch of Hindû Temple at Âmwâ | 56 |
| 271. Pilaster from Ananta-gumphâ, Khandagiri | 16 | 295. Jaina Tower at Chitor | 58 |
| 272. Tiger Cave, Udayagiri | 16 | 296. Tower of Victory of Kumbha Rânâ, at Chitor | 60 |
| 273. Representation of a Hall, from Bharaut sculptures | 17 | 297. View of Jaina Temples, Sonâgarh, in Bundelkhand | 63 |
| 274. Entrance to the Indra-Sabhâ Cave, Elûrâ | 20 | 298. Plan of Seth Hathisingh’s Temple, Ahmadâbâd | 64 |
| 275. Monolithic Stambha in the Court of the Indra-Sabhâ | 21 | 299. View of the Temple of Seth Hathisingh at Ahmadâbâd | 65 |
| 276. Lakkundi Jaina Temple—Plan | 24 | 300. Upper part of Porch of a Jaina Temple at Delhi | 67 |
| 277. The Sacred Hill of Satrunjaya, near Pâlitânâ | 25 | 301. Colossal Statue at Yenûr | 73 |
| 278. Plan of Chaumukh Temple at Satrunjaya | 28 | 302. Jaina Bastis at Sravana-Belgola | 75 |
| 279. Plan of Nandîsvara-dvîpa Temple, Satrunjaya | 29 | 303. Jaina Temple at Mûdabidri | 76 |
| 280. Plan of Temple of Neminâth, Girnâr | 32 | 304. Jaina Temple at Mûdabidri | 77 |
| 281. Plan of Temple of Vastupâla, Girnâr | 34 | 305. Pillar in a Temple at Mûdabidri | 78 |
| 282. Plan of Temple at Somnâth | 35 | 306. Pavilion at Guruvâyankeri | 79 |
| 283. Plan of Temple of Vimala, Mount Âbû | 37 | 307. Tombs of Priests, Mûdabidri | 80 |
| 284. Portico in Temple of Vimala, Mount Âbû | 39 | 308. Stambha at Guruvâyankeri | 81 |
| 285. Plan of Temple of Tejahpâla, Mount Âbû | 41 | 309. Dravidian and Indo-Aryan Temples at Pattadakal | 89 |
| 286. Pendant in Dome of Tejahpâla's Temple, Âbû | 42 | 310. Modern Temple at Benares | 90 |
| 287. Pillars at Chandrâvati, Gujarât | 43 | 311. Diagram Plan of Hindû Temple | 90 |
| | | 312. Temple of Parasurâmeswar, Bhuvaneswar | 96 |
| | | 313. Temple of Mukteswar | 98 |
| | | 314. Plan of Great Temple at Bhuvaneswar | 99 |

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| No. | | PAGE | No. | | PAGE |
| 315. | View of the Great or Lingarâja Temple, Bhuvaneswar | 100 | 348. | Temple of Visveswar, Benares | 152 |
| 316. | Lower part of Great Tower at Bhuvaneswar | 102 | 349. | Temple of Sindhia's Mother, Gwâliar | 154 |
| 317. | Plan of Râjarânî Temple | 103 | 350. | Plan of Temple of Govind-deva, Brindâban | 156 |
| 318. | Doorway of Râjarânî Temple | 104 | 351. | View of Govind-deva Temple | 157 |
| 319. | Plan of Temple of Jagannâth at Purî | 108 | 352. | Balcony in Temple of Govind-deva, Brindâban | 158 |
| 320. | View of Tower of Temple of Jagannâth | 110 | 353. | Plan of Temple of Jugal Kishor at Brindâban | 158 |
| 321. | Hindû Pillar at Jâjpur | 111 | 354. | Temple at Kântanagar | 160 |
| 322. | Hindû Bridge at Jâjpur | 113 | 355. | The Golden Temple in the Sacred Tank at Amritsar | 162 |
| 323. | View of Temple of Pâpanâtha at Pattadakal | 118 | 356. | Cenotaph of Sangrâm-Singh at Udaypur | 165 |
| 324. | Dâs Avatâra Cave Temple at Elûrâ | 122 | 357. | Cenotaph in the Mahâsatî at Udaypur | 166 |
| 325. | Plan of Upper Floor of Dâs Avatâra Cave | 123 | 358. | Tomb of Râja Bakhtâwar Singh at Alwar | 168 |
| 326. | Pillar in Lankeswar, Kailâs, at Elûrâ | 126 | 359. | Plan of Kumbha Rânâ's Chitorgadh Palace | 171 |
| 327. | Plan of Cave No. 3, Bâdâmi | 127 | 360. | Palace at Datiyâ | 173 |
| 328. | Section of Cave No. 3, Bâdâmi | 127 | 361. | Palace at Ûrchâ, Bundelkhand | 174 |
| 329. | Plan of Dhumâr Lenâ Cave at Elûrâ | 128 | 362. | Balcony at the Observatory, Benares | 178 |
| 330. | Plan of Elephanta Cave | 128 | 363. | Plan of Hall at Dîg | 179 |
| 331. | Pillars and corner of the Shrine at Elephanta | 129 | 364. | View from the Central Pavilion in the Palace at Dîg | 180 |
| 332. | Rock-cut Temple at Dhamnâr | 130 | 365. | Ghuslâ Ghât, Benares | 182 |
| 333. | Saiva Rock Temple near Poona | 130 | 366. | Band of Lake Râjasamudra | 184 |
| 334. | Plan of Panchâlesvara Rock-Temple near Poona | 131 | 367. | Minâr at Ghaznî | 192 |
| 335. | Plan of Temple at Chandrâvatî | 133 | 368. | Ornaments from the Tomb of Mahmûd at Ghaznî | 193 |
| 336. | Temple at Baroli | 134 | 369. | Plan of Ruins at Old Delhi | 200 |
| 337. | Plan of Temple at Baroli | 134 | 370. | Section of part of East Colonnade at the Qutb, Old Delhi | 202 |
| 338. | Pillar at Baroli | 135 | 371. | Central Range of Arches at the Qutb Mosque | 204 |
| 339. | Sâs-Bahû Temple at Gwâliar | 138 | 372. | Qutb Minâr | 205 |
| 340. | Teli-ka-Mandir Temple, Gwâliar | 139 | 373. | Iron Pillar at the Qutb | 207 |
| 341. | Kandarya Mahâdeva Temple, Khajurâho | 142 | 374. | Interior of a Tomb at Old Delhi | 209 |
| 342. | Plan of Kandarya Mahâdeva, Khajurâho | 143 | 375. | Mosque at Ajmîr, — restored plan | 211 |
| 343. | Plan of Gondesvara Temple at Sinnar | 144 | 376. | Plan of Ajmîr Mosque as it exists | 212 |
| 344. | Cross-section of Gondesvara Temple at Sinnar | 145 | 377. | Central Arch in the Mosque at Ajmîr | 213 |
| 345. | Temple at Udayapur, Gwâliar Territory | 146 | 378. | Tomb at Siprî, Gwâliar state | 216 |
| 346. | Diagram explanatory of the Plan of Mîrâ-Bâî's Temple, Chitor | 150 | 379. | Tomb at Khairpur, Old Delhi | 217 |
| 347. | Temple of Vriji, Chitor | 151 | 380. | Plan of Tomb of Sher Shâh at Sahsarâm | 218 |

