Elements of Hindu Iconography v2.c15: Errata
Elements of Hindu Iconography v2.c15
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- English
Errata
v2.c15.1
| Page | Line | | For | | Read |
| 5 | 5 | ... | was | ... | were |
| 9 | 8 | ... | Śrikaṇṭha-Śivā- | ... | Śrīkaṇṭhā-Śivā- |
| | | | chārya | | chārya |
| 9 | 12 | ... | gamatvat | ... | gamatvāt |
| 17 | 12 | ... | Pati | ... | Pati |
| 19 | 6 | ... | Ātharva | ... | Atharva. |
| 32 | 4 | ... | was | ... | were |
| 35 | 15 | ... | though unneces- | ... | though it is un- |
| | | | sary to be de- | | necessary to de- |
| | | | tailed here | | tail them here |
| 41 | 24 | ... | to have attempted... | ... | to attempt |
| 42 | 22 | ... | Gaṅgā | ... | Gaṅgā |
| 43 | 14 | ... | an | ... | a |
| 44 | 26 | ... | Mahāndēva | ... | Mahādēva |
| 44 | 27 | ... | Iāśna | ... | Īśāna |
| 48 | 12 | ... | the stomach of Śiva | ... | Śiva's stomach |
| 48 | 13 | ... | the throat of Śiva... | ... | Śiva's throat |
| 48 | 16 | ... | " | ... | " |
| 50 | 14 | ... | Thou King | ... | Thou, King |
| 53 | 12 | ... | the vaidika | ... | the Vaidika |
| 58 | 25 | ... | Mārkaṇḍēya | ... | Mārkaṇḍēya. |
| 62 | 11 | ... | Śankara is | ... | Śankara who is |
| 65 | 1 & 2 | ... | which are believed... | ... | which Mr. Banerji |
| | | | by Mr. Banerji | | believes |
| 65 | 2 | ... | might | ... | may |
| 81 | 11 | ... | Vāmadēva | ... | Nigamajñānadēva |
| 81 | 15 | ... | " | ... | " |
| 81 | 25 | ... | " | ... | " |
| 82 | 25 | ... | Vāmadēvasivā- | ... | Vāmadēvasivā- |
| | | | chārya. | | chārya. |
| 85 | 21 | ... | Vindhyāparvata | ... | Vindhyaparvata. |
v2.c15.2
| Page | Line | For | Read |
| 86 | 20 | ... Sthāvarā lingas ... | Sthāvara lingas |
| 105 | 19 | towhich | to which. |
| 110 | 20 | ... are sculptured against | are not sculptured in accordance with |
| 111 | 1 | ... Fig 2, Pl. XIV ... | Fig 1, Pl. XIV. |
| 113 | 8 | ... and and the skull... | and the skull |
| 119 | 16 | ... makara-kuṇḍala ... | makara-kuṇḍala, |
| 121 | 18 | ... The first comes ... | The first, fig. 1, Pl. XV |
| 125 | 19 | ... carry on | carry an |
| 131 | 4 | ... a utpala flower ... | an utpala flower |
| 137 | 11 | ... with creeper orna-... ment | with a creeper ornament. |
| 140 | 20 | ... catching hold of ... | catching hold |
| 145 | 2 | ... or a pacific, ... | or as a pacific, |
| 148 | 5 | ... of Śiva | of Kāma by Śiva. |
| 148 | 20 | ... and in the com-... pany | and being in the company |
| 150 | 5 | ... said to have told ... | said to have mentioned |
| 152 | 17 | ... piece of sculpture,... | piece of sculpture, Pl. XXX, |
| 157 | 12 | ... says, to Tirukka-... davūr | says, Tirukkaḍavūr |
| 161 | 20 | ... see later on, the ... | see later on that the |
| 163 | 6 | ... with hands ... | with his hands |
| 164 | 12 | ... they desired and ... | they desired and that |
| 165 | 9 | ... with a half of ... | with one half of |
| 165 | 10 | ... stronger than all... other | stronger than all the other |
| 166 | 16 | ... who destroyd ... | who destroyed |
| 168 | 10 | ... upon Apasmāra-... purusha | upon the Apasmārapurusha |
v2.c15.3
| Page | Line | | For | | Read |
| 168 | 16 | ... | *Apasmāra* | ... | Apasmāra |
| 168 | 20 | ... | should be held so... as the | ... | should be held that |
| 168 | 26 | ... | *Apasmārapūrusha* | . | Apasmārapūrusha |
| 170 | 3 | ... | and padmāpāśa | ... | the padma-pāśa |
| 171 | 24 | ... | belongs to the... modern times. | ... | belongs to modern times. |
| 172 | 14 | ... | skin of Narasimha, | ... | skin of Narasimha |
| 173 | 5 & 6 | ... | as carrying with... two of his legs Narasimha | ... | as carrying Narasimha with two of his legs. |
| 174 | 11 | ... | and a face of the... lion | ... | and the face of a lion |
| 175 | 5 | ... | and wearing an | ... | and wearing a |
| 176 | 5 | ... | learnt at the | ... | learnt by the |
| 176 | 8 | ... | Sritatvanidhi | ... | *Sritatvanidhi*. |
| 176 | 16 | ... | in the garments | ... | in garments |
| 177 | 26 | ... | as that of its master. | ... | as its master |
| 178 | 1 | ... | so far for the | ... | so much for the |
| 179 | 17 | ... | should have an | ... | should have |
| 184 | 26 | ... | of demons which | ... | of demons who |
| 185 | 18 | ... | made to the | ... | made for the |
| 187 | 3 | ... | as his underwear | ... | as underwear. |
| 189 | 1 | ... | by dēvas | ... | by the dēvas. |
| 189 | 4 | ... | to Vishnu about... their lot | ... | about their lot to Vishnu |
| 189 | 6 | ... | extorted Vishnu's | ... | evoked Vishnu's |
| 191 | 4 | ... | and the feet of Śiva. | ... | and his feet |
| 192 | 7 | ... | in his ears white, | ... | in his ears white |
| 201 | 15 | ... | stay away in their... midst | ... | stay in their midst |
| 201 | 17 | ... | stopped away at | ... | stopped at |
| 201 | 20 | ... | Lalitōpākhyāna | ... | *Lalitōpākhyana*. |
| 205 | 3 | ... | a Anugrahamūrti... | ... | an Anugrahamūrti. |
| 206 | 16 | ... | was offering | ... | was offering to |
v2.c15.4
| Page | Line | | For | | Read |
| 211 | 16 | ... | the other two ones... | ... | the other two |
| 214 | 11 | ... | a utpala flower | ... | an utpala flower |
| 217 | 6 | ... | Kubēra was | ... | Kubēra, was |
| 218 | 15 | ... | return to Lanka | ... | to return to Lanka. |
| 218 | 15 | *insert* | " at the time" after | " | he cried " |
| 220 | 7 | ... | praising him. | ... | praising Mahādēva. |
| 225 | 9 | ... | and stand | ... | and these stand |
| 226 | 10 | ... | with | ... | holding |
| 227 | 1 | ... | a tortoise shell | ... | tortoise shell. |
| 229 | 12 | ... | Apasmārapurusha... | ... | the Apasmārapuru- |
| | | | | | sha |
| 231 | 3 | ... | Siva | ... | Śiva |
