Vastu-shastra (Vol. I: Hindu Science of Architecture; Vol. II: Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting) v2.c76: Appendix A

Vāstu-śāstra (Vol. I: Hindu Science of Architecture; Vol. II: Hindu Canons of Iconography and Painting) v2.c76

Language: English

Appendix A

v2.c76.2

PROPORTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT LIMBS OF THE MALE FIGURES (*VIDE THE S. S. CHAPTER 76*)

v2.c76.4

v2.c76.5

*N.B.* (*i*) Thus the text lays down that right from the chin to the end of the hair as well as cheeks etc., the total dimension of the head—the śiras comes to 32 Angulas.

v2.c76.6

(*ii*) The text further on being corrupt, the dimensions of 18 Angulas and 24 Angulas are difficult to make out.

v2.c76.7

(*iii*) The proportions of the chest and the navel go after those of the neck, similarly those of the penis are said to be two parts, the thighs and the legs (from ankle to the knee) are equal and the knees (jānunī) 4 Angulas.

v2.c76.8

v2.c76.9

v2.c76.10

CHART No. 2

v2.c76.11

PROPORTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT LIMBS OF FEMALE FIGURES

v2.c76.12

(VIDE THE S.S. CHAPTER 76 VERSES 52-55)

v2.c76.13

The Text, in relation to the different proportions of the limbs of the female figure lays down that the measurements of male figure hold good also in case of the female ones. According to the statement of the verse 52 53, the general proportions of the female figures (in relation to chest, legs and thighs etc.) are at par w th those of the male ones. It, however, further makes exception that their chest should be wide in 18 Angulas and their waist 24 Angulas. The verses (the latter part of the 52nd to 54th ones) give certain numbers of measurements and also indicate three different standards, the inferior, the middle and the superior.

v2.c76.14

*N.B:* The whole chapter seems to be incomplete and corrupt as the fullest picture of the proportions is not forthcoming, nor is it systematic and clear as we find in other texts on the topic.

v2.c76.15

CANONS OF PAINTING

v2.c76.16

[With an outline History of Indian Painting—Archaeological and literary]

v2.c76.17

| Chapter | Subject | Pages |
| | Dedication | 3 |
| | Contents | 4 |
| | Preface | 5 |
| | *By Pt. B. N. Jha, Vice-Chancellor, Gorakhpur University* | |
| | Introductory .. .. .. | 6—8 |
| I. | The Principal Texts on the Canons of Painting—Citraśāstra .. .. .. .. | 9—20 |
| II. | Painting—its aim, origin and scope .. .. | 21—28 |
| III. | Elements, Constituents and Types .. | 29—33 |
| IV. | The Vartikā and .. .. | |
| | the Background (the canvas) .. .. | 34—40 |
| V. | The Aṇḍaka Measurements and the Proportionate Measurements .. .. .. | 41—50 |
| VI. | Plasters and ointments .. .. .. | 51—54 |
| VII. | Colours and Brushes; Shades and other Delineations .. | 55—64 |
| VIII. | How to paint—Convention in Painting .. .. | 65—73 |
| IX; | Painting and Aesthetics .. .. .. | 74—81 |
| X. | Styles of Painting in relation to Colours, Patras and Kaṇṭakas .. .. .. .. | 82—86 |
| XI. | Painting and Painter .. .. .. | 87—91 |
| XII. | An outline History of Indian Painting .. .. | 92—136 |
| | Section I. Archaeological Evidence .. .. | 94—118 |
| | Section II. Literary Evidence. .. .. | 118—136 |
| | **Appendices** | |
| A. | Quotations from Kāvyas | १—८ |
| B. | Illustrations | |
| C. | Citralakṣaṇam | १—४४ |

v2.c76.18

In my Ph. D. Thesis, ‘A study of Bhoja’s Samarāṅgaṇa-Sūtradhāra’, a treatise on the science of Architecture, the VIII part was devoted to the canons of pictorial art as could be expounded mainly from the pages of this renowned text which has a unique distinction to have treated the subject of Vāstu-śāstra in all its branches—Town Planning, House building (Secular architecture, both common houses and special ones, i. e. the palaces etc.), Temple building (Temple architecture) and Iconography (both sculpture and painting) as well as the art of the construction of machines (or mechanical contrivances) among the extant manuals, the authoritative primer-texts on this most technical ancient lore.

v2.c76.19

A very high opinion of the expert examiners and their praises of this Ph. D. Thesis encourged the present writer to carry on the extended study of his Ph. D. subject under an extended title—Hindu Science of Architecture. Thus this labour of mine has resulted into two volumes, one comprising the exposition of Engineering and Architecture (Town Planning, House Architecture, Palace Architecture and palace decorations, Temple-architecture, etc., along with a brief outline history of Vāstuvidyā with special reference to the position of the two medieval texts of Vāstuśāstra—the Samarāṅgaṇa-Sūtradhāra of King Bhojdeva of Dhārā and Aparājita-Pracchā of Bhuvanadevācārya), the other is chiefly devoted to Iconography and Painting. Accordingly in the latter (being published first)—vide the last two parts, ‘The Canons of Iconography’ and ‘The Pratimālakṣaṇas’—we have already travelled a good deal of distance in the far off shining lands of the Shining Ones and now in this third part—The Hindu Canons of Painting (being published both as an independent treatise and forming an integral part of the second volume of ‘Hindu Science of Architecture’).—I have made an endeavour to treat the subject in a manner hitherto unattempted.

v2.c76.20

Thus this extended angle just hinted at above, brought me in closer contact with practically all the principal texts dealing with this side-branch of Vāstu-śāstra, the Citra-vidyā. A study of these texts inspired me first to work out a compilation of the Citralakṣaṇam, under as many as twenty-one headings, exhausting practically all the canons which the ancient masters had evolved. It is expected that this compilation simply not only mirrors the ancient canons of pictorial art, but also gives us a valuable information on the development in this fascinating domain of Indian art.

v2.c76.21

The present dissertation will, therefore, mainly confine itself to the exposition of the material of the compilation under scientific headings of the pictorial art and an attempt will also be made to make use of the contemporary studies and exposition thereof, by some of the noted exponents of Indian art. The first and foremost honoured name among them goes to Dr. Kramrisch who took the pioneering lead in studying the pioneer work on the subject, the Viṣṇudharmottaram Pt. III (vide her translation of, and Introduction to, the said treatise). Other scholars, to whose works references are made, are Percy Brown, Dr. Raghavan, Sri Sivaramamurty and Dr. Moti Chand, and the writer takes this opportunity to express his profound sense of gratitude as the works of these scholars have helped him to treat this very difficult subject in a most scientific and lucid manner to enable even a popular reader to understand and appreciate our classical heritage, India’s past.