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| No. | PAGE | No. | PAGE |
| 381. Tomb of Sher Shâh at Sahsarâm | 218 | 414. Plan of the Tomb of Ibrâhîm ’Âdil Shâh, Bîjâpûr | 272 |
| 382. Pendentive from Mosque at Old Delhi | 220 | 415. Plan of Tomb of Muhammad at Bîjâpûr | 273 |
| 383. Plan of Western half of Courtyard of Jâmi’ Masjid, Jaunpur | 224 | 416. Pendentives of the Tomb of Muhammad, looking upwards | 274 |
| 384. View of south lateral Gateway of Jâmi’ Masjid, Jaunpur | 224 | 417. Section of Tomb of Muhammad at Bîjâpûr | 275 |
| 385. Lâl Darwâza Mosque, Jaunpur | 226 | 418. Diagram illustrative of Domical Construction | 276 |
| 386. Plan of Jâmi’ Masjid, Ahmadâbâd | 231 | 419. Audience Hall, Bîjâpûr | 278 |
| 387. Elevation of the Jâmi’ Masjid | 231 | 420. Tomb of Nawâb Sharfa Khân, near Tatta | 281 |
| 388. Plan of the Queen’s Mosque, Mîrzapur | 232 | 421. Plan of Tomb of Muhammad Ghaus, Gwâliar | 291 |
| 389. Elevation of the Queen’s Mosque | 232 | 422. Tomb of Muhammad Ghaus, Gwâliar | 292 |
| 390. Section of Diagram explanatory of the Mosques at Ahmadâbâd | 233 | 423. Carved Pillars in the Sultâna’s Kiosk, Fathpur-Sîkrî | 294 |
| 391. Plan of Tombs and Mosque at Sarkhej | 234 | 424. Mosque at Fathpur-Sîkrî—Plan | 295 |
| 392. Pavilion in front of Tomb at Sarkhej | 235 | 425. Buland or Southern Gateway of Mosque, Fathpur-Sîkrî | 296 |
| 393. Mosque of Muhâfiz Khân | 236 | 426. Hall in Palace at Allahâbâd | 298 |
| 394. Window in Sidi Sayyid’s Mosque, Ahmadâbâd | 237 | 427. Plan of Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandara, near Agra | 299 |
| 395. Plan of Tomb of Mîr Abû Turâb | 238 | 428. Diagram section of one half of Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandara | 300 |
| 396. Plan and Elevation of Tomb of Sayyid ’Usmân | 238 | 429. View of Akbar’s Tomb, Sikandara | 301 |
| 397. Tomb of Qutbu-l-’Âlam at Batwâ | 240 | 430. Plan of Lâhor Fort | 303 |
| 398. Plans of Tombs of Qutbu-l-’Âlam and his Son at Batwâ | 240 | 431. Plan of Palace at Delhi | 310 |
| 399. Plan of the Jâmi’ Masjid at Châmpânîr | 242 | 432. View of Tâj Mahall, Agra | 314 |
| 400. Plan of Tomb of Mubârak Sayyid, near Mahmûdâbâd | 243 | 433. Plan of Tâj Mahall | 315 |
| 401. Tomb of Mubârak Sayyid | 244 | 434. Section of Tâj Mahall | 315 |
| 402. Sketch Plan of Jâmi’ Mosque at Mandû | 248 | 435. Plan of Motî Masjid, Agra | 317 |
| 403. Courtyard of Great Mosque at Mandû | 249 | 436. View in Courtyard of Motî Masjid | 318 |
| 404. Modern curved form of Roof | 254 | 437. View of Great Mosque at Delhi | 319 |
| 405. Qadam-î-Rasûl Mosque, Gaur | 256 | 438. View of the Martinière, Lucknow | 325 |
| 406. Plan of Âdînah Mosque, Panduâ | 258 | 439. View of the Begam Kothî, Lucknow | 327 |
| 407. Minâr at Gaur | 259 | 440. Plan of Imâmbâra at Lucknow | 329 |
| 408. Plan of Mosque at Kulbarga | 264 | 441. English Tombs, Surat — Sir Geo. Oxenden’s on the left | 330 |
| 409. Half-elevation half-section of the Mosque at Kulbarga | 265 | 442. Tomb of Maijî Sâhiba at Junâgadh | 331 |
| 410. View of the Mosque at Kulbarga | 265 | 443. Mosque of Shâh Hamadân, Srînagar | 334 |
| 411. Plan of the Jâmi’ Masjid, Bîjâpûr | 270 | 444. Conjectural plan of a Burmese Temple | 342 |
| 412. Plan and section of Smaller Domes of the Jâmi’ Masjid | 271 | 445. Quarter plan of Shwe-Hmaudau Pagoda at Pegu | 343 |
| 413. Section through the Great Dome of the Jâmi’ Masjid | 271 | | |