| 231 | 8 | ... | " | ... | " |
| 231 | 9 | ... | turmed | ... | turned |
| 231 | 13 | ... | and if | ... | and, if |
| 235 | 27 (f.n.) | ... | wears | ... | wears. |
| 252 | 10 | ... | extorts | ... | evokes |
| 252 | 16 | ... | The second photo-... | ... | The original of the |
| | | | graph, Pl. LVII, | | second photo- |
| | | | the original of | | graph, Pl. LVII, |
| | | | which was | | which was |
| 252 | 17 | ... | in earth | ... | in the earth |
| 252 | 18 | ... | and is | ... | is |
| 256 | 22 | ... | to carry | ... | should carry |
| 257 | 13 | ... | but rest | ... | but should rest |
| 258 | 6 | ... | dance | ... | dancing |
| 260 | 11 | ... | is known | ... | known |
| 260 | 27 | ... | other | ... | others |
| 263 | 1 | ... | arms | ... | hands |
| 263 | 3 | ... | arm | ... | hand. |
| 269 | 15 | *omit* | ' and ' after ' side ' | | |
| 269 | 18 | ... | on the left | ... | to the left |
| 269 | 19 | ... | Pl. LXIX, | ... | Pl. LXIX |
| 269 | 26 | ... | Kailāsanatha- | ... | Kailāsanatha- |
| | | | svmin | | svāmin. |
v2.c15.5
| Page | Line | | For | | Read |
| 270 | 10 | ... | is | ... | are |
| 273 | 13 | ... | have | ... | has |
| 278 | 20 | ... | has its | ... | has as its |
| 279 | 4 | ... | descend | ... | descends |
| 284 | 7 | ... | a utpala | ... | an utpala |
| 286 | 7 | ... | to be | ... | that it is |
| 286 | 14 | ... | arm | ... | arms |
| 286 | 24 | ... | is | ... | has been |
| 286 | 25 | ... | Śaṅkarāchārya ; | ... | Śaṅkarāchārya. |
| 286 | 25 | ... | on | ... | On |
| 287 | 22 (f.n.) | ... | with thin coat | ... | with a thin coat |
| 289 | 2 | ... | vīṇā, | ... | vīṇā ; |
| 290 | 21 | ... | are added also | ... | are also added |
| 291 | 2 | ... | on the | ... | on a |
| 295 | 21 | ... | accepted | ... | and accepted |
| 297 | 14 | ... | kūrma-purāṇa | ... | Kūrma-purāṇa |
| 299 | 24 (f.n.) | ... | intimated | ... | informed of |
| 300 | 5 | ... | brāhmaṇa | ... | Brāhmaṇa. |
| 300 | 6 | ... | " | ... | " |
| 301 | 5 | ... | at | ... | as |
| 301 | 18 | ... | brāhmaṇas | ... | Brāhmaṇas |
| 305 | 27 | ... | according | ... | according to |
| 307 | 8 | *omit 'the' after 'under'* | | | |
| 308 | 19 | ... | have | ... | has |
| 315 | 7 | *omit 'to' after 'Gaṅgā'* | | | |
| 315 | 16 | *omit 'the' before 'Gaṅgā'* | | | |
| 317 | 25 | ... | arm | ... | hand |
| 318 | 3 | ... | " | ... | " |
| 318 | 4 | ... | " | ... | " |
| 320 | 11 | *omit 'also' after 'is'* | | | |
| 322 | 2 | ... | Thitherto | ... | Until then |
| 322 | 27 | *omit 'over' after 'covered'* | | | |
| 324 | 21 | *insert 'be' after 'may'* | | | |
| 324 | 21 | ... | by | ... | in |
| 327 | 3 | ... | Pl. XCIII | ... | Pl. XCIV |
v2.c15.6
| Page | Line | For | Read |
| 328 | 8 | ... quite | ... quiet |
| 334 | 23 | insert 'that' after 'right' | |
| 335 | 18 | ... isa | ... is a |
| 337 | 6 | omit 'by' after 'but' | |
| 338 | 5 | insert 'even in rendering help' after 'meant' | |
| 338 | 5 | ... by others | ... by any other |
| 338 | 6 | omit 'that of' before 'her' | |
| 338 | 6 | omit 'even in helping others' | |
| 338 | 7 | ... was standing | ... stood |
| 338 | 19 | ... that of Śiva | ... his |
| 339 | 9 | ... in | ... at |
| 339 | 20 | omit the comma after 'gods.' | |
| 340 | 19 | ... to age | ... of age |
| 341 | 6 | ... for | ... to |
| 341 | 20 | omit 'that.' after 'and' | |
| 341 | 27 | ... with | ... in |
| 342 | 22 | insert 'the' after 'of' | |
| 345 | 25 | omit 'in.' after 'busy' | |
| 347 | 18 | omit 'got' after 'not' | |
| 347 | 27 | ... to obtain the hand... | to become Śiva's |
| | | of Śiva | spouse |
| 348 | 19 | insert 'she' after 'reluctance'. | |
| 348 | 21 | ... held | ... holds it |
| 349 | 21 | omit 'even' before 'during' | |
| 349 | 21 | ... two !! | ... two !!. |
| 350 | 1 | ... by | ... of |
| 350 | 2 | ... but | ... and had |
| 350 | 14 | ... outstretched | ... fingers outstret- |
| | | fingers | ched. |
| 353 | 27 | ... carrying | ... should carry |
| 353 | 27 | ... a utpala | ... an utpala. |
| 354 | 2 | ... done | ... sculptured |
| 355 | 25 | insert 'it' after 'find' | |
| 356 | 7 | insert 'hand' after 'right' | |
| 356 | 20 | ... considered | ... regarded as |
v2.c15.7
| Page | Line | | For | | Read |
| 357 | 9 | ... | sight | ... | gaze |
| 357 | 11 | ... | going | ... | about |
| 358 | 6 | ... | to be | ... | to have been |
| 362 | 14 | ... | destruction, (saṃhāra) | ... | destruction (saṃhāra), |
| 365 | 10 | ... | otherwise Īśvara | ... | otherwise called Īśvara |
| 365 | 15 | ... | lengh | ... | length |
| 366 | 22 | ... | beautiful | ... | beautiful, |
| 367 | 2 | ... | and is with a... smiling countenance | ... | and a smiling countenance |
| 367 | 4 | ... | have | ... | has |
| 371 | 23 | ... | ordinary mortals | ... | ordinary mortals, |
| 372 | 2 | ... | heads be adorned | ... | heads should be adorned |
| 372 | 17 | ... | Pl. CXII | ... | Pl. CXIII |
| 373 | 20 | ... | and since | ... | and, since |
| 376 | 8 | ... | authority | ... | authority, |
| 377 | 14 | ... | khaṭvāṅga | ... | khaṭvāṅga, |
| 391 | 21 | ... | an | ... | a |
| 400 | 12 | ... | S. India, | ... | S. India |
| 400 | 15 | ... | whose photograph | ... | and a photograph of it |
| 404 | 20 | ... | Īśvara | ... | Īśvara |
| 417 | 25 | ... | an | ... | a |
| 419 | 26 | ... | was | ... | were |
| 420 | 1 | ... | it | ... | them |
| 420 | 14 | ... | Agni Rudra | ... | Agni, Rudra |
| 429 | 15 | ... | the yajñōpavīta | ... | a yajñōpavīta |
| 433 | 9 | ... | with rubies, | ... | with rubies; |
| 438 | 5 | ... | Tārakāri, | ... | Tārakāri |
| 456 | 18 | ... | as also | ... | and also |