v2.c76.22

It would not be a vain claim to remark that it is for the first time in the contemporary Indological studies that a systematic presentation of this technical subject, the Hindu Canons of Painting, is being presented before the scholarly world for their sympathetic evalution of the efforts, the present writer has been making for so many years to fathom the vast ocean of the Vāstusāstra—vide his publications under the general caption 'भारतीय वास्तुशास्त्र', of which Citralakṣaṇa is an important channel.

v2.c76.23

With this general introduction to this work, let us say a few words on the different topics dealt with in the different chapters ahead. Here at the very outset it may be pointed out that this work may be viewed from two broad angles, the canons (the subject matter of the first eleven chapters) and the monuments, the representations thereof, the theme of the last chapter ‘An outline history of Indian Painting’) the latter including the exuberance of the pictorial references in the Kāvya literature which according to the dictum, ‘Literature is the mirror of society’, represents the popular cultivation of this fine art in public and palaces alike.

v2.c76.24

Let us begin with the subjects of the first eleven chapters forming the body of the major portion of the work.

v2.c76.25

According to our angle of treatment, the first and foremost consideration has been given to the principal texts on Painting such as the Viṣṇudharmottaram, the Samarāṅgaṇa-Sūtradhāra, the Aparājita-pracchā, the Abhilaṣitārtha-Cintāmaṇi (or Mānasollāsa) and Śilpratna, wherein a brief review of all these works along with two more (as per Dr. Raghavan’s article) has been attempted, thus laying the foundation of the Citra-śāstra.

v2.c76.26

The second chapter deals in the first place with the position that painting occupies in the scheme of fine arts along with its aim. Secondly it dwells at length upon the origin and scope of painting. Origin of painting is traditional, but the scope is functional and a new light has been thrown on both these topics in the light of my studies of Aparājitapracchā. Its metaphysical implication which being truly Indian, has brought painting in the realm of mysticism and the whole creation becomes nothing but a play of Citra, the magic or Māyā of the Divine Agency. All this is not only very interesting to read but gives a wider meaning of the art touching the very core of the problem where philosophy and science or art meet, a true genius of Indian culture.

v2.c76.27

Elements, constituents and the types of painting form the subject matter of the third chapter. Here the varieties like Dhūlicitra, Rasa-citra, Bhāvacitra, etc., have been explained in keeping with the different explanations advanced by the scholars like Coomaraswamy and Raghavan.

v2.c76.28

In the fourth chapter, an interpretation of Vartikā, distinguishing it from paint brushes, what are called the Kūrcakas in the Samarāṅgaṇa, is attempted and the manifold backgrounds or surfaces of the different types of pictures have also been worked out. These are the first accessories in the technique of painting.

v2.c76.29

The fifth chapter is devoted to pictorial ‘pottery’ and its complementary, the iconometry—the Aṇḍakā-measurements and the proportionate measurements.

v2.c76.30

Aṇḍakas in pictorial technique and the conventions thereof are a contribution of the Samarāṅgaṇa, though hinted at also in the Viṣṇudharmottaram. It would, therefore, seem an innovation. Aṇḍaka-measurements really aim at the drawing of the model of a picture characteristic of the picture to be drawn out and so Aṇḍakas are really an index of the picture and a martix of its perfection. The writer has made an attempt to expound this technique from his own light as there was no light forthcoming.

v2.c76.31

The exposition of plasters and ointments is made in the sixth chapter, and the seventh chapter deals with the most important canon of paining—the colours and their delineations—the light and shade through the principle of Kṣaya and Vṛddhi. An attempt is made here to fully classify the various tints in the light of not only the canonical texts but also other sources, notably the poetic works of poets like Bāṇa.

v2.c76.32

Now the theme of the eighth chapter—How to Paint? —though traditional in character—vide Viṣṇudharmottaram's prescriptions on it—would, however, be found more lucid as per the tabulations worked out to present the whole picture picture-like.

v2.c76.33

The ninth chapter dealing with aestheticism in Indian pictorial art is unique in the respect that here an artist simply begins to work on poetry. The technique of the poetry of picture can only be prescribed by a great aesthetician and King Bhoja, the author of Samarāṅgaṇa, has got this distinction. A perusal of this theme will unfold the magic of this magnetism elevating the brutes playing in the company of the Sahṛdayas, the men in that of gods, and gods simply sharing our sorrows and joys. This is the marvel of the art unravelled in the pages of the Samarāṅgaṇa. Accordingly the exposition of the pictorical rasas and rasadṛṣṭis, along with the suggestive elements therein, are all worked out here.

v2.c76.34

In the next chapter, some innovations regarding the styles of painting from the standpoint of its decorative elements as found in the different regions of this land as well as its cultivation in the different centres of art, have been presented and the terms like *Patras* and *Kaṇṭakas* in accordance with these styles are also explained.

v2.c76.35

The last chapter of the canonical treatment has beeen reserved for the painting and the painter to complete the divine and sublime course of painting and to bring it on the feet of its master.

v2.c76.36

Now a word may be added on the last chapter treating the history of Indian painting. Here too innovation is put forward to treat this subject not only from the archaeologicall sources, the different picture sites, our rich heritage; but also from the literary references as found in Kāvya-literature as initiated by Sri Sivarāmamūrti (vide his articles in the Journal of Madras Oriental Research). Thus this chapter simply epitomises the creative efforts not only of the great works of the art-painters but also of the great śilpins, the great kavya-writers and so here both the painter and the poet meet.

v2.c76.37

THE PRINCIPAL TEXTS ON THE CANONS OF PAINTING (CITRA-ŚĀSTRA)

v2.c76.38

The canonical literature on the sience and art of painting can be gathered together from the following five principal works, which, while dwelling at length on the manifold subjects of Śilpa-śāstra or Vāstu-śāstra and the allied matters, also deal with the canons of painting :

v2.c76.39

1. Viṣṇudharmottaram part III—the Citra-Sūtram
2. Samarāṅgaṇa-Sūtradhāra
3. Aparājita-pracchā
4. Abhilaṣitārtha-cintāmaṇi (or Mānasollās) and
5. Śilparatnam.