v2.c22.5

| NO. | | PAGE | NO. | | PAGE |
| 446. | Kaung Hmaudau Dâgaba, near Sagaing | 345 | 479. | Section of one of the Smaller Domes at Boro-Budur | 424 |
| 447. | View of Pagoda at Rangoon | 348 | 480. | Elevation of principal Dome at Boro-Budur | 424 |
| 448. | Sinbyumè Circular Pagoda at Mingûn | 350 | 481. | View of Central Entrance and Stairs at Boro-Budur | 428 |
| 449. | Diagram of Voussoired Arch | 352 | 482. | Plan and Section of Temple of Chandi Bhîma | 431 |
| 450. | Section of Vault and Roof | 357 | 483. | Plan of Chandi Sewu, Prambânan | 435 |
| 451. | Plan of Ânanda Temple | 361 | 484. | Plan of Chandi Lumbang, near Prambânan | 436 |
| 452. | Plan of Thatpyinnyu Temple | 362 | 485. | Plan and Section of Chandi Sari | 437 |
| 453. | Section of Thatpyinnyu Temple | 363 | 486. | Head of a doorway in Chandi Kali-Bening, near Kalasan | 438 |
| 454. | View of the Temple of Gaudaupalin | 364 | 487. | Plan of Chandi Jago, near Tumpang | 441 |
| 455. | Burmese Kyaung | 366 | 488. | Chandi Panataran: plan of terraces | 443 |
| 456. | Façade of King's Palace, Burma | 367 | 489. | Diagram of Chinese Construction | 452 |
| 457. | Monastery at Mandalay | 368 | 490. | Chinese Roof with I'rimoya Gables | 453 |
| 458. | Map of Cambodia and Siam, showing the position of the principal temples | 377 | 491. | Bracket Group | 454 |
| 459. | Plan of the Temple of Angkor Vât | 381 | 492. | Temple of the Great Dragon, Pekin | 458 |
| 460. | Elevation of the Temple of Nakhon Vât | 382 | 493. | Monumental Gateway of Buddhist Monastery, Pekin | 462 |
| 461. | Diagram Section of Corridor, Angkor Vât | 383 | 494. | Buddhist Temple in the Summer Palace, near Pekin | 463 |
| 462. | View of exterior of Corridor, Angkor Vât | 384 | 495. | Chinese Grave | 465 |
| 463. | View of interior of Corridor, Angkor Vât | 385 | 496. | Chinese Tomb | 465 |
| 464. | General View of Temple of Angkor Vât | 387 | 497. | Plan of the Tomb of Yung-lo | 466 |
| 465. | Pier of Porch, Angkor Vât | 388 | 498. | Group of Tombs near Pekin | 467 |
| 466. | Lower part of Pier, Angkor Vât | 389 | 499. | Porcelain Tower, Nankin | 470 |
| 467. | Plan of the Temple of Bayon, Angkor Thom | 393 | 500. | Pagoda in Summer Palace, near Pekin | 471 |
| 468. | One of the towers of the Temple of Bayon, Angkor Thom | 394 | 501. | P'ai-lu, near Canton | 473 |
| 469. | Plan of the Temple at Beng Beng Méaleâ | 395 | 502. | Chinese P'ai-lu, Temple of Confucius, Pekin | 474 |
| 470. | Bird's-eye View of the Temple at Beng Méaleâ | 396 | 503. | P'ai-lu at Amoy | 475 |
| 471. | Carved Lintel of the Temple at Bassak | 398 | 504. | Plan of Tai-ho Hall, Pekin | 477 |
| 472. | Ruins of a Pagoda at Ayuthiâ, Siam | 405 | 505. | Section of Tai-ho Hall | 478 |
| 473. | Transverse Section of the Bot of Vât Jaï, Sukhodaya | 406 | 506. | Pavilion in the Summer Palace, near Pekin | 480 |
| 474. | The Great Tower of the Pagoda Vât-ching at Bangkok | 410 | 507. | View in the Winter Palace, Pekin | 482 |
| 475. | Hall of Audience at Bangkok | 412 | 508. | Archway in Nan-kau Pass | 484 |
| 476. | Map of principal Temples of Jâva | 421 | 509. | Bird's-eye View of the Buddhist Temple of Ike-gami, near Yedo (Tôkio) | 490-491 |
| 477. | Half-plan of Temple of Boro-Budur | 423 | 510. | Roof of Sangatsu-dô, Todaiji, Nara | 495 |
| 478. | Elevation and Section of Temple of Boro-Budur | 423 | 511. | Plan of the Hôriuji Pagoda | 497 |
| | | | 512. | Section of Hôriuji Pagoda | 498 |

List of Plates to Vol. II.

v2.c23.1

| PLATE | | |
| XVIII. | TEMPLE OF PÂRSWANÂTH AT KHAJURAHO . . . | *Frontispiece* |
| XIX. | OLD JAINA TEMPLE AT LAKKUNDI . . . | *To face page* 23 |
| XX. | DOME IN VIMALA'S TEMPLE, MOUNT ÂBÛ . . | ,, 40 |
| XXI. | INTERIOR OF TEJAHPALÂ'S TEMPLE AT MOUNT ÂBÛ | ,, 42 |
| XXII. | RÂNPUR CHAUMUKH TEMPLE, GENERAL VIEW OF, FROM S.E. . . . . . . | ,, 47 |
| XXIII. | HUCHCHHÎMALLÎGUDI TEMPLE AT AIHOLE . . | ,, 119 |
| XXIV. | KÎRTTI-STAMBHA AT VADNAGAR . . . . | ,, 136 |
| XXV. | SINNAR: TEMPLE OF GONDESVARA, FROM THE SOUTH | ,, 144 |
| XXVI. | AMARANÂTH SAIVA TEMPLE, NEAR KALYÂN . | ,, 147 |
| XXVII. | TEMPLE OF JUGAL KISHOR AT BRINDÂBAN . | ,, 157 |
| XXVIII. | PALACE IN GWÂLIAR FORT, FROM THE ASCENT | ,, 176 |
| XXIX. | 'ALÂÎ GATEWAY AT OLD DELHI . . . | ,, 210 |
| XXX. | RAUZA OF IBRÂHÎM 'ÂDIL SHÂH II., AT BIJÂPÛR . | ,, 273 |
| XXXI. | TOMBS BEYOND THE COURTYARD AT GOLKONDA . | ,, 280 |
| XXXII. | MOSQUE OF SHER SHÂH IN PURÂNÂ KILÂ, DELHI | ,, 286 |
| XXXIII. | TOMB OF THE EMPEROR HUMÂYÛN, NEAR DELHI | ,, 290 |
| XXXIV. | TOMB OF NAWÂB SAFDAR JANG, NEAR DELHI | ,, 324 |
| XXXV. | DECORATION OF THE PIERS INSIDE THE NAN-PAYÂ TEMPLE, MYINPAGAN . . . . . | ,, 339 |
| XXXVI. | THE ABHAYADÂNA TEMPLE . . . . | ,, 343 |
| XXXVII. | THE SHWE-DAGÔN, RANGOON . . . . | ,, 346 |
| XXXVIII. | THE KYAUKTAUGYÎ TEMPLE, AMARAPURA . | ,, 353 |
| XXXIX. | WINDOW OF NAN-PAYÂ TEMPLE, MYINPAGÂN | ,, 354 |
| XL. | THE PITAKAT-TAIK, PAGÂN . . . . | ,, 356 |
| XLI. | THE ÂNANDA TEMPLE, PAGÂN . . . | ,, 361 |
| XLII. | UPPER PORCH OF TSÛLÂMANI TEMPLE, PAGÂN | ,, 362 |
| XLIII. | THITSÂWADA TEMPLE, PAGÂN . . . | ,, 364 |
| XLIV. | 1. GOPURA AT PREA KHANE (PRAH-KHAN); 2. THE SPEAN TAON NÂGA-HEAD . . | ,, 378 |
| XLV. | CORRIDOR OF TEMPLE AT PRAH-KHAN . | ,, 379 |
| XLVI. | PHRA-CHEDI AND PHRA-PRANG . . . | ,, 407 |
| XLVII. | VÂT SISAVAI, SUKHODAYA . . . . | ,, 409 |
| XLVIII. | PLAN OF THE VAT NÂ PHRA-THÂT, LOPHABURI . | ,, 411 |
| XLIX. | CHANDI BHÎMA . . . . . . | ,, 431 |
| L. | CHANDI ARJUNA . . . . . . | ,, 432 |