| 458 | 5 & 6 | ... | They informed... this sad news to the father of the boy. | ... | They informed the father of the boy of this sad news. |
v2.c15.8
| Page | Line | For | Read |
| 463 | 2 | ... attained to | ... attained |
| 508 | 6 | ... an | ... a |
| 509 | 6 | ... a | ... an |
| 509 | 15 | ... ana kṣamālā | ... an akṣamālā |
| 516 | 23 | ... and that | ... and it is also stated that |
| 518 | 2 | ... of | ... in |
| 521 | 4 | ... an | ... a |
| 521 | 4 | ... adorns | ... adorn |
| 529 | 14 | ... at the present | ... at the present time |
| 529 | 21 | ... an | ... a |
| 542 | 26 | ... had become | ... became |
| 543 | 20 | ... in | ... at |
| 549 | 13 & 14 | ... Besides, the pre-sent compilation being a close following of | ... Besides, since the present compilation closely follows |
| 551 | 24 | *Omit* 'they requested' after | 'whom' |
| 551 | 27 | ... being disposed | ... having been disposed |
| 552 | 1 | *Omit* 'then' after 'they' | |
| 554 | 10 | ... man | ... men |
| 554 | 14 & 15 | ... Svāyambhuva-manvantara | ... Svāyambhuvamanvantara. |
| 556 | 12 | ... hands | ... palms |
| 561 | 16 | ... pointed | ... pointed out |
| 561 | 16 | ... being | ... was |
| 562 | 4 | ... are | ... is |
| 562 | 15 | ... are | ... is |
| 568 | 2 | ... are | ... is |
| 569 | 3 | ... and is | ... and it is |
| 569 | 4 | ... to be given | ... to give it |
v2.c15.9
ONE of the oldest as also the most widely spread cult in India is that of Śiva. It consisted once of several sects, of which only a few have survived to the present day. Some of them had the sanction of the Vēdas while others were classed as outside the Vēdas or as opposed to them; again, some of them had milder forms of worship, while others practised horrible and shocking rites. The ideas about life, action and liberation differed from sect to sect. It will not be without interest to examine in some detail the history, the main tenets and the ceremonies of a few of the leading sects of Śiva in the following paragraphs.
v2.c15.10
First, as regards the origin of the sects classed as outside the pale of the Vēdas, the following account taken from the Varāha-purāṇa will be of interest. In the forest of Daṇḍaka, situated in the middle of Bhāratavarsha, the ṛishi Gautama had his āśrama (hermitage), round which, he had abundant food-giving plants and trees. There once raged a twelve years' famine during which a number of *rishis* from various other *āśramas* flocked to that of Gautama for food and shelter, and were received with all kindness and treated with great hospitality by Gautama. After the famine abated and the country became again fertile, the *rishis* desired to start out on a pilgrimage to the several famous *tirthas*; one of the *rishis* named Marīcha, thinking that they should not leave the *āśrama* without informing Gautama, but fearing at the same time that he might, in his extreme kindness and hospitality, refuse permission for the pilgrimage, created from *māyā* an enfeebled, old cow and let it graze near Gautama's *āśrama*. Gautama went near the cow to water it; as he went near the cow, it fell down and died. The ungrateful *rishis* attributed to Gautama, the sin of killing a cow and refused to stay any longer in the abode of such a sinful one. Gautama, who did not know this trick of the *rishis*, really believed that he had committed the sin and asked them how he could raise the cow from death. Advising him to sprinkle on it water brought from the Ganges, they departed on their projected pilgrimage. Gautama repaired to the Himālaya and prayed to Śiva a hundred years and got from his *jaṭāmaṇḍala* a
v2.c15.11
small quantity of the water of the Gaṅgā which he sprinkled on the dead cow. The water of this divine river revived the cow and itself began to flow as the river Gōdāvarī. Gautama at last perceived through his mind's eye that the death of the cow and other incidents connected therewith were a clear deceit practised on him by the *ṛishis* and cursed them to become *Vēdabāhyas* or those outside the pale of the Vēdic religion. On their entreaty to abate his anger against them, he was pleased to assure them that though they were outside the Vēdic cult, they would rise to heaven through *bhakti* or devotional love of God. The fallen *ṛishis* went to Kailāsa and prayed to Śiva to grant them some *śāstras* which had a few Vēdic rites at least. Thereupon, the *ṛishis* were decreed to be born to the Raudras, the lovers of spirituous liquors and flesh, who sprang up from the sweat-drops which flowed from Śiva while he was in the aspect of Bhairava, and to these he gave the Pāśupata Śāstra.
v2.c15.12
From the above account one fact becomes clear, namely, that some at least of the followers of the Pāśupata and other non-Vēdic sects were at first followers of the Vēdic religion and gave it up and joined the *avaidika* cults. That the Pāśupata and a few other sects are indeed very ancient may be inferred from ancient authorities. The *Atharvaśiras Upanishad* describes the Pāśupata rite thus: “This is the Pāśupata rite: ‘Agni is ashes, Vāyu is ashes, water is ashes, dry land is ashes, the sky is ashes, all this is ashes, the mind, these eyes are ashes.’ Having taken ashes while pronouncing these preceding words, and rubbing himself, let a man touch his limbs. This is the Pāśupata rite, for the removal of the animal bonds.” Again the Bhīta liṅga and the Guḍimallam liṅga bear clear sculptural evidence of the antiquity of the Śaiva cults. From the summary of the philosophy of a few of the important Śaiva sects given below it would be clear that they have played a prominent part in the Religious History of India.