v2.c76.40

**N. B.** (*i*) These texts have been arranged in chronological order. It may however be pointed out that there is yet another very important and famous text by the name of ‘Citra-lakṣaṇam’, credited to have been written by Nagnajit, one of the earliest expounders of the ancient Indian Vāstu-vidyā. It is however not found in its original Sanskrit—its Tibetian version is the only source from which we can gather information on the subject.

v2.c76.41

**N. B.** (*ii*) Further again there is another text ‘Śiva-tatva-ratnākara of Bāsava Rāja (VI. 2), a late senventeenth or early eighteenth century compilation of Kannada origin. Besides these texts there are innumerable references to paintings in general literature which also add much to our knowledge of technique and the traditions of Indian Art. Dr. Coomarswamy has made a valuable collection (cf. One hundred references to Indian painting and further references to painting in India, Artibus Asiae, IV, pp. 41f. and 126f.; also “Transformation of nature in art”, Harvard University Press, 1924, Chapter III and Bibliography) in this direction; and the rich collection of these references, as gathered together from Brahmanical, Bauddha and Jain literature, present a good deal of material for our study on this technical side of Indian painting.

v2.c76.42

In this connection reference may also be made to Sri Śivarāmamūrti’s [A passage on Painting in Potana’s Bhāgavat, Journal of Oriental Research, VI. (1932) pp. 184-187; Painting and allied arts as revealed in Bāṇa’s works, etc. VII (1933), 59-82; Kālidāsa and painting, ibid. 160-185; Śri Harṣa’s observation on painting with special.

v2.c76.43

reference to Naiṣadhīya-caritam, etc. 331-350; The artist in ancient India ibid. VIII, (1934), pp. 31-45. His other monographs like 'Sanskrit texts on Indian Art'—Mirrors of Indian Art; and 'Geographical and and chronological background of Indian Iconography, etc. etc.] and Dr. Raghavan's ['Some Sanskrit texts on painting', Indian Historical Quarterly, IX (1933) pp. 898-911] articles are also very interesting from the point of view of our present dissertation of the canons of Indian Painting. All these will be taken notice of here. Let us first begin with Viṣṇudharmottaram.

v2.c76.44

**Viṣṇudharmottaram.**—It is a supplement or Appendix to Viṣṇu-purāṇa. It is the earliest text dealing with the technique and theory of Indian painting. "Part III of Viṣṇudharmottara gives the fullest account hitherto known of the various branches, methods and ideals of Indian painting"—Kramrisch. Scholars like prof. Stella Kramrisch contend this work to be of the 7th century A.D.—vide her Introduction to the Translation of the V.D. Pt. III.

v2.c76.45

This chronological estimation of this text is not very sound. Painting as a science and art of India is very very old. The earliest finds in our possession and the various references in the early literature all corroborate to the fact that canons too must have developed long long ago and therefore this date of the V.D. falls too short in our chronological. estimation of the Purāṇa. Nagnajit's 'Citralakṣaṇa' is a pointer in this contention of mine. Nagnajit, being a Nāga king of hoary antiquity, a contemporary of the Brāhmaṇas (vide writer's 'Hindu Science of Architecture'—an outline history of Vāstu-vidyā) must have compiled his work on the basis of the prevalent art canons. The doctrine of 'Ṣaḍaṅga' in the pictorial technique of ancient India, as referred by such an early pre-Christian Āchārya, as Vātsyāyana, the celebrated writer of Kāmasūtra, is also an ample testimony to prove that pictorial canons in India had developed long ago. A complete Vāstu-Śāstra or Śilpaśāstra must say something on this most fascinating branch of the art, having a universal appeal both to the princes and the priests alike. All this shows that the V.D. must also be as old as its component, the Viṣṇupurāṇa, a treatise which cannot be placed further up than the golden Gupta Age, 2nd to 4th century A.D.

v2.c76.46

Avoiding any further controversy over this chronological side of the work, let us come to its contents and the treatment of the subject.

v2.c76.47

The Citra-sūtra of Viṣṇudharmottara is consisted of the following topics, though seemingly different nevertheless allied subjects, are woven together;

v2.c76.48

१ चित्रसूत्रविधानदेवाच्चानिर्माणपूजनेन देवतासान्निध्यं ततश्चाभीष्टचतुर्वर्गफलम्

v2.c76.49

२ प्रतिमास्वरूपनिश्चायकचित्रसूत्रस्यातोद्यनृत्यशास्त्रज्ञानायत्तत्वं तस्य च गीतशास्त्राधीनत्वं, गीतस्य तु संस्कृतप्राकृतापभ्रंशादिभेदाद्बाहुल्यम् ...

v2.c76.50

३ नाट्यनृत्त नृत्यलास्यमण्डपादिप्रदर्शनपूर्वकं देवदानवनृपतदनुजीविमुनिविप्र-वणिगादिलक्षणतदनुवेशसात्त्विकाभिनयकटिपादाद्याश्रितरेचकाचारीमहाचारी-तन्मण्डलाङ्‌गहारतत्करणवृत्त्यादिवर्णनन् ... ...

v2.c76.51

४ स्वस्थमन्दालसक्रान्तप्रस्थालसाद्युपवेशनकादिवर्णनम् ... ...

v2.c76.52

५ वैष्णवसमपदादिभेदेन पुंस्थानकादिवर्णनम् ... ...

v2.c76.53

६ अङ्गवणनम् . . . . .

v2.c76.54

७ रसदृष्टितत्प्रयोगपुटकर्मतारकाकर्मसमसाचीकृतादिभेदेन दृष्टिकर्मतदनु-गभ्रूकर्मनासिकाकर्मजिह्वाधरोष्ठमर्दनदन्तकर्मन्निपाङ्गकर्मवर्णनम् ...

v2.c76.55

८ असंयुतसंयुतादिभेदपुरस्सरं नृत्य करविन्यासः, करकर्मलक्षणादि च ...

v2.c76.56

९ वाचिकाहार्याङ्गिकसात्त्विकभेदेन चतुःप्रकाराभिनयहस्तालङ्काराइ्गरचनाः सज्जीवादिनाट्योपकरणवर्णनम् ... ... ...

v2.c76.57

१० इन्द्रियार्थाभिनयप्रकारः इष्टानिष्टमध्यस्थभेदेन गात्रप्रह्लादिना चेष्टा-दिनिरूपणम्, प्रभातगगनरात्रिप्रदोषदिवसर्तुघनधराजलाशयदिङ्नक्षत्राद्य-भिनयादिवर्णनम् . . . . .