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| PLATE | | |
| LI. | BAS-RELIEFS FROM BORO-BUDUR . . . . . | *To face page* 432 |
| LII. | CHANDI JABANG . . . . . . . | „ 433 |
| LIII. | CHANDI SARI . . . . . . . | „ 437 |
| LIV. | CHANDI KALI-BENING . . . . . . | „ 438 |
| LV. | CHANDI PANATARAN . . . . . . | „ 442 |
| LVI. | CHANDI PANATARAN . . . . . . | „ 443 |
| LVII. | 1. MEMORIAL AT BLITAR, NEAR PANATARAN ; 2. TEMPLE AT PANATARAN . . . . . | „ 444 |
| LVIII. | BUDDHIST TEMPLE T'SIANG CHA . . . . | „ 464 |
| LIX. | PA-LI CHWANG PAGODA, NEAR PEKIN . . . . | „ 472 |
| LX. | TEMPLE, ENTRANCE GATE, AND PAGODA OF HÔRIUJI | „ 493 |
| LXI. | THE YÔ-MEI-MON GATE, NIKKÔ . . . . | „ 496 |
| LXII. | THE PAGODA OF HÔRIUJI . . . . . . | „ 497 |
| LXIII. | THE BELFRY AT KAWA-SAKI . . . . . | „ 499 |
| LXIV. | BELFRY IN THE IÊ-YASU TEMPLE AT NIKKÔ . . | „ 499 |
| LXV. | CASTLE OF YEDO (TÔKIO) . . . . . | „ 500 |

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A HISTORY

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OF INDIAN AND EASTERN

Book V. Jaina Architecture.

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INTRODUCTORY.

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THE Jaina sect sprang up almost contemporaneously with the Buddhist: Vardhamâna, their last apostle, was a native of Vaisâlî, in Tirhût, a contemporary of Sâkyamuni Buddha and died at Pâwâ in Bihâr, during the lifetime of the latter.¹ They are in two divisions—the Digambaras, that is, those "whose covering is the air," who regard nudity as a sign of holiness, though they are now obliged to part from the outdoor practice of their theory; and the Swetâmbaras, who are "clad in white." The Jaina religious theories and practices, in many respects, closely resemble those of the Buddhists. They acknowledge no supreme governor, believe in transmigration, regard all animal life as sacred, reverence the Jinas or Tîrthankaras, because they believe them to have overcome all human desires, and to have attained Nirvâna; but they have no veneration for relics. They consist of ecclesiastics—Yatis or Sâdhus—and lay hearers or Srâvaks. The laity are chiefly engaged in trade and banking.² Jains are numerous in the larger towns all over India, but especially in Râjputâna, Gujarât, and neighbouring provinces, and also in Kanara and Mysore, where they are mostly Digambaras.

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¹ *Ante*, vol. i. p. 130.

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² For a sketch of their history and doctrines, see Bühler's 'Indian Sect of the Jainas,' English translation (London, 1903); and for their ritual, 'Indian Antiquary,' vol. xiii. pp. 191ffg.

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Altogether the Jains form a small section of the population of India, according to the last census, numbering about 1,334,000 or scarcely 1 in 221 of the whole population.¹ They are by far more numerous in western India and Râjputâna than elsewhere; thus in Râjputâna there are 111,600 of the Digambara division, and fully twice as many Svetâmbaras; whereas in Mysore where the Digambaras outnumber the others by 6 to 1, they only count 11,700, and, whilst numerically fewer, they are equally less influential than their co-religionists farther north.²

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¹ The following statement, from the census returns of 1901, will indicate the distribution of the Jains:—

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² The Digambaras seem to have migrated to the south, owing to a severe famine in Hindustan, somewhere about 50 B.C. perhaps under the leadership of the later Bhadrabâhu.—‘Indian Antiquary,’ vol. xx. pp. 350f; and xxi. pp. 159f.