v2.c15.13
Let us take first the Āgamānta or the Śuddha Śaiva sect. In the Āgamānta Śaiva works it is stated that the Śaivas flourished in a place called Mantrakāḷi situated on the banks of the Gōdāvarī river, that there were four *maṭhas*, beginning with the Āmarddaka *maṭha*, surrounding the temple of Mantrakāḷēśvara, that when Rājēndrachōḷa went to the Ganges on his victorious march in the north he met there these Śaivas, whom he, on his way back to his capital, induced to come and settle down in his kingdom and that from that time
v2.c15.14
History of the Āgamānta Saivas.
v2.c15.15
the Śaivas immigrated into the Toṇḍaimaṇḍala and the Choḷamaṇḍala. Since then an impetus was given to the spread of Śaivaism and a very large number of original works belonging to the Āgamānta school of Śaivaism was written. The Āmarddaka maṭha mentioned above is a famous one and had its branches all over India. For instance, mention is made of this in the Siddhāntasārāvaḷi and the Kriyākramadyōtini, as also in a number of inscriptions.
v2.c15.16
The members of some of these maṭhas were great authors and exerted considerable influence over the sovereigns of various countries. The Kriyākramadyōtini of Aghōraśivāchārya, the Siddhāntasārāvaḷi of Trilōchanaśivāchārya, the Jīrṇoddhāra-daśakam of Nigamajñānadēva, son of Vāmadēvaśivāchārya and many another work will bear testimony to the above statement regarding the literary activity of the Śaiva Brāhmaṇa settlers in the Drāviḍa country. The first of these lived in the Śaka year 1080, the second lived sometime later, for he quotes the former, and the third in the beginning of the fourteenth century A.D. The great Rājarāja, the builder of the Bṛhadiśvara temple at Tanjore, is stated to have appointed a Sarvaśiva Paṇḍita-Śivāchārya as the priest of that temple and to have ordered that thenceforth the śishyas and their *śishyas* alone, belonging to the Āryadēśa, the Madhyadēśa and the Gauḍadēśa, shall be eligible for the office of chief priest.¹ Again, some of these Śaivāchāryas became *rājagurus* or the preceptors of kings, and appear to have wielded such great influence and power that they have sometimes set aside even the royal commandments and acted on their own authority. For example, Kulōttuṅgachōladēva III appointed two Śaivāchāryas for the service of the temple at Tirukkaḍavūr, but Svāmidēvar, the king's guru, cancelled the order and appointed two others, in recognition of their hereditary rights.² All the Āgamas declare that the Śaivāgamas flourished to the south of the Vindhya ranges, which is corroborated by the statement made by Aghōraśivāchārya; and it therefore appears quite certain that Rājēndrachōladēva implanted in the south a large colony of Śaiva Brāhmaṇas of Middle India.
v2.c15.17
¹ S.I.I., Vol. II, Part II, p. 153.
v2.c15.18
² No. 40 of 1906 of the Madras Epigraphist's collection. For an account of the origin and development of the Śaiva *maṭhas*, see *Kriyākramadyōtini*, *Siddhāntasārāvaḷi* and other works.
v2.c15.19
These Śaivas should be carefully distinguished from the Vēdānta Śaivas, who base their philosophy on the Vēdas and the Upanishads. These two schools are diametrically opposed to each other
v2.c15.20
on many points. From the statement, *Yasya-niśvasitam-vēdāh*, of the Advaitins the followers of the Āgamānta considered Vēdas as inferior to the Āgamas; for they assert that the former came out of Śiva as unconsciously as His breath, whereas the twenty-eight Āgamas were personally and consciously dictated by Śiva. Besides, the Āgamāntins consider the Advaitins and the Mīmāmsakas as *paśus* or unevolved souls and to be therefore unfit for receiving Śaiva *dīkshās* or initiations. The Āgamāntins are in their turn reviled by the Vaidikas as being heterodox; Kumārila-bhaṭṭa classes them among atheists and we read Amarasimha accordingly classing Dēvalas who are generally the Pāśupatas, the Pāñcharātras and other Tāntrikas that are addicted to image worship, among Śūdras.¹ At any rate, these Śaivas did not evidently hold a high place in the system of castes; the *Sūta-samhitā* also states that very low classes of Brāhmaṇas alone underwent the *dīkshā* or initiatory ceremony in the Pāśupata, the Pāñcharātra and other tantras. It is therefore clear that inferior Brāhmaṇas embraced some of the non-Āryan cults and became Pāśupatas and Pāñcharātras. At a later stage of their history, they probably adopted a few of the *hōmas* and the *mantras* appropriate to them from the *Gṛihya-sūtras* and created for themselves some others in imitation of the *mantras* of the *Vēda*. This explains the eagerness with which these *anārya-sampradāyas* were somehow classed in the *ārya-sampradāyas*. But, their system of *dīkshā*, *Ankurārpaṇa* with which the ceremonies are begun, the philosophy of *Shaḍadhvās*¹ and many others are not found in the Vaidik religions and therefore mark off *Āgamānta* as being different in essentials from the Vaidik religion. The *Āgamānta* has freely borrowed the philosophy of the *Sāṅkhya* and the *Yōga* schools. Unlike the *Vēdāntins* the *Āgamāntins* do not shut out women, *Śūdras*, and the *Pratilōmas* from participating in religious rites and ceremonies. They freely allow women to meditate upon the *pañchākshara-mantra*, and grant *dīkshā* to *Śūdras*, who might, in their turn, give *dīkshā* to others among them. "If the *Śūdra* is a *naishṭhika* (one who passes into *sannyāsa* without undergoing the intermediate stage of *gṛihastha*) he is entitled to consecrate the *svārtha-chala-liṅgas*, offer *dīkshā* to *Śūdras*, might recite
v2.c15.21
¹ Amarakōśa, Kāṇḍa II, Śūdravarga.
v2.c15.22
¹ For an explanation of this and of a summary of the Śaiva philosophy see the beginning of the Chapter on Miscellaneous Aspects of Śiva (Xth).