v2.c76.58

११ जानुकटीसमस्वाभाविकोत्तुङ्‌गमनयुद्धप्रचारतपोरुगौत्सुक्यादिषु जानुकटीसमा-दिनानागतिप्रचारवर्णनम् ... ... ...

v2.c76.59

१२ शृङ्गारादिनवरसप्रकथनप्रसङ्गेन शृङ्गाराद्धास्यस्य रौद्रात्करुणस्य वीरादद्भु-तस्य बीभत्साद्भयानकस्योत्पत्तिमभिधाय तत्तद्देवतावर्णभेदव्यञ्जनादिनिरूप-णम् . . . . .

v2.c76.60

१३ हासरतिशोकाद्येकोनपञ्चाशद्भावनिरूपणम् ... ...

v2.c76.61

१४ करांगुलीनां विविधविन्यासवशादोङ्काराज्जलवासुदेवसङ्कर्षणप्रद्युम्नानिरुद्धा-दिहस्तमुद्रावर्णनम् ... ... ...

v2.c76.62

१५ भस्मजटानन्तधर्मज्ञानवैराग्यैश्वर्यदेवीस्कन्दादिनृत्तशास्त्रमुद्रावर्णनम् ...

v2.c76.63

१६ नृत्तोत्पत्तितत्करणकभोगमोक्षादिफलवर्णनम् ... ...

v2.c76.64

१७ चित्रसूत्रवर्णने मूर्त्यवयवप्रमाणं तदनुसारेण मघक्षहंसमालव्यादिवर्णनम् ...

v2.c76.65

१८ चित्रकर्मण्यंगप्रत्यंगमानेन स्त्रीणां निर्माणम् ... ...

v2.c76.66

१९ चित्रकर्मणि देवनानेत्राद्यंगवर्णनम् ... ... ...

v2.c76.67

२० नानावर्णानुगताः शुभाकारविहारा ऋज्वागतसाचीकृतदेहाद्यनेकोपभेदसहिता-श्चित्रकर्मणो नव भेदाः ... ... ...

v2.c76.68

२१ चित्रकर्मार्हभूमिसंस्कारकथनपूर्वकं बहुसमयस्थायिरंग - ( वर्ण ) - निर्माणं, कनकरजतादिरंगद्रव्यकथनञ्च ... ... ...

v2.c76.69

२२ सत्यवैणिकादिभेदेन सलक्षणं चित्रचातुर्विध्यम्, पत्राकृतिरेखाबिन्दुवर्तनादिचित्रदोषस्थानप्रमाणादिचित्रगुणभूषणदुरासनादिचित्रनाशहेतुभूम्यादिवर्णनञ्च ...

v2.c76.70

२३ चित्रे देवनृपर्षिगन्धर्व्वैत्यदानवादीनां सायुधानां सपरिच्छदानां निर्माणदेश-विशेषानुरूपआसनशयनयानवेशसरित्सागरवाहनशैलशिखरसद्वोपभूमण्डलशङ्खपद्मादेनिधिसचन्द्रनक्षत्ररात्रिसन्ध्या दिन्निर्माणम् ... ... २४ चित्र श्रृंगारादिनवरसप्रदर्शनं, देवालयनृपस भयोस्तद्विमर्शः, निधिविद्याधरहनुमदादिमंगल्यचित्राणां गृहेषु यत्नाल्लेखनं स्वहस्तेनात्मगृहे चित्रलेखननिषेधचित्रदोषगुणवर्णनम्, चित्रसूत्रसमाप्तिः ... ...

v2.c76.71

This tabulation of the topics will reveal that the text touches practically all the points pertaining to the technique and conventions employed in Indian pictorial art. Proportions of human figure, types of men, different varieties of hair and eyes, various poses of body, method of preparing the painting-canvases, the plastered wall, etc., conventions regarding the representations of gods, men, landscapes;, seasons etc., all these are some of the basic principles of this fine art which have been dealt with in a masterly manner in this treatise.

v2.c76.72

We know that arts like Architecture and Sculpture for their rise and development had the religious inspiration in their background. Naturally pictorial art too owes its origin from the religious craving of the man. The Citrajā-images, as already pointed out, were very highly extolled in the religious digests. A complete science of Indian Iconography therefore gives a proper place to the treatment of pictorial canons as well. Royal patronage and the Palace culture, however, were responsible for the development of these arts on the secular basis also. Viṣṇudharmottara, therefore, also mirrors this side-development which culminated in its full-fledged code by the time, *i.e.* 11th century, when the Samarāṅgaṇa-Sūtradhāra was written by king Bhojadeva of Dhara, one of the richest documents on the canons of ancient Indian painting. Accordingly the V.D. deals not only with religious aspect of Indian painting, but also, and to a far greater extent, with its secular employment. Prof. Kramrisch remarks : "Painting in ancient India, especially in the Gupta period, was of great importance in the life of the citizens. The interest taken in pictures varied with the education of the spectator. The masters praise the rekhās (रेखा) (delineation and articulation of form), the connoisseurs praise the display of light and shade, women like display of ornaments, to the rest of the public richness of colours appeals". Vātsyāyana's Kāmasūtra is also a brilliant testimoney to the fact that with the rise of cities, the ideals of citizenship and the culture of the citizens also rose to an extent that the artistic culture and refinements were one of the chief characteristics of civilization.

v2.c76.73

**Samarāṅngaṇa Sūtradhāra**—At many places in this study I have indicated the special contribution of the Samarāṅgana-sūtradharā is devoting a good many chapters to this most fascinating branch of fine arts, the painting. Among the Archā-dravyas, the substances of which the icons are made or the images are carved out, is included also the Ālekhya the Citra, the Painting, by means of which beautiful images are drawn on some background.

v2.c76.74

It may be noted that in the Samarāṅgaṇa-sūtradhāra as I have criticised it at several places, the portion of the text on sculpture is neither exhaustive nor elaborate. That is, in the text we neither get a complete traditional account of images of the divinities and statues of great personages along with a detailed code of canons such as we find in Āgamic works and Śilpa-śāstras like Mānasāra, Śilparatna and works of Kaśyapa and Agastya, nor any code of metal-casting, the details of which are found in the contemporary anthology—Mānsollāsa of King Someśvara. Both these drawbacks have been fully compensated by its treatment of the painter’s masterpiece, the different kinds of paintings, both religious and secular. Hence I am content to take notice of the pictorial art of making images—both religious and secular—according to our treatise, which in accordance with the time-honoured tradition of the medieval art (*i. e.* latter part of the medieval renaissance), has devoted a good many chapters to the art of painting, which as I have hinted in the very first part of this study, forms a major contribution of this work on architecture. Moreover the architectural works belonging to both the schools as noticed in the Introductory part of this study do not contain any treatment of the topic of pictorial representation of the images of gods. The treatises like Śilparatna are comparatively very late, or rather modern. Among the pre-Samarāṅgaṇa treatises on architecture, there are however a few works which have dealt with this topic in detail. The first place must be assigned to Viṣṇudharmottara which gives a detailed account of the rules of painting and is of unique importance in this particular branch of art. It is a representative work of ancient Indian painting.