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The proper objects of worship are the twenty-four Jinas or Tîrthankaras, but, like the Buddhists, they allow the existence of Hindû gods, and have admitted into their sculptures at least such of them as are connected with the tales of their saints—among which are Indra or Sakra, Garuda, Sarasvatî, Lakshmî, Asuras, Nâgas, Râkshasas, Gandharvas, Apsarasas, etc., forming a pantheon of their own, divided into four classes—Bhavanâdhipatis, Vyantaras, Jyotishkas, and Vaimânikas.³

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³ Appendix to Bühler’s ‘Indian Sect of the Jainas,’ English translation, pp. 61 *et seqq.*

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The Tîrthankaras are each recognisable by a cognizance or *chihna*, usually placed below the image; and they are sometimes represented as of different colours or complexions: thus the first five are of yellow or golden colour, as are also the 7th, 10th and 11th, 13th to 18th, 21st and 24th; the 6th and 12th are red; the 8th and 9th, white or fair; the 19th and 23rd are blue; and the 20th and 22nd, black. Each has his own sacred tree, and is attended by a male and female Yaksha or spirit, usually represented on the right and left ends of the *âsana* or throne of the image, whilst a third attendant is carved on the centre of it. The Tîrthankaras with their distinctive signs, etc., are given in the following table:—

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| In Bombay Presidency, Barodâ and smaller states . . | 584,240 |
| Râjputâna including Ajmîr . . . | 362,517 |
| Panjâb . . . . . | 50,020 |
| United Provinces and Oudh . . . | 84,582 |
| Central India . . . . . | 112,998 |
| Central Provinces and Berâr . . . | 67,822 |
| Haidarâbâd . . . . . | 20,345 |
| Mysore and Coorg . . . . | 13,709 |
| Madras Presidency . . . . | 27,437 |
| Bengal, Âsâm, Kashmîr, etc. . . . | 10,478 |
| Total Jaina population . . . | 1,334,148 |

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| No. | Name. | Distinctive Sign. | Born. | Died. |
| 1 | Âdi-nâtha or Rishabha . | Bull . . . | Vinitanagarî . | Ashtâpada . |
| 2 | Ajita-nâtha . . | Elephant . . | Ayodhyâ . . | Samet Sikhar |
| 3 | Sambhava . . | Horse . . . | Srâvasti . . | ” |
| 4 | Abhinandana . . | Ape . . . | Ayodhyâ . . | ” |
| 5 | Sumati-nâtha . . | Curlew . . . | ” | ” |
| 6 | Padmaprabha . . | Lotus . . . | Kausâmbî . . | ” |
| 7 | Supârsva-nâtha . . | Swastika mark . | Benares . . | ” |
| 8 | Chandraprabha . . | Crescent-moon . | Chandrapura . | ” |
| 9 | Pushpadanta . . | Crocodile . . | Kânandînagari | ” |
| 10 | Sîtala-nâtha . . | Srîvatsa mark . | Bhadrapura . | ” |
| 11 | Sreyâmsa-nâtha . . | Rhinoceros . . | Simhapura . . | ” |
| 12 | Vâsapûjya . . | Buffalo . . . | Champâpurî . | Champâpurî |
| 13 | Vimala-nâtha . . | Boar . . . | Kampîlyapura . | Samet Sikhar |
| 14 | Ananta-nâtha . . | Falcon . . . | Ayodhyâ . . | ” |
| 15 | Dharma-nâtha . . | Thunderbolt . | Ratnapurî . . | ” |
| 16 | Sânti-nâtha . . | Antelope . . | Gajapura } or Hastinapura . | ” |
| 17 | Kunthu-nâtha . . | Goat . . . | | ” |
| 18 | Ara-nâtha . . | Nandyâvarta mark | | ” |
| 19 | Malli-nâtha . . | Water-jar . . | Mathurâ . . | ” |
| 20 | Munisuvrata . . | Tortoise . . | Râjagriha . . | ” |
| 21 | Nami-nâtha . . | Blue water-lily . | Mathurâ . . | ” |
| 22 | Nemi-nâtha . . | Conch shell . . | Sauripura . . | Mt Girnâr . |
| 23 | Pârswa-nâtha . . | Serpent . . | Benares . . | Samet Sikhar |
| 24 | Mahâvîra, or Vardhamâna | Lion . . . | Kundagrâma . | Pâwâpuri . |

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Among these the most frequently represented are the first, sixteenth, and last three.

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There are few of the problems connected with this branch of our subject so obscure and so puzzling as those connected with the early history of the architecture of the Jains. This style, always singularly chaste and elegant, was essentially Hindû, and was doubtless largely common to all Hindû sects in western India, but in its evolution it became modified by Jaina taste and requirements. And, the Brâhmans in turn, through the influence of the workmen, gradually accepted most of the stylistic improvements of their rivals. This seems to have been more especially the case in Gujarât and Râjputâna, where the Jains were very numerous and influential, and we might almost with equal propriety designate their style of architecture as a Western Hindû style; but this would lead to the inclusion of examples of greater diversity, and interfere with clearness of treatment. When we first practically meet with it in the early part of the 11th century at Âbû, or at Girnâr, it is a style complete and perfect in all its parts, evidently the result of long experience and continuous artistic development. From that point it progresses during one or two centuries towards greater richness, but in doing so loses the purity and perfection it had attained at the earlier period, and from that culminating point its downward progress can be traced through abundant examples to the present day.

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When, however, we try to trace its upward progress the case is widely different. General Cunningham found some Jaina statues at Mathurâ belonging to the period of the Kushan kings, and excavations there in 1887 and following seasons, brought to light portions of a carved rail, statues, and numerous other sculptures, belonging to a stûpa, and two or more ancient temples there; but among them were images belonging to so late a date as the 11th century.¹ Before this last period, we have only fragments of temples of uncertain origin and date, and all in so very ruined a condition that they hardly assist us in our researches. Yet the Jains during the whole of this interval were a flourishing community, and had their temples as well as their rock-cut sanctuaries, such as we see at Khandagiri in Orissa, at Junâgadh, Elûrâ, Ankai, Aihole, and elsewhere.

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¹ 'Archæological Reports,' vol. i. pp. 231-244, plates 39 and 40; vol. iii. pp. 31 *et seqq.*, plates 13 and 15; vol. xi. p. 75; vol. xvii. pp. 107-112, and plates 30 and 31; vol. xx. pp. 30-39, and plates 2-5; V. Smith, 'The Jain Stûpa, etc., of Mathurâ.'

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Meanwhile one thing seems tolerably clear, that the religion of the Buddhists and that of the Jains were so similar to one another, both in their origin and their development and doctrines, that their architecture must also at first have been nearly the same. In consequence of this, if we could trace back Jaina art from about the year 1000, when practically we first meet it, to the year 600 or 700, when we lose sight of Buddhist art, we should probably find the two very much alike. Or if, on the other hand, we could trace Buddhist art from A.D. 600 to A.D. 1000, we should as probably find it developing itself into something like the temples on Mount Âbû, and elsewhere, at that period of time.