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with proper svaras all mantras, and study Śiva-jñāna. If he is a gṛihastha, he is privileged to utter the nityēshti mantras, and that too without proper intonation or nāda.” Though the Avaidika Śaivaism was essentially different in tenets at the beginning, attempts have been made at later times to identify Avaidikas with the Vaidikas. Srīkantha-Śivāchārya who wrote a Bhāshya on the Brahma-sūtras in accordance with the Āgamānta Śaiva teachings exclaims, na vayam vēda-śivāgamayōrbhēdam paśyāmah vēdasyāpi śivāgamatvat, (we do not perceive any difference between the Vēdas and the Śivāgamas, Vēdas are also as authoritative as the Śivāgamas); and at a later stage, that is, about the time of Appayya-dikshita (16th century A. D.), the Vēdantins began to study the Āgamānta philosophy and adopted several of their customs; at this day several of the anthropomorphic aspects of Śiva, which might, with propriety, be called peculiarly Āgamāntic, are worshipped by the Vēdic Śaivas, and they also get themselves initiated into the meditation on the Pañchākshara mantra. But they do not receive Tāntric dīkshā, nor do they interdine with those Tāntric Brāhmanas who are at present only priests in Śiva temples; the latter are always considered as low in the scale of Brāhmanas. The multiplication of images, both Śaiva and Vaishṇava, is due to the Tāntrikas who have devoted a great deal of attention to the description of images in their Tantras. The Vaidikas do not appear to have possessed so large a number of images for worship at the earlier stages at any rate.
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The one great peculiarity of all the *avaidik* Śaivas is their *dīkshā*. In performing this ceremony they need different shaped *kuṇḍas* or receptacles for fire and *maṇḍalas* or drawings, all of which are described in their works in great detail. They also invoke Śiva in *kumbhas* or vessels (filled with water), and perform different kinds of *hōmas* or fire offerings. It is their faith that he who has not received the Śaiva *dīkshā* does not attain *mōksha* or liberation. They believe that Śiva personally presents Himself before the disciple in the form of an *āchārya* for granting him *Śiva-dīkshā*. This *dīkshā* ceremony varies with the recipient. He who has renounced family life and is expectant of gaining *mōksha* by constantly adoring his *guru* is the fittest person for *dīkshā*. For attaining this state of mind he requires the divine grace of Śakti. The bestowal of this grace by Śakti on the aspirant for *dīkshā* is technically known as *Śakti-pātam*. The grace of Śakti is of four kinds, instantaneous, rapid, slow and very slow, and the *dīkshās* to be given differ with the modes, noted above, in which the grace of Śakti is received. To him who gets this grace very slowly, that kind of *dīkshā* called the *samayadīkshā* should be given. In this, the *guru* should invoke through *mantras* Śiva in his own person and perform several ceremonies; the *śishya*, with flowers in hand kept in the *añjali* pose, is taken out, blind-folded, so that he might not see sinners, round the *maṇḍapa* wherein is set up the *kumbha* or vessel in which is invoked Śiva, and after a certain number of rounds are gone through, his eyes are opened to light upon the *kumbha*, which he is asked to worship with the flowers in his hands. Before he begins the worship, the *guru*, considering his own right hand as *tejōrūpa* or the embodiment of enlightenment, and also as the hand of Śiva himself, and uttering the *mūla-mantra*, should place it on the head of his *śishya*. By this act of placing the hand which is the embodiment of enlightenment, first on the head, then over the whole body of the disciple the *pāśas*, bonds, the darkness of ignorance which enveloped him, are dispelled. After this ceremony the *guru* directs the *śishya* to throw the flowers which he holds in his hands on the *kumbha*. The disciple shall receive his *dīkshā-nāma* or the name bestowed on him on his initiation, according as the flowers fall on the top or on any one of the four cardinal directions round the *kumbha*, which correspond to the position of the Īśāna, Tatpurusha, etc., aspects of Śiva; the suffix, Śiva or Dēva, is to be added to the names according as the disciple is a Brāhmaṇa or a Kshatriya, and *gaṇa* if he is a Vaiśya or a Śūdra. Thus, if the flowers fall on the side of Īśāna, the disciple should be called Īśānaśiva if he is a Brāhmaṇa, Īśānadēva if a Kshatriya, and Īśānagaṇa if a Vaiśya or a Śūdra. If the disciple is a female, she should be called Īśāna or Īśāśiva-śakti, Īśadēvaśakti, Īśagaṇaśakti according as, she is of the Brāhmaṇa, Kshatriya, or, Vaiśya or Śūdra caste. Those that have undergone this *dīkshā* are known as Samayis and will attain Rudrapada. To these are prescribed the performance of duties contained in the *charyāpāda* of the *āgamas*. The description given above of the *Samaya-dīkshā* reads like a page from the ceremonials of the Freemasons of the present day; the claims of freemasonry to remote antiquity do not after all appear to be a pretension. It is perhaps an echo of a really ancient institution, like the ancient Āgamānta Śaivaism, that it is after all an Eastern institution engrafted upon Western soil.
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The second kind of *dīkshā* is called the *Viśēsha dīkshā* and is conferred upon those to whom the grace of Śakti comes more rapidly than in the previous case. In all its details, it is similar to the *dīkshā* ceremony already described; but the *guru* in this case is supposed to join the soul of the *śishya* from the *Māya-garbha* to *Śakti-garbha*, and is made to contemplate in his mind on the external union of Vāgīśvarī with Vāgīśvara. After this the *guru* teaches his disciple the *samayā-chāras* or the creeds of his faith. They are: abstinence from reviling Śiva, Śivaśāstras, Śivāgni, and the *guru*, from crossing even the shadow of these and from eating oneself or presenting to others for eating the food offered to Śiva: doing *pūjā* to Śivāgni and to the *guru* to the end of one's life and so on. He who has received the *viśēshadīkshā* would attain after death the Īśvara-pada; he is known during his lifetime as *putraka*. These are enjoined to observe the ceremonies and duties prescribed in the *charyā* and the *kriyāpādas* of the *āgamas*. The conduct and duties of the life of the *Samayī* are called the *dāsamārga*. From these descriptions of the *samayis* and *putrakas*, it appears to be clear that those who collect flowers and knit them into garlands for the temple services, that is, people of the class of *Paṇḍārams* etc., are to be considered as Samayis or Tādars (Dāsas), while those that go by the distinct appellation of Piḷḷais or Piḷḷaimārs, as putrakās.
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The *dīkshā* prescribed for those to whom the grace of Śakti comes instantaneously or rapidly is called *Nirvāṇa dīkshā*.
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In this kind of *dīkshā*, the fiction is that the bonds (*pāśas*) are cut off even when the *śishya* is in his material body; for this purpose, a few strands of string are taken and suspended from the tuft of his hair to the toe of the right foot; in these strings, the *chaitanya* (or energy) of the *śishya* is invoked and the *guru* conceives in his mind as having undergone, even then, the several births which the *śishya* has otherwise to take to absolve himself from the various bonds known as *mala*, *māyā*, *karma* and *kalā*, and then cuts the strings into pieces. To check the further growth of these *pāśas* or bonds, the *guru* throws the bits of strings into the fire. After these ceremonies are over, the soul of the *śishya* is believed to have become equal to Śiva in purity. Another formality is also gone through to establish this identity of the soul with Śiva, namely, the *guru* yokes on to the soul of the *śishya*, the six qualities which distinguish Śiva, namely *Sarvajñatva*, (omniscience), *pūrna-kāmatva* (filled with love) *anādi-jñāna*
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(beginningless knowledge), *apāraśakti* (unbounded power) *svādhīnatva* (perfect freedom) and undiminishing power. There are still a few other minor ceremonies belonging to the *dīkshā* which need not be detailed here.