v2.c76.75

Now with this background I may proceed with the detailed account of the pictorial art as furnished by this notable treatise on the art of painting which I have, at many places, cited as an authoritative compendium of medieval architecture and if both the early and later parts of the madieval period of Indian History may be taken as the harbingers of a renaissance in the domain of art and literature, this treatise is certainly an epitome of that social upsurge which gave birth to stupendous works of art and architecture, the famous monuments, already noticed (cf. ‘Temple Architecture’) which are our pride.

v2.c76.76

The very first point of importance in our consideration of the canons of the painting as enjoined by this work is that though some of the topics such as the canons of the proportionate measurements, the nine poses of the legs, the different varieties of the hand poses numbering as many as sixty-four, the different varieties of the forms in which gods, goddesses and the demi-gods, the immortals and mortals alike all fall under this broad heading of Painting and they are treated as such; though to my mind all these may be deemed a common property of both sculpture and painting as well as other arts of icon-making. In the S. S. however some innovation have been introduced for the first time in the extant manuals of purely Śilpa-character, viz. the Rasas and Rasa-dṛṣṭis, the dancing poses of hands, etc. and the detailed technique and conventions of the prevalent pictorial traditions of the time.

v2.c76.77

It has, thus devoted a good number of chapters on painting exclusively, a detailed notice of which will form the subject matter of the proceeding chapters. For general acquaintance, however, a tabulation of the contents will suffice for our present angle of this discourse:

v2.c76.78

चित्रकर्मणि

v2.c76.79

विषयाः अध्यायाः १ चित्रोद्देशः ७१ २ भूमिबन्धनम् ७२ ३ लेप्यकर्मादिकम् ७३ ४ अण्डकप्रमाणम् ७४ ५ मानोत्पत्तिः ७५ ६ दोषगुणनिरूपणम् ७८ ७ ऋज्वागतादिस्थानलक्षणम् ७९ ८ वैष्णवादिस्थानकलक्षणम् ८० ९ पञ्चपुरुषस्त्रीलक्षणम् ८१ १० रसद्दष्टिलक्षणम् ८१ ११ पताकादिचतुष्षष्ठिहस्तलक्षणम् ८३

v2.c76.80

**Aparajitapraccha.**—It is also a very important text on Vāstu-śāstra. It is contemporary to the Samarāṅgaṇa-Sūtradhāra and a detailed notice of this work from the point of view of a critical and comparative estimation, may be seen in writer's Hindu Science of Architecture. It has a unique distinction to have expounded some of the current trends of the time in the depiction of the pictures, like natural sceneries, especially the animal kingdom, the birds and beasts, as well as the pleasing phenomena of the plants and the trees, leaves and flowers. It has also given a valuable record of the six styles of this art (Nāgara, Drāviḍa, Vesara, Kaliṅga, Yāmuna and Vyantara), as cultivated in so many centres of art in the great land of ours. The following chapters must give a peep into the pictorial treasure house of this magnificent work:

v2.c76.81

२२४ चित्रसद्भावनिर्णयः ... ५७६-५७७ २२५ परमाण्वादिकल्पितं रूपमानम् ५७८ तालमानम् ५७८ एकतालादिषोडशतालान्ताः प्रतिमाः ... ५७८-५७९ अष्टधातुमयादिप्रतिमा- जीवसूत्रम् ... ५८६ पत्राकारादिविशेषलक्षणम् ५८६ २२९ देशजातिकुलस्थानवर्णभेदवर्णनम् ... ५८७ २३० सरस्वत्यर्चनं गुरुशिष्यसंबन्धलक्षणं च ... ५८८-५९०

v2.c76.82

| लक्षणम् | ... | ५७९ | २३१ | पट्टपत्रवर्तनानिर्णयः | ५९१ |
| २२६ | स्वच्छन्दभैरवावतारः | | २३२ | लेपकर्मविधिः ... | ५९२-५९३ |
| स्वच्छन्दभैरवस्यायुधानां | | २३३ | रूपालङ्कारसंयुतं | |
| क्रमवर्णनम् ... | ५८० | चित्रकर्मकथनम् ... | ५९४-५९५ |
| तस्य स्वरूपवर्णनम् ... | ५८० | षोडशव्यालानि-सिंह-गज- | |
| एकविंशतितालमानायास्तस्याः | | अश्व-नरादिक-वृष-मेष-शुक- | |
| मूर्तेरूध्र्वमानम् ... | ५८० | सूकर-महिष-मूषक-कीट- | |
| तत्तिर्यङ्मानकथनम् ... ५८०-५८१ | बानर-हंस-कुक्कुट-मयूर- | |
| तत्पूजामंत्रविधानम् ... ५८१-५८२ | त्रिपल्ली-सर्पव्यालानीति | ५९४ |
| २२७ चित्रपत्रोत्पत्तिनिर्णयः ... ५८३ ५८४ | २३४ स्त्रोपुरुषलक्षणम् ... | ५९६-५९७ |
| २२८ | पत्रजातिकण्टकभेदजीव- | | २३७ | तालवादित्रलक्षणम् ... | ६०९ |
| सूत्रनिर्णयः ... ५८५-५८६ | तालः | ६०९-६१० |
| जातिक्रमच्छन्दतोऽष्टकण्टकाः | वाद्यप्रकारलक्षणम् ... | ६१०-६११ |
| कलि-कलिक-व्यामिश्र--चित्र- | २३८ | सप्तस्वराः | ६१२ |
| कौशल-व्यावर्त-व्यावृत्त--सुभङ्ग- | रागरागिण्यः ... | ६१२-६१३ |
| भङ्गचित्रका इति ... ५७५ | चतुर्दशगीतदोषाः ... | ६१३ |
| अष्टविधकण्टकानागाकृतयो | २३९ | ताण्डवादिमृत्यलक्षणम् | ६१४ |
| जातयश्च ... ५८५-५८६ | | |

v2.c76.83

Now a perusal of these contents of the Aparājita, will convince us that Patras and Kaṇṭakas as well as the detailed delineation on the Vartanā as well as the manifold motifs both of the animal kingdom and the celestial one, etc. are some of the special introductions of this text in realm of this lore. We shall have an opportunity to describe all these details in the respective chapters ahead.