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A strong presumption that the architecture of the two sects was similar arises from the fact of their principal sculptures being so nearly identical that it is not always easy for the casual observer to distinguish what belongs to the one and what to the other; and it requires some experience to do this readily. The Tîrthankaras are generally represented seated in the same cross-legged attitude as Buddha, with the same curly hair, and the same stolid contemplative expression of countenance. Where, however, the emblems that accompany the Jaina saints can be recognised, this difficulty does not exist. Another test arises from the fact that the Digambara Jaina saints are represented as naked which, in ancient times, was perhaps the orthodox sect, though the Swetâmbaras are clothed much like the Buddhists. When, therefore, a figure of the class is represented as naked it may certainly be assumed to belong to the Digambara sect; the Swetâmbara images have a loin-cloth; these and other traits, as the attendant Yakshas and Yakshinîs carved on the thrones, and the position of the hands, enable us to distinguish between Buddhist and Jaina bas-reliefs and sculptures. Probably all the earlier Jaina caves were excavated for Digambara Jains.¹

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¹ In Jaina images the hands are always laid in the lap, the clothing is scanty even on Swetâmbara images, and the thrones and attendants differ, whilst the Jinas or Arhats only have cognisances, and the Srîvatsa figure on the breast. The figures of Pârswanâth are distinguished by snake-hoods over them; and with the Digambaras, Supârswa—the seventh Jina—has a smaller group of hoods over his head. The Swetâmbaras also decorate their images with crowns and ornaments; the other sect do not.

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It is now quite apparent that, in consequence of our knowledge of Buddhist architecture being derived almost exclusively from rock-cut examples, we miss a great deal which, if derived from structural buildings, would probably solve this question of early similarity among other problems that perplex us.

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The same remarks apply equally to the Jaina caves. Those at Udayagiri, Junâgadh, Bâdâmi, Elûrâ, and Ânkai, do not help us in our investigation, because they are not copies of structural buildings, but are rock-cut examples, which had grown up into a style of their own, distinct from that of structural edifices.

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The earliest hint we get of a twelve-pillared dome, such as those universally used by the Jains, is in a sepulchre at Mylassa in Caria,² probably belonging to the 4th century. A second hint is found in the great cave at Bâgh (Woodcut No. 113) in the 6th or 7th century, and there is little doubt that others will be found when looked for—but where? In the valley of the Ganges, and wherever the Muhammadans settled in force, it would be in vain to look for them. These zealots found the slender and elegant pillars, and the richly carved horizontal domes of the Jains, so appropriate and so easily re-arranged for their purposes, that they utilised all they cared not to destroy. The great mosques of Ajmîr, Delhi, Kanauj, Dhâr, and Ahmadâbâd, are merely reconstructed temples of the Hindûs and Jains. There is, however, nothing in any of them that seems to belong to a very remote period—nothing in fact that can be carried back to times long, if at all, anterior to the year 1000. So we must look further for the cause of their loss.

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² ‘Ancient and Medieval Architecture,’ vol. i. p. 371, Woodcut No. 242.

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As mentioned in the introduction the curtain drops on the drama of Indian history about the year 650, or a little later, and for three centuries we have only the faintest glimmerings of what took place within her boundaries. Civil wars seem to have raged everywhere, and religious persecution may have prevailed. When the curtain again rises we have an entirely new scene and new *dramatis personæ* presented to us. Buddhism had disappeared, except in a corner of Bengal, and Jainism had continued in influence throughout the west, and Vaishnavism had usurped its inheritance in the east. It was most probably during these three centuries of misrule that the structural temples and vihâras of the Buddhists disappeared, and the earlier temples of the Jains; and there is a gap consequently in our history which may be filled up by new discoveries in remote places,¹ but which at present separates this chapter from the account of Buddhist Architecture in Book I. in a manner it is not pleasant to contemplate.

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¹ The antiquities of Java will probably, to some extent at least, supply this deficiency, as will be pointed out in the account of the architecture of the island.

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264. Yavâna guard at Rânî-ka-naur Cave, Udayagiri.

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JAINA CAVES.

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CONTENTS.

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Orissa Caves—Bâdâmi and Aihole—Dhârâsinvâ—Ânkai—Elûrâ.

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The Jains, like the other sects, excavated cave-dwellings or *bhikshugrihas* for their recluses; but the nature of their religion did not require large assembly halls like the chaityas of the Buddhists. They naturally followed the fashion of the other contemporary sects, to which indeed all India was accustomed. We find them, consequently, excavating caves in Orissa and at Junâgadh or Girnâr in Gujarât, as early as the 2nd century B.C., and at later dates at Bâdâmi, at Pâtna in Khandesh, at Elûrâ, Ânkai, and elsewhere.¹ And before entering upon the characteristic examples of the later Jaina Architecture, it may be as well, at this stage, to give some account of the cave architecture of the sect.

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¹ Buddhist and Jaina caves are known all over India as *lenas*.

Orissa Caves.

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The Orissa caves have already been referred to, as they were long mistaken as a group of Buddhist excavations.² They are probably as old as anything of the kind in India and, unless some of the Bihâr excavations were Jaina, they are the earliest caves of the sect. The oldest and most numerous are in the hill on the east called Udayagiri; the more modern in the western portion designated Khandagiri. The picturesqueness of their forms, the character of their sculptures and architectural details, combined with their great antiquity, render them one of the most important groups of caves in India, and one that is most deserving of a careful scientific survey. The accompanying plan (Woodcut No. 265) will help the reader to understand their arrangement.

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² *Ante*, vol. i. p. 177.

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What we know of the age of the older caves here is principally derived from a long inscription on the front of one of the oldest, known as the Hâthî-gumphâ or Elephant Cave. It is unfortun-

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265. Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves in Orissa.¹ Scale 150 ft. to 1 in.

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ately in a very dilapidated condition, but from the latest and fullest translation of it,¹ we learn that a king Khâravela of Kalinga constructed rock-dwellings and bestowed abundant gifts on Jaina devotees, and that he assisted the Andhra king Sâtakarni; also that the thirteenth year of his reign coincided with the 165th of the Maurya Era, that is, about 155 B.C.² Palæographically also, the forms of the letters used in this and some other inscriptions here are almost identical with those used by Asoka in the copy of his edicts on the Dhauli rock close by, and in that found at Jaugada, near the southern corner of the Chilkya lake. The first presumption, therefore, is that they may be within a century of the same date, which is supported by this inscription.