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Those that have undergone the *nirvāṇa-dīkshā* are divided into two classes, the *sādhakas* and the *āchāryas*, and for being called by these names they should once again undergo the ceremony of anointment as *sādhakas* and *āchāryas*. The *sādhakas* are supposed to have attained the eight *siddhis* or powers, beginning with *aṇimā*, so well-known through the *Yōga* system; the *sādhakas* are entitled to observe the *nityakarmas* or daily observances such as bath, *pūjā*, *japa*, *dhyāna* and *hōma*, and *kāmya-karmas* only; whereas, the *āchāryas* are entitled to perform, in addition to these, *naimittika* ceremonies such as performing the *dīkshā* ceremony on others, and *pratishṭhā* ceremony or consecrating images.
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The above described *nirvāṇa-dīkshā* is of two classes, respectively known as *lōkadharmiṇi* or *bhautiki* and *Śivadharmiṇi* or *naishṭhiki*. Those that have undergone the latter or the *Śivadharmiṇi dīkshā* should wear the tuft of hair on the top of the head, covering the *brahma-randhra*, whereas those that have undergone the former or the *lōkadharmiṇi dīkshā* need not cut off the hair.
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The Śaivas may observe both the Vaidika and the Śaiva duties, but if some of the former are opposed to the teachings of the Śaiva tantras, they should be abandoned. Those that have undergone the bhautiki and naiṣṭhiki dīkṣās may even abandon the Vaidik sandhyā ceremony but never the Śaiva sandhyā.
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The Āgamas are always divided into four parts, the Kriyāpāda, the Charyāpāda, the Yōgapāda and the Jñānapāda the study and observance of the rules laid down in one, two, three or all four of these are enjoined upon the Samayis, the putrakas, the bhautikis and the naiṣṭhikis respectively. The paths pursued by these are also known respectively by the names dāsamārga, putramārga, sahamārga and the sanmārga; that is, the persons who have been initiated in the samayi and other dīkṣās conduct themselves towards the Lord as a servant, a son, a friend or as the Lord himself. The paths prescribed are of varying grades suitable to souls at various stages of religious evolution.
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These dīkṣās were described in some detail, in order to give the readers an idea of the religious ceremonials which are common to all sects of the Śaivas; it is meant also to give scope for the comparative study of the religious ceremonial institutions of India and of other countries, more especially with Freemasonry. As the philosophy of this branch of Śaivaism is dealt with elaborately by various authors elsewhere, it need not be given here.
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The Pāśupatas are the next important class of Śaivas. According to Rāmānujā-cārya it included the Kāḷāmukhas the Kāpālas, and the Āgamānta Śaivas. There is some justification for Rāmānuja including all the four under one name, the Pāśupata religion; for all these four sectarians called the Jivātman, paśu and the paramātman, Pati. The Āgamānta Śaivas also class these as agachchamayams or sects included in Śaivaism. As regards the antiquity and history of the Pāśupata sect, little is known. In later times the Pāśupata sect is known as the Lakuḷisa Pāśupata or the Pāśupata sect founded by Lakuḷiśvara, who is considered as an incarnation of Śiva himself. An attempt has been made by Dr. Fleet to fix the age of Lakuḷiśvara, the founder of the Pāśupata sect. It is a matter for surprise that even such a circumspect scholar as Dr. Fleet has, perhaps in his desire to arrive at some conclusion, proceeded upon baseless premises which have naturally led him to incorrect results. Because the name Lakuḷiśvara-paṇḍita occurs in an inscription at Mēlpāḍi and in another at Baḷigāmi, and because tradition asserts that he propagated his faith in Kāyārōhaṇa in N. India, Dr. Fleet concludes that Lakuḷīśvara, the founder of the sect which goes by his name, began his activities first in Mēlpāḍi, wherefrom he drifted on to Baḷigāmi and then eventually settled down at Kāyārōhaṇa in Northern India, and that he lived in the first quarter of the eleventh century A. D. The two individuals bearing the name Lakuḷīśvara Paṇḍita, mentioned in the two inscriptions referred to above were two distinct personages and were named after the founder of their faith; the conclusion of Dr. Fleet is untenable for the following reasons. Śaṅkarāchārya, whose age is believed to be the last quarter of the eighth century, reviews the Pāśupata philosophy in his Śārīraka Bhāshya. Says he, “The Māhēśvaras (Śaivas) maintain that the five categories, viz, effect (*kārya*) cause (*kāraṇa*), union (*yōga*), ritual (*vidhi*) and the end of pain (*duḥkhānta*), were taught by the Lord Paśupati (Śiva) to the end of breaking the bonds of the animals (*paśu*, *i. e.*, the souls). Paśupati is, according to them, the Lord, the operative cause.” In his masterly treatise on the different systems of philosophy that were in existence in his time, Vidyāraṇya gives the same five categories given above as those held by the Lakuḷīśa
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Pāśupatas; the later author, Madhusūdana Sarasvati, also reiterates the same statement in his Prasthānabhēda.* The Pāśupata sect as known by the name Lakuḷiśa Pāśupata is older than Śaṅkara at least, or perhaps even as old as the Atharvaśirasōpanishad. The authors of the famous Dēvāram hymns have sung the praises of the Śiva temples at Nāgapaṭṭaṇam (Negapatam) and Kumbhakōṇam, which were known even in their times by the name of Kāyārōhaṇa or Kārōṇa, so named evidently after the more famous place of that name in Northern India. The age of these hymnists, is settled to be the middle of the seventh century. This fact pushes the limit of the age of Lakuḷiśa by one more century. Hence, Lakuḷiśa the founder of the faith, should not be confounded with his namesakes of Mēlpāḍi and Baḷigāmi, nor can his date be taken as the first quarter of the eleventh century. The Kāḷāmukhas also appear to be a subdivision of the Pāśupatas, as we have seen above. To substantiate this, we have not only the authority of Rāmānuja, but also that of some others. The Śaivāgamas sometimes divide Śaivism into Śaiva, Pāśupata, Sōmasiddhānta and Lākuḷa; and in other places divide Śaivas into Śaiva, Pāśupata,
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[^ *]: The Uttara-Kāmikāgama also states that Lākuḷa had five categories and they are the same as given above.