v2.c76.84

**Abhilaṣitārtha-Cintāmaṇi.**—or ‘Boon-stone of all desirable knowledge’ is a compendium of encyclopædic nature, treating all kinds of topics both religious and secular. It is said to have been compiled by the Cālukya King Someśvaradeva, who flourished in the 12th century A. D. Its Prakaraṇa III, is devoted to the description of architecture, picture-drawing and painting with minutest details, iconography and pleasures of domestic life. The topics on painting going by the name of the Ālekhyakarma is consisted of the following topics:

v2.c76.85

प्रसङ्गादालेख्यकर्म

v2.c76.86

v2.c76.87

ब्रह्मसूत्रम् तिर्यक्सूत्रम् शीर्षः केशाः ललाटम् भ्रूलेखा नासामूलम् नेत्रे कपोलौ कण्ठौ नासाग्रम् गौजी ओष्ठौ सृक्किणी दन्ताः हनुमण्डलम् कूर्चम् कुकुन्दरे स्फिचौ ऊरू जानुनी जङ्घामूलम् गुल्फौ पादौ पादाङ्गुलयः पादनखाः कृकाटिका कक्षामूलम् प्रकोष्ठः मणिबन्धः वंशः पृष्ठभागः ऋजुवृत्तिः अर्धर्ऋजुकवृत्तिः साचिवृत्तिः द्व्यर्धाक्षिकवृत्तिः केशवादिचतुर्विंशति- मूर्तिलक्षणम् (विस्तारादलम्) हयचित्रलक्षणम् गजचित्रलक्षणम् विद्धादयश्चित्रभेदा !

v2.c76.88

In the Mānasollāsa, though the text is almost identical, it, however, shows some variation as well. The following brief tabulation will be helpful to reconstruct the whole treatment:

v2.c76.89

चित्रकारस्वरूपम् शुद्धवर्णद्रव्याणि पक्षसूत्र-लक्षणम् सामान्यचित्रप्रक्रिया चित्रभित्तिः मिश्रवर्णाः ताललक्षणम् लेखनीलेखनम् चित्रवर्णाः तिर्यङ्मानलक्षणम्

v2.c76.90

Thus it is evident that it deals with both painters and paintings as also with the methods of preparing vajralepa (adamantine paste), painting brushes, pure and mixed colours. In the Abhilaṣitārtha-cintāmaṇi (also cf. Mānasollāsa) very intersting details are given on pictorial painting, which is dependent, in the first place, on the three principal lines, called the plumb-lines and they are named here as Brahmasūtra and the two Pakṣasūtras, the side lines. Its Iconometry is very scientific and a detailed notice may be seen in a subsequent chapter.

v2.c76.91

Abhilaṣitārtha-Cintāmaṇi’s unique prescription of the metal-casting images has already been expounded, vide Iconoplastic art Pt. II. Its expatiations on the technique and convention of the pictorial art especially the perfect delineations of the form—the divine and human both—in all its limbs and sub-limbs as well as the anatomical perspective of the whole picture in relation to the different kinds of pictures and the explanations of the various technical terms are some of the very valuable contributions of the work. It is worthy of note that the author, the King Somesvara Bhūlokamalla of the western Cālukya line of Kalyāṇī who came to the throne in 1124-25, proudly describes himself as Citravidyā-viriñci, the creator or master of the art of drawing and painting.

v2.c76.92

Śilparatna is a rare work on Indian art. It is divided into two parts, the first part consisting of 46 chapters, deals with the construction of houses, villages and other allied subjects (cf. Hindu Science of Architecture, where a detailed treatment of the textual matters is attempted), while the second part contains 35 chapters and treats of iconography and kindred topics. It is, however, very remarkable that this text treats painting—the Citra-lakṣaṇa in continuation to the secular art—the 46th (i.e. the last) chapter of the first part and not along with the religious art, the iconography. This shows the medieval tendency of the pictorial art with which this work must have been fully influenced. It was natural also as it was compiled from the early sources of Āgamas, Śilpa-texts in the later medieval period, by Śrikumāra, a Keralite, well versed in Śilpa-vidyā as is evident from the following verse of the text (cf. Chapt. I, 6) at the instance of Devanārāyaṇa of Travancore State who flourished in the later part of the 16th century A. D. and who was a great patron of learning and entertained in his court the famous Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭa, a great poet and grammarian :

v2.c76.93

ब्राह्मं क्षात्रं च तेजोऽप्यहमहमिकयावर्ण्यते यत्र वीरे
तस्य श्रीदेवनारायणधरणिपतेराज्ञयाज्ञाकरोऽहम् ।
मन्दोऽप्यत्यन्तमोहादतिविपुलतरेभ्योऽथ पूर्वागमेभ्यः
संक्षिप्तं शिल्परत्नं प्रलिखितुमधुना प्रक्रमे तत्क्रमेण ।।

v2.c76.94

The 46th chapter of the Śiḻparatna (Pt. I) entitled ‘Citra-lakṣaṇa’ gives all the salient canons both of the technique as well as the conventions of the painting which had been evolved by the time and were current in its day. Its expatiations follow more or less the line taken by the Abhilaṣitārtha-cintāmaṇi (already taken notice of), of course, with proper modifications and expansions. Its prescriptions on the different modes of Svarṇa-lekhāvidhi, are very rich indications of the pictorial art which had attained some of the most refined and embellished traits of the crafstmanship.

v2.c76.95

As already pointed out the text treats painting as an accessory to architecture of human and divine dwellings—cf. the very first line of the chapter:

v2.c76.96

एवं सर्वविमानानि गोपुरादीनि वा पुनः ।
मनोहरतरं कुर्यान्नानाचित्रैर्विचित्रितम् ।।

v2.c76.97

It then takes up the scope of the painting in which all the animate and inanimate figure. Then follows the types of painting and incidently hints at the non-scope of painting, what is termed by it, as ‘Citrā- bhāsa’. Afterwards are dealt with the backgrounds—the Citrabhitti (vs. 15-23)—and its preparation. Then is given the technique of the colours and colouring as well as the most popular and appealing objects of painting (26-39). It further takes up the Citra-lekhanavidhi and incidentally dwells at length on the brushes, etc. (the three-fold lekhanī) as well as the traditional ṛjvāgata, etc., nine poses along with proportions of measurements of all limbs and sub-limbs. The verses 111-142 are a beautiful and a very reasoned account of the colours, their varieties, compounds and mixtures, etc. together with the use of gold in them and the technique of its application. In the end (143-147½) are given the three famous types of painting—the Rasacitra, the Dhūlicitra and Citra (proper).