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¹ References :— *Udayagiri caves*:—1. Rânî Hansapûra cave; 2, 3. Vajadâra caves; 4. Chhotâ Hâthî-gumphâ; 5. Alakâpûri; 6. Jayavijaya; 7. Thâkurani; 8. Panasa-gumphâ; 9. Pâtâlapuri; 10. Manchapûri; 11. Ganesa-gumphâ; 12. Dhânagarha; 13. Hâthî-gumphâ; 14. Sarpa-gumphâ; 15. Bâgha-gumphâ; 16. Jambesvara; 17. Haridâsa-gumphâ; 18. Jagannâtha; 19. Rasui. *Khandagiri caves*:—*a*, *b*. Tâtwâ-gumphâ, Nos. 1 and 2; *c*. An open cave; *d*. Tentuli; *e*. Ananta-gumphâ; *f*. Khandagiri-gumphâ; *g*. Dhânagarha; *h*. Nabamuni; *j*. Bârabhuji; *k*. Trisula-gumphâ; *l*. Jaina Temple; *m*. Small votive stûpas; *n*. Ruined caves; *o*. Lalâtendra-gumphâ; *p*. Akâsa-gangâ.

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¹ This inscription first attracted the attention of Stirling, and a plate, representing it very imperfectly, is given in the 15th volume of the ‘Asiatic Researches.’ It was afterwards copied by Kittoe, and a translation, as far as its imperfection admitted, made by Prinsep (‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. vi. pp. 1080ff.) In 1866 Pandit Bhagwânlâl Indrâji, Ph. D., made a careful copy of it on the spot, and Mr. Locke in 1871-1872 took a plaster cast of it: from these the Pandit studied the record afresh, and published his version in the ‘Actes du sixième Congrès internat. des Orientalistes’ (Leiden, 1884), vol. iii. pt. 2, pp. 135-149. This gave quite a new point in Indian Chronology.—‘Epigraphia Indica,’ vol. ii. pp. 88, 89.

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² Even as late as 1880, Bâbu Râjendralâl Mitra, who had the most ample opportunities of examining every detail of the Orissa caves, had no suspicion of their being of other than Buddhist origin; and his reading of the Hâthî-gumphâ inscription—like the whole of his work—is simply worthless.—‘Antiquities of Orissa,’ vol. ii. pp. 17ff.

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The inscription, as well as another in the Svargapûri or Vaikuntha cave, also commences with a distinctively Jaina formula—a very important point that had previously been overlooked. This supports the conclusion stated above as to the origin of these caves.³

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³ Hiuen Tsiang, in the 7th century stated that Kalinga was then one of the chief seats of the Jains.—Beal, ‘Buddhist Records,’ vol. ii. p. 208.

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This Hâthî-gumphâ cave, probably the oldest here, looks as if it might have been a great natural cavern, the brow of which had been smoothed to admit of the inscription. There are indications, however, that it had at least been improved by art; but the rock is of loose and friable texture, and the present state of the cave is largely due to decay; besides, so important a record would hardly be placed over an excavation of no consideration.

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The whole style of the architecture and sculpture in the older caves here points to a period quite as early as that of the Sânchi gateways and the small vihâra at Bhâjâ, and we cannot be far wrong in ascribing most of them at least to the 2nd century before our era. Nor is any trace of Buddhism found among them: the figures of Gaja Lakshmî or Srî, of snakes, sacred trees, the Svastika and other symbols are all as much Jaina as Buddhist, and in several of the caves —not perhaps the earliest — are found figures of the Jaina Tîrthankaras and their attendants.¹

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¹ It is to be regretted that when the Bengal Government twice sent survey parties to Orissa, and spent so much on the publication of their work, no adequate directions were given as to what should be observed and illustrated.

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Close to the Hâthî-gumphâ is a small cave, known as Sarpa, the whole fronton of which over the doorway is occupied by a great three-headed Nâga, and may be as old as the Hâthî cave. The inscription on it merely says that it is "the unequalled chamber of Chûlakama," who seems also to have excavated another cave here, to the west of the Hâthî-gumphâ, called Haridâsa²—a long room with three doorways behind a verandah.

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² This was called Pawan-gumphâ by Prinsep — probably by mistake. The names attached to the different caves, however, are much confused in the different accounts: that called Vaikunthapûri by Kittoe and R. Mitra seems to be now called Svargapûri; the Alakâpûri, a double-storeyed cave, is apparently the Svargapûri of Râjendralâl Mitra, who mixes up the Alakâpûri and Chhota Hâthî-gumphâ; the Jodev cave of Kittoe has been called Jayavijaya; the names of Pâtâlapûri and Manchapûri have been interchanged by Râjendralâl; and so on,—making it almost impossible to reconcile the various accounts.—'Official Report to Bengal Government, by Bâbu Manmohan Chakravarti,' August 1902.

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Besides these, and smaller caves to be noticed hereafter, the great interest of the Udayagiri caves centres in two—the so-called Ganesa cave, and that called the Râj Rânî, Rânî-kâ-naur, or Rânî Hansapûra, or simply Rânî-gumphâ, from a baseless Hindû tradition that it was excavated by the Rânî of Lalâtendra Kesarî, the reputed builder of the Bhuvaneswar temple in the 7th century.

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The former is a small cave, consisting of two cells, together 30 ft. long by 10 ft. wide, in front of which is a verandah, slightly longer, that was once adorned with five pillars, though only three are now standing (Woodcut No. 266).³ There is an inscription on the back wall of this cave in mediæval characters, dedicating it to Jagannâth; but this is evidently an addition, probably cut when the image of Ganesa was also inserted.⁴ The style of the architecture may be judged of from the annexed woodcut, representing one of its pillars (Woodcut No. 267). They are of extreme simplicity, being square piers, changing into octagons in the centre only, and with a slight bracket of very wooden construction on each face. The four doorways leading into the cells are adorned with the usual horseshoe-formed canopies copied from the fronts of the chaitya halls, and which we are now so familiar with from the Bharaut sculptures, and from the openings common to all wooden buildings of that age. The compartments between the doors of the cells contain figure sculptures—one of them seemingly almost a replica of a scene on the frieze of the upper storey of the Rânî-gumphâ. The centre panel is occupied by a roof carved in low relief with three pinnacles, and a rail-pattern frieze over it.