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Kāpālika and Kālāmukha. In the above groupings we see that the first two sects are identical in both cases; we learn from the *Prabōdhachandrōdayam* that Sōmasiddhānta is the authoritative text-book of the Kāpālikas and the remaining Lākuḷa may be inferred to be the same as Kālāmukha. In praising certain Kālāmukha gurus, the Baḷigāmi inscriptions use the phrase "a very Nakuḷīśvara in the knowledge of the Siddhāntas", which clearly proves that the Kālāmukhas were identical with Lakuḷīśa Pāśupatas.*
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*Regarding the antiquity of the Śaiva teacher Lakuḷīśa and the faith that he was an avatāra of Śiva, the following may be quoted:— ‘ महादेवावताराणि कलौ श्रुणु सुव्रताः । . . . . . महायामो मुनिः शूली डिण्डमुण्डीश्वरः स्वयम् । सहिष्णुः सोमशर्मा च नकुलीश्वर एव च ॥ and वैवस्वतेऽन्तरे शम्भोरवतारास्त्रिशूलिनः । अष्टविंशतिराख्याता ह्यन्ते कलियुगे प्रभोः । तीर्थे कायावतारे स्याद्देशो नकुलीश्वरः । Kūrmapurāṇa, Chap. 53, Vv. 1, 9 & 10. दिव्यां मेरुगुहां पुण्यां त्वया सार्द्धं च विष्णुना । भविष्यामि तदा ब्रह्मल्लकुली नाम नामतः ॥ ४७ ॥ कायावतार इत्येवं सिद्धक्षेत्रं परं तदा । भविष्यति सुविख्यातं यावद्भूमिधरिष्यति ॥ ४८ ॥
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The tenets of the Lakuḷīśa Pāśupatas as we gather from the *Sarvadarśana-Saṅgraha*, stated very briefly, are as follows:—
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The end of pain, their fifth category, is of two sorts the *anātmaka moksha* and the *sātmaka moksha*. Of these, the former is defined as the absolute freedom from pain. The possession of Kriyāśakti and Jñānaśakti, which are the attributes of Paramēśvara and which are described below, is called *sātmakamōksha*. Perception of even the smallest, the most distant matters, hearing of every kind of sound, being well versed in all *śāstras*, the possession of these and similar powers is called Jñānaśakti. The accomplishment of every object, quickly assuming every form according to one’s own desire, is known as Kriyāśakti. These two Śaktis constitute, as stated just now, the *sātmaka moksha*.
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In every other system a *kārya* or effect is defined as that which follows a *kāraṇa* or cause;
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तत्रापि मम ते शिष्या भविष्यन्ति तपस्विनः ।
कुशिकश्चैव गर्गश्च मित्रः कौरुष्य एव च ॥ ४९ ॥
योगिनो ब्राह्मणा वेदपारगा ऊर्ध्वरेतसः ।
प्राप्य माहेश्वरं योगं गमिष्यन्ति शिवं पुरम् ॥ ५० ॥
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Śivapurāṇa, Tritīya-Śatarudra-Saṃhitā, Chap. 5.
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Also compare pages 190 and 191, Director General of Archæology’s Annual for the year 1906-07.
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the Pāśupatas call all dependent objects as effect; in conformity with this their definition of kārya, they bring Jīvātman or paśu, which they admit as eternal, under the category of kārya because it is dependent upon the paramātman or Pati. The Being who is endowed with the powers of creation, destruction and protection, the Lord Paramēśvara, is known to their philosophy as the kāraṇa. His attributes are Jñānaśakti and Kriyāśakti, which are eternally with him, not as are acquired after a stage by the perfected human souls.
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The Pāśupatas believe also in divine dispensation which need not be based upon the good or evil karma of the soul.
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The category called Yōga or union of the soul with Pati, may be attained in two ways. In the first, it is attained through japa, dhyāna, and other karmas; while in the second by exercising strict control over the senses. By this Yōga the two kinds of mōksha mentioned above could be obtained.
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Vidhi or the rules of conduct of the Pāśupatas is the most interesting part of their religion. Bathing their bodies thrice a day in ashes, lying down on ashes, making noise like ahā ahā, singing loudly the praises of their god, dancing either according to the science of dancing or in
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any manner, curling the tongue and roaring like bulls,—this noice is called huḍukkāra or noise like huḍu huḍu, making prostrations and circumambulation, repeating the names of Śiva—all these constitute their vrata or daily observances. But these strange acts are strictly forbidden to be practised in places where there are other persons present. Besides these, the Pāśupatas are advised to behave actually like mad men. For instance, pretending to be asleep when not actually sleeping, begging for food, shaking the limbs as when attacked by paralysis, walking like one with rheumatic pain in his legs, or like a lame man, exhibiting signs of lust at the sight of women, doing other acts befitting lunatics such as making meaningless noise—these are enjoined upon the Pāśupatas. To get rid of fastidiousness, they are enjoined to beg for food, eat the remnants of the dishes of others and do similar objectionable acts.*
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∗ It appears quite probable that this vidhi of the Pāśupatas is responsible for the origin and existence of obscene sculptures in Hindu temples. In the majority of cases, such sculpture consists of the figure of a stark naked male with his membrum virile erect, standing with his legs kept separated from each other and with his hands held in the añjali pose over his head, and his head always covered with long jaṭās, hanging down on either side. In front of this figure is its counterpart,
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The Śaivāgamas arrange the Śaiva sects in the following order of superiority, namely, the Śaivas, the Pāśupatas, the Sōmasiddhāntins and the Lākuḷas. Again we learn that the Kaulas worship the ādharachakra, the Kshapaṇakas the actual yōni and the trikōṇas (or triangular yantras), and the Kāpālikas and Digambaras both the objects worshipped by the first mentioned two sects. The various sects of Śaivas hold the view that as there is no difference between one animal and another, there is none whatsoever between man and man and dīkshā might be given to all alike. The
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a female one, whose clothing is represented as slipping down the waist, thereby leaving the pudendum exposed. It is more than certain that the matted haired naked man could represent no other than a Śaiva devotee belonging to one of the indecent sects of the Śaiva religion, putting to practice the rules of the vidhi taught by his philosophy.
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In almost all the later additions to more ancient temples and in all the temples built after the 14th century A.D., one could meet with figures of men in all manner of capering attitudes—with ill-kept, but amusing faces and with the body twisted and bent in most astounding postures: one such is reproduced on Pl. 69 in his Viśvakarma by Dr. Ānandakumārasvāmi. This sort of sculpture recognised by the name of kōṇāngis has also its origin in the vidhi of the Pāśupata philosophy.
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Kāḷāmukhas appear to be so called because they marked their forehead with a black streak, and they are said to be born of *nara* (human) and *rākshasa* (demoniacal) parents.