v2.c76.98

Dr. Raghavan (“Some Sanskrit Texts on Painting” I. H. Vol. X. 1933,1) has found the exposition of the pictorial art-canons in two more Śilpa-texts—the ‘Sārasvata-Citra-Karma-Śāstra’ and the ‘Nārada-Śilpa’ and I better give his own resume of these ancient manuals on painting :

v2.c76.99

“Now I propose to notice the contents of two works treating of painting which are still in manuscript form. The Sārasvatacitrakarma-śāstra is a manuscript on Citra available in the Tanjore Library (Burnell 11076). It is on Citra and not on painting alone. Citra, as is known from the Śilparatna does not mean picture alone. It means exactly what the Tamil work ‘Bomai’ means. It means Citra, sculpture or complete figures in stone, metal, etc., Ardhacitra, ‘half-visible reliefs on the walls, and Citrābhāsa, ‘semblance of a Citra’, viz. the monodimensional drawing on a flat surface like wall, plank, cloth, etc. It is sculpture, etc. which are Citra par excellence. This classification is also given by the Sārasvatacitraśāstra. It means first Citra, Ardhacitra and Citrābhāsa, —Citra in धातु, दारु, शिला, रत्न and लौह and Citrābhāsa on wall or plank of wood. Then it speaks of Māna of man and women and these go up to chapter X. It then takes up the Māna of Mūrtis. In the 39th chapter, it speaks of मृल्लेपन, smearing the walls with mud and of शुक्ललेपन, smearing the walls with cunam. The 40th chapter deals with Varṇa Samskāra. From such works as this we learn that painting and iconography and sculpture came to be related and that the canons for the latter two were also the canons for painting—a fact which we realise also on seeing the rather modern paintings on the walls of almost all the South Indian temples.

v2.c76.100

Another work of the Śilpa Śāstra, which treats of painting and is not available in print, is the Nāradaśilpa which I propose to examine now. A manuscipt of this work is available in the Adyar Library, Adyar, Madras. Two chapters of this work are devoted to painting, one to the architecture of Citra-Śālā, ‘Art gallery’, and another to painting itself. We all know that besides the houses and temples, a place called the Citra Śālā in the palaces of kings contained pictures. We hear of this Citra Śālā of the king’s palace in the Mālavikāgnimitra of Kālidāsa. But the hall for pictures and its architecture are nowhere else described in works of Śilpa except in the Nāradaśilpa. From this work which describes only the public Citra Śālā of the city, we also come to know that in ancient India, apart from the Art gallery in the palaces, there were also public Art galleries in the city. The Naiṣadha, X. 35 and Kādambarī mention public Art galleries of the city.

v2.c76.101

Chapter 66 of the Nāradaśilpa is called चित्रशाला लक्षणकथन and it describes the nature of Citra Śāla. The work is written in a very difficult, affected archaic prose style and consequently very few sentences are clear enough to be quoted here. Nārada quotes an earlier authority Uśīnara, according to whom the Citra Śālā must be in the centre of the city, in a place like the meeting of four streets or in the middle of the Rāja Vīthī, ‘king’s highway’. The building may be of the shape of a Mardala, (a kind of drum) or Māṇḍalika (circular) or mace-like (dāṇḍikākṛtika). It has many doors, main and smaller entrances (dvāropadvāraka). It may have one or many faces. The courts within must be each in two parts (dvidvibhāgāṅgaṇa). This perhaps means that one half on the side of the wall is to be enclosed for pictures and the other half for the floating spectators. There are inner halls, pials to rest on and stairs leading to the upper storey. The pillars may be 32, or 16 in number. One hall for picrures runs across and there is one in the centre. The one in the centre seems to be in a very raised place with steps leading to it. In the front or on the eastern side there is a ‘special hall’ (Vaiśeṣika Śālā). The whole building shall have windows, and beautiful canopies and shall be, in all other ways variously decorated. Again Nārada says that the Citra Śāla must have many pials and many seats on all sides with Upā-Śālas or minor halls resembling out-houses. The building is like a Maṇḍapa, with dome and kalaśa at the top. It is not that the same hall must have all these details but one may adopt some and another some others. Certain Citra Śālās, for instance, have stairs on all sides and have the halls for picture only in the upstairs. The Citra Śālā has a great mirror within and glass chandeliers. Sometimes the front of the building is beautified by constructing it like a small Gopura. In such halls pictures done in various brilliant colours, of Devas, Gandharvas, Kinnaras, men in sport, persons possessing greatness and of importance are exhibited.

v2.c76.102

Chapter 71 of the Nāradasilpa is devoted to the decoration of painting चित्रालंकृतिरचनाविधिकथन. Pictures are not only for the joy of the gods and the presiding deities of the buildings, the Vāstunāthas, but are also for beauty according to Uśīnara. Nārada gives a new kind of classification of pictures, not found in other works, and it is from the point of view of the places where the pictures are drawn. Thus he says that pictures are of three kinds—of the floor, of the wall, and of the top, i. e. ceiling ( भौम, कुड्यक and ऊर्ध्वक ). These again are classified from another stand point into two kinds, permanent and temporary (शाश्वतक and तात्कालिक ). The latter is the Bhauma i.e., the picture of the floor; Kolam, the Dhūli Citra and Rasa Citra of Someśvara belong to this class. Nārada says that this variety is drawn in front of the house, on the door-step, on the pials and everywhere in the house on the floor. Birds, snakes, elephants, horses, etc. can thus be drawn. These themes are still drawn in our houses.

v2.c76.103

The pictures on the walls—Kuḍyaka, or, on the top—Ūrdhvaka, are of Devas, Gandharvas, Yakṣas, sages, great monarchs, animals, wrestlers, warriors, etc. Nārada says that the pillar-tops and sides of the pillars can also be decorated with painting.