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³ A recent attempt has been made on the part of Government to "restore" these caves. This was ill-advised, and the restored elephants at the entrance steps here do not conform to the original figures, whilst the new pillars do little credit to the Executive.

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⁴ 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,' vol. vi. p. 1075.

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266. Ganesa Cave. (From a Plan by Mr. Locke.) Scale 50 ft. to 1 in.

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267. Pillar in Ganesa Cave, Katak. (From a Sketch by the Author.)

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The other cave is very much larger, being two storeys in height, both of which were originally adorned by verandahs: the upper 63 ft. long, opening into four cells, the lower 43 ft., opening into three (Woodcuts No. 268 and 269). All the doors leading into these cells have jambs sloping slightly inwards, which is itself a sufficient indication that the cave is long anterior to the Christian Era. Of the nine pillars of the upper verandah only two remain standing, and these much

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268. Upper storey, Rânî-gumphâ. Scale 50 ft. to 1 in.

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269. Lower storey, Rânî-gumphâ. (From Plans by H. H. Locke.)

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mutilated, while all the six of the lower storey have perished.¹ It seems as if from inexperience the excavators had not left sufficient substance to support the mass of rock above, and probably in consequence of some accident, the mass above fell in, bearing everything before it. Either then, or at some subsequent period, an attempt has been made to restore the lower verandah in wood, and for this purpose a chase has been cut through the sculptures that adorned its back wall, and they have been otherwise so mutilated that it is almost impossible to make out their meaning. The accompanying section (No. 270) will illustrate the position of this wooden adjunct and that of the two storeys of this cave. Fortunately, the sculptures of the upper verandah are tolerably entire, though in some parts they, too, have been very badly treated.

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¹ The pillars in both storeys were restored a few years ago by slender shafts, described by the Collector of Puri as "shoddy work of the most gim-crack description."—'Report to Government of Bengal,' 16th May 1902.

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270. Section of Rânî-gumphâ. Scale 25 ft. to 1 in.

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Besides this, which may be called the main body of the building, two wings project forward; that on the left 40 ft., that on the right 20 ft; and, as these contained cells on both storeys, the whole afforded accommodation for a considerable number of inmates.

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The great interest of these two caves, however, lies in their sculptures. In the Ganesa cave, as already mentioned, there are two bas-reliefs. The first represents a man asleep under a tree, and a woman watching over him. To them a woman is approaching, leading a man by the hand, as if to introduce him to the sleeper. Beyond them a man and a woman are fighting with swords and shields in very close combat, and behind them a man is carrying off a female in his arms.¹

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¹ There is a very faithful drawing of this bas-relief by Kittoe in the 'Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,' vol. vii. plate 44. But casts of all these sculptures were taken in 1871-1872 by Mr. Locke, of the School of Art, Calcutta, and photographs, some of which were published on plate 100 of 'Tree and Serpent Worship,' 2nd ed., 1873; 'Cave Temples,' plate 1; and in Râjendralâl Mitra's 'Antiquities of Orissa,' vol. ii. plates 6-14.

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The second bas-relief comprises fifteen figures and two elephants. There may be in it two successive scenes, though my impression is, that only one is intended, while I feel certain this is the case regarding the first. In the Rânî cave the second bas-relief is identical, in all essential respects, with the first in the Ganesa, but the reliefs that precede and follow it represent different scenes altogether. It is, perhaps, in vain to speculate what episode this rape scene represents, probably some tradition not yet identified; its greatest interest for our present purposes is that the first named is singularly classical in design and execution, the latter wilder, and both in action and costume far more purely Indian. Before the discovery of the Bharaut sculptures, it is hardly doubtful that we would have pronounced those in the Ganesa cave the oldest, as being the most perfect. The Bharaut sculptures, however, having shown us how perfect the native art was at a very early date, have considerably modified our opinions on this subject; and those in the Rânî cave, being so essentially Indian in their style, now appear to me the oldest. Those in the Ganesa-gumphâ, as more classical, may have been executed at a subsequent date, but still both long anterior to the Christian Era. The other bas-reliefs in the Râj-Rânî cave represent scenes of hunting, fighting, dancing, drinking, and love-making—anything, in fact, but religion or praying in any shape or form.

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From the sculptures at Sânchi and Bharaut, we were prepared to expect that we should not find any direct evidence of Mahâyâna Buddhism in sculptures anterior to the Christian Era; but those at this place are not Buddhist but Jaina, and till we are better acquainted with the Jaina legends than we are at present, we cannot hope to determine what such sculptures really represent. Besides these bassi-rilievi, there is in the Rânî cave a figure, in high relief, of a female (?) riding on a lion. Behind him or her, a soldier in a kilt, or rather the dress of a Roman soldier, with laced boots reaching to the calf of the leg (Woodcut No. 264)—very similar, in fact, to those represented on plate 28, fig. 1, of ‘Tree and Serpent Worship,’ as strangers paying their addresses to a three-storeyed stûpa—and behind this, again, a female of foreign aspect.

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In another cave of the same group—the Jayavijaya, called by Kittoe the Jodev-Garbha—and of about the same age, between the two doorways leading to the cells, a sacred tree is being worshipped by two men and two women with offerings. It is surrounded by the usual rail, and devotees and others are bringing offerings.¹ The verandah has a male figure outside at the left end, and a female at the right.

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¹ ‘Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,’ vol. vii. plate 42.

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In yet another cave, in the Khandagiri hill, similar in plan to the Ganesa cave, and probably older than either of the two last-mentioned, called Ananta-garbha, are bassi-rilievi over the doorways: one—on the right—is devoted, like the last, to Tree worship, the other to the honour of Srî (*vide ante*, vol. i. p. 50). She is standing on her lotus, and two elephants, standing likewise on lotuses, are pouring water over her.² The same representation occurs once, at least, at Bharaut, and ten times at Sânchi, and, so far as I know, is the earliest instance of honour paid to god or man in Indian sculptures. The third to the left is partly broken away by the fall of the wall between the next two doors; but enough is left to show that it represented Sûrya, the sun-god, in his chariot drawn by four horses, with his two wives, much as in the small early vihâra at Bhâjâ;¹ and the fourth had been filled by a large elephant facing outwards, with one on each side holding up flowers. The arches over these sculptures and the frieze connecting them are also carved with figures in quaint positions or flying, and each arch is covered by two triple-headed serpents whose hoods are raised at the sides of the arches.

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