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The Kāpālikas appear to be also an ancient but an extremist sect of Śaivas. They have rites and ceremonies which are more revolting than those of the Kāḷāmukhas. About the various Śaiva sects Rāmānuja says:—" The Sūtras now declare that, for the same reasons, the doctrine of Paśupati also has to be disregarded. The adherents of this view belong to the four classes—Kāpālas, Kāḷāmukhas, Pāśupatas and Śaivas. All of them hold fanciful theories of Reality which are in conflict with the Vēda, and invent various means for attaining happiness in this life and the next. They maintain the general material and the operative cause to be distinct, and the latter cause to be constituted by Paśupati. They further hold the wearing of the six *mudrā* badges and the like to be means to accomplish the highest end of man.
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"Thus the Kāpālas say, 'He who knows the true nature of the six *mudrās*, who understands the highest *mudrā*, meditating upon himself as in the position called *bhagāsana*, reaches *Nirvāṇa*. The necklace, the golden ornament, the ear-ring, the head-jewel, ashes, and the sacred thread are called the six *mudrās*. He whose body is marked with these is not born here again. Similarly, the Kālāmukhas teach that the means of obtaining all desired results in this world as well as the next are constituted by certain practices such as using a skull as a drinking vessel, smearing oneself with ashes of the dead body, eating the flesh of such a body, carrying a heavy stick, setting up a liquor-jar and using it as a platform for making offerings to the Gods, and the like. ‘A bracelet made of Rudrāksha-seeds on the arm, matted hair on the head, a skull, smearing oneself with ashes etc.,’—all this is well known from the sacred writings of the Śaivas. They also hold that by some special ceremonial performance men of different castes may become Brāhmaṇas and reach the highest *āśrama*: ‘by merely entering on the initiatory ceremony (*dīkshā*) a man becomes a Brāhmaṇa at once; by undertaking the Kāpāla rite a man becomes at once an ascetic.”
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We learn a little more about the Kāpālikas from stray mention made of them in a number of books. For instance, Kṛishṇamiśra in his *Prabodhachandrodaya* introduces a Kāpālika as a character in that drama who describes himself in the following words: “My necklace and ornaments consist of human bones; I live in the ashes of the dead and eat my food in human skulls. I look with my eyes made keen with the ointment of yōga and I believe that though the different parts of the world are different, yet the whole is not different from God. O! Digambara! listen to our rites: after fasting we drink liquor from the skulls of Brāhmaṇas; our sacrificial fires are kept up with the brains and lungs of men which are mixed up with their flesh, and the offerings by which we appease our terrific God are human victims covered with gushing blood from the horrible cut on their throats. I contemplate on the lord of Bhavānī, the mighty God who creates, preserves and destroys the fourteen worlds whose glory is revealed in the Vēdas as well as in his deeds." The Śaṅkaravijaya of Anantānandagiri states that when Śaṅkara went to Ujjayini, the foremost men of all the sects living there came for a religious disputation with him. Among them one sect of Kāpālikas had the following characteristic feature and doctrines. They wore sphaṭika (crystal beads), the arddha-candra (an ornament shaped like the crescent moon) and the jaṭā (or matted heir). Their God is Bhairava, the author of creation, protection and destruction; they believe that all other gods are subservient to him. Bhairava has eight different aspects namely Asitāṅga, Ruru, Caṇḍa, Krōdha, Unmatta Bhairava, Kāpāla, Bhīshma and Saṃhāra-Bhairava corresponding to Vishṇu, Brahmā, Sūrya, Rudra, Indra, Chandra, Yama and the Supreme Being respectively. This class of Kāpālikas was taken by Śaṅkarāchārya, states Anantānandagiri, into the fold of Brahmanism. But another subject of Kāpālikas headed by one Unmatta-Bhairava came to wrangle with Śaṅkara; he had smeared his body with the ashes of the dead and wore a garland of skulls; his forehead was marked with a streak of black stuff. The whole of the hair of his head was turned into jaṭās. He wore a kaṭisūtra and a kaupīna consisting of tiger's skin and carried in his left hand a skull and in the right a bell. He was calling out the names of Śambhu, Bhairava and Kāḷīśa. He said that their mōksha consisted in joining Bhairava after death. Śaṅkara rejected this class of Kāpālas as incorrigible. Living with one's wife happily in this world as does Chandraśēkhara (Śiva) with his consort Pārvatī in heaven, is also considered by the Kāpālikas as mōkshā. It is certain that this sect of Śaivas were freely indulging in human sacrifices, for there are literary evidences to this effect. Bhavabhūti introduces in his drama Mālatī-Mādhava a Kāpālika who, for having attained
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mantra-siddhi, attempted to sacrifice Mālatī to his god. Vādirajasūri in his Yaśōdharakāvya describes the preparations for two human sacrifices for which two pretty little children were decoyed and taken to the altar but fortunately saved from the catastrophe.
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Kṛṣṇamiśra says that the Digambaras and the Kāpālikas quitted all other countries and gradually retired to the Mālava and Ābhira countries, which are inhabited by low class men (pāmaras).
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The Śaivagamas inform us that the Śaivas worship Śiva in the aspect of Tāṇḍava-bhūshaṇa; the Pāśupatas, Śiva smeared with ashes and wearing jaṭāmakuṭa, the Mahāvratas, Śiva wearing a garland of bones; the Kālāmukhas, Śiva wearing sphaṭikā and putradīpa (?) beads; the Vāmāchāras, Śiva wearing the sacred thread and carrying fire and the Bhairavas, Śiva carrying ḍamaru and wearing anklets; and that all these aspects of Śiva should have three eyes.
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From all that has been said of the various sects of Śaivas the following conclusion about Śaivaism naturally suggests itself. The prototype of all the ghōra forms of Śaivaism is the personality of Śiva himself; dancing and singing in a wild manner on the burning ground and smearing himself with the ashes of the dead and adorning himself with the skulls and bones of the dead; or going about naked in the streets of householder ṛishis and tempting their womenfolk, living in bliss also with his own consort; or performing severe austerities; wearing his hair in jaṭas; drinking and eating from human skulls; killing, maiming and otherwise destroying animal life—all these acts of Śiva were closely followed by such sects as the Kāpālas, the Kāḷāmukhas and the Vāmāchāras. These sects which considered living in close imitation of Śiva and who considered living happily with women in this life mōkshā or bliss, are perhaps really old. Their teachings afforded ease and pleasure, indulgence in flesh-food, drinking liquor and promiscuous intercourse; and at a time when, as a result of the preaching of the Buddha and Mahāvira, the Vaidikas practically gave up flesh and liquor, some of its members with a taste for lower passions not finding their surroundings congenial to their tastes might have turned renegades and joined the ranks of the Śaivas, as we hear from the Varāhapurāṇa and the Sūta-saṃhitā, and have undergone the dīkshā and other rites peculiar to Śaivaism. This state of moral depravity attended with conduct unfit for any society could not be tolerated by others and in the long run by the members of even the Śaiva
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