v2.c76.104

The two good features of all pictures are given by Nārada as fine lines and observation of anatomy rules, अविषमरेखा and अविरुद्धसूत्रपात. He gives rich decoration as another good feature and here we are reminded of the Vi. Dha. which says:—स्त्रियो भूषणमिच्छन्ति.

v2.c76.105

According to place, says Nārada, the appropriate jātis of beings, Daiva, Gāndharva, Yāksa, Kainnara, Vaidyādhara and Mānuṣa, must be chosen. Nārada speaks also of animals and birds in various postures as themes to be drawn in the eastern or southern sides. He says that, before painting Sudhā must be applied to the walls and if the ground is plank or wood in the cases of beams and pillars, it must be smeared with some herbal juice to make it durable. The Citras on wood and metal which refer to carved images, etc. and to which the name citra applies pre-eminently, are also mentioned by Nārada along with the references to painting or carving, on umbrellas, handles of chowries, swords, etc."

v2.c76.106

PAINTING, ITS AIM, ORIGIN AND SCOPE

v2.c76.107

The Sanskrit word Citra is generally rendered as painting, but it means just ‘image’. We have already seen (vide Classification of Images Citra, Citrārdha and Citrābhāsa, the three-fold classification of images on the basis of the sculpture, as fully sculptured, half represented, and non-manifest ones. Here in this part of study, therefore, the Citra would be used in the limited sense of painting. Painting is what we understand by the term Ālekhya. It is one of the nine or ten varieties of materials of which the images are made. The Ālekhya images, in my opinion, from the point of view of general currency and use, are second only to stone images. The other principal variety is of the metal images. Thus three classes of image, stone images, metal images, and those painted on some background like paṭa or paper are more popular than others.

v2.c76.108

Again as the universe of discource in relation to Iconography—the Sculpture, being a limited one in this Study, i. e. excluding from its purview the secular images and concentrating on only religious ones, this stand point however, would have to be modified here in this part, because the Samarāṅgaṇa Sūtradhāra does provide for secular norms of painting in its treatment on the subject. This is the unique feature of this work (see also Vol. I, Part III—House Architecture—the Secular Architecture) not to have lost sight of the secular trends in art, characteristic of the upsurge of the medieval tendencies in art and literature. This leads us to the twofold general scope of painting.

v2.c76.109

Suprabhedāgama says, “पटे पट्टे कुड्ये वा चित्रसंभवः” Thus both the mural paintings and the painting on cloth and board were in vogue from the early times in India. T. Gopinath Rao in his Elements of Hindu Iconography (page 53) says; “The very name Chitrābhās applied for painting is suggestive of the fact that the principles of light and shade also were well understood pretty early by the Indians. This word Chitrābhās means that which resembles the Chitra or solid natural images. The appearance of solidity comes to a picture painted on a flat surface only when light and shade are properly disposed in the picture. From the several instances of ancient paintings found in India, it is easy to form an estimate regarding the great progress made by Indians in the art of painting in the early times. The Frescos of Ajaṇṭa and wall paintings in the temples on the Malabar coast of the Kerala State which later havenot as yet attracted the attention of scholars disclosed a notable advance made in India in this dificult art of painting.”

v2.c76.110

Painting, as hinted at, before (cf. ‘The Iconoplastic Art’ Chap. IV) being in the scope or Iconography, should have been treated as such; but painting has a unique place in the ancient Indian arts as its employment was not restricted to religious purposes alone; its aim for secular employment has been in vogue from times immemorial, as would be evident soon from the fascinating stories of its origin. But before we trace its origin, let us introduce its aim a little more in the scheme of cultural and artistic traditions of this ancient land.

v2.c76.111

**Its aim.**—A text like Viṣṇudharmottara (forming the component part of the Viṣṇu-mahā-purāṇa) itself unequivocally eulogises painting having its both religious and secular use. It says (vide Citralakṣaṇa, p. 4); citra, the painting is the finest or fine arts. We can get all kinds of merits accruing from Dharma, Artha, Kāma and Mokṣa. It is the first of the auspicious things in one’s house. It is as superior as Sumeru among the mountains, as Garuḍa among the birds and as king among men.

v2.c76.112

Samarāṅgaṇa-Sūtradhāra also (ibid) gives it the first place amotng all the fine arts. It is simply the mukha, the representative of all arss, the spokesman, the leader as it were. In a word it has the greatet appeal to the hearts and minds of people, as from it are derived nothing but joy and sensibility of the highest order.

v2.c76.113

The employment of painting purely from the point of view of religious merit was also of a hoary antiquity and it might be as old as image-worship and iconography themselves. A sacred text like Hayaśīrṣapañcarātra bears an ample testimony in its following quotation that the pictorial representation of divinities was as time-honoured as through any sculptural or any iconoplastic meduim :

First 113 of 212 passages. Read on

Linked texts (32)

Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra — Bhoja, Sanskrit
Naiṣadhīyacarita — Śrīharṣa, Sanskrit
Dutiyagaddulabaddhasutta — Pāli
Mahāvaṃsa — Pāli
Jātaka — Pāli
Bhāgavatapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa — Sanskrit
Suprabhedāgama — Sanskrit
Nāṭyaśāstra — Bharata, Sanskrit
Pañcadaśī — Mādhava & Bhāratītīrtha, Sanskrit
Hayaśīrṣasaṃhitā — Sanskrit
Viṣṇudharmottarapurāṇa — Sanskrit
Daśakumāracarita — Daṇḍin, Sanskrit
Mālavikāgnimitra — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit
Citralakṣaṇa — Nagnajit, Sanskrit
Dūtavākya — Bhāsa, Sanskrit
Kādambarī — Bāṇabhaṭṭa, Sanskrit
Ratnāvalī — Harṣavardhana, Sanskrit
Raghuvaṃśa — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit
Kāmasūtra — Vātsyāyana Mallanāga, Sanskrit
Visuddhimagga — Buddhaghosa, Pāli
Saṃyuttanikāya — Pāli
Viṣṇupurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Abhijñānaśākuntala — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit
Ajanta
Aparājitapṛcchā — Bhuvanadeva, Sanskrit
Śivatattvaratnākara — Basappa Nāyaka 1684, Sanskrit
Śilparatna — Śrīkumāra (Śilparatna) 1500, Sanskrit
Mānasollāsa (Abhilaṣitārthacintāmaṇi) — Someśvara III, Sanskrit
Prasannarāghava — Jayadeva Pīyūṣavarṣa, Sanskrit
Uttararāmacarita — Bhavabhūti, Sanskrit
Citrasūtra — Sanskrit