The Coinage of the Gupta Empire and its Imitations c17: Chapter XII: Symbols, Metrology, Palæogrphy and Hoards

The Coinage of the Gupta Empire and its Imitations c17

Language: English

Chapter XII: Symbols, Metrology, Palæogrphy and Hoards

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Topics like symbols, metrology and palæography could not be conveniently discussed before a detailed description of the Gupta coins was given. We therefore propose to discuss them in the concluding chapter, adding also a section on Gupta hoards.

1. Symbols

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The term ‘symbol’ is conventionally used to denote a small geometric type of drawing occurring on the reverse of Gupta coins¹ and consisting of a circle or parallelogram, usually hanging down from a line with a number of prongs or dots above it. Some early writers like Smith had used the term monogram to denote this drawing, as it bears a striking resemblance to the monograms occurring on the Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian coins, where they are obvious combinations of Greek or Kharoshṭhī letters. It is, however, hardly possible to interpret any symbol on the Gupta coins as a combination of Gupta letters. We therefore prefer to call this drawing a symbol.

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¹ According to Smith, coin No. 688 of the Bodleian Collection, which is a Standard type coin of Samudragupta, has [Figure: symbol] on the reverse and [Figure: symbol] on the obverse (J.R.A.S., 1889, p. 30). This is the only Gupta coin having a symbol on the obverse, and it may have been due to a mistake of the engraver.

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It may be stated at the outset that the symbols occur only on gold coins, and never on silver or copper ones. There is usually one symbol on a coin, though on the coins of the early emperors like Chandragupta I and Samudragupta, a second one also makes its appearance on about 15% of their issues. The second symbol is usually simpler in composition, cf. ∧, ∧, Δ. This practice survived on some rare varieties of the Archer type of Chandragupta II, but was later given up. The usual place for the symbol is the upper left corner of the reverse; the second symbol, when engraved, occupies the upper right corner. If the place of the symbol is usurped by an object in the hand of the deity, it is sometimes shifted to the middle of the coin, lower down, as on the coins of Kācha (Pl. IV. 1-4) and on the Apratigha type of Kumāragupta I (Pl. XIV. 1-3). The shifting of the symbol to the upper right corner on the Rhinoceros-slayer type of Kumāragupta I (Pl. XIII. 3-5) was an unusual procedure. In several cases, however, the symbol was dropped altogether, when it was not possible to accommodate it in its proper place. Thus, for instance, the top of the sūchi and the crescent-topped banner trespass on the usual place of the symbol in the Aśvamedha and Tiger-slayer types (Pl. III. 6-8, 13-14) of Samudragupta; it is, therefore, dropped altogether from them. Lotus or bunch of grapes in the hand of the goddess renders the engraving of the symbol difficult in its usual place in several types like Couch type, var. A, of Chandragupta II (Pl. IX. 1), King and Queen (Pl. XIV. 4) and Elephant-rider (Pl. XII. 14-15) types of Kumāragupta I and most of his varieties of the Horseman type (Pls. X-XI); it is, therefore, omitted altogether there. Symbol does not make its appearance on the Lyrist type, Var. A, of Samudragupta (Pl. III. 15-16) and on several coins of the Horseman type of Chandragupta II (Pl. VIII. 3-5), though its place is empty there. This procedure can be explained perhaps on the assumption that the artists, who engraved these dies, had an aversion for symbols.

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In the earlier reigns, however, symbols usually exercised a great fascination over the Gupta artists, who introduced several varieties of them. In the later reigns the diversity of symbols disappears with the diversity of types.

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After making a close and exhaustive study of the problem published elsewhere,¹ the present writer has come to the conclusion that the symbols do not appear to have possessed any particular significance. The symbols on the Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian coinage are usually combinations of Greek or Kharoshṭhī letters. Such is not the case either with the Kushāṇa or the Gupta symbols. Gondopharnes had a symbol peculiar to himself; each of the Great Kushāṇa emperors had only one or two symbols upon his coins, which to some extent may be regarded as peculiar to him. But no symbol can be regarded as peculiar to any Gupta king with the only exception of Prakāśāditya. In the case of the early Gupta emperors we have a very large number of symbols associated with each, and many of them are continued by their successors. This circumstance renders the theory of the symbols being associated with particular mint-master also improbable; symbols like ☤, ☥, ☧, etc. persist through several reigns. No mint-master could have lived so long. It is, however, possible that some rare symbols like ☨, ☩, ☪ and ☫, which appear on solitary or rare coins, may be the choice of particular artists. If so, we cannot identify them. The theory of particular symbols being associated with particular mint cities is difficult to prove. There is no evidence to connect a particular symbol with a particular city. Some coins have two symbols; were they partly minted in one city and partly in another? Smith's theory² that the symbols had some religious significance does also not appear as a probable one. The goddesses on the coins of Chandragupta I and Chandragupta II are most probably Durgā and Lakshmī respectively, but they have no Śaiva and Vaishṇava symbols associated with them. Kārtikeya type was certainly issued in honour of that deity; but it bears no Śaiva symbol. Śaṅkha and chakra sometimes appear in the field, but not as, or in the place of, symbols.

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¹ Altekar, A.S., *Catalogue of Gupta Gold Coins in the Bayana Hoard*, pp. cxxxi-cli.

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² *J.R.A.S.*, 1889, p. 33.

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Nor can the symbols be regarded as auspicious signs, because none of them is known as such either to tradition or to literature. It may be added that Svastika, lotus or conch, which are known to be auspicious, do not occur on Gupta coins among their symbols.

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It has been argued¹ that the symbols may denote the total number of coins of a particular type issued in a particular mint operation by conventional signs, a line denoting 20 and a dot one. There is no evidence for this assumption. If it were true, the Archer type of Chandragupta II, issued in mass quantity, should have had most complex symbols; but such is not the case. The symbol on the unique Chakravikrama type ⁙ ⟐ would suggest that eighty-three coins were issued in the mint operation; why should we have got only one specimen of it so far?

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¹ J.N.S.I., XI, p. 111.

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Nor can we regard the symbols as giving the date of issue by some conventional numbers. Dates of issue, when given on the silver coins, use the well known Gupta numerals and not any conventional ones. It is also doubtful whether dates were given on any Kushāṇa or Gupta gold coins.

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The Kushāṇa gold coinage shows only a few symbols, ♜, ☙, ♜, ♜, ♜, ♜. It appears most probable that the early Gupta mint-masters regarded these symbols on their prototype as merely decorative elements which they were free to diversify in any artistic way they liked. This theory alone can explain the following divergence in the symbols :—

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Chandragupta I issued coins probably for a short period and yet there are eight symbols on his coins. On the coins of Samudragupta, there are about 25 different symbols; on those of Chandragupta II their number increases to about 40.

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Early Gupta emperors had issued several types, varieties and sub-varieties of gold coins, but particular symbols do not appear to be associated with particular types and varieties. The coins of the Archer type of Samudragupta are very few, and yet they show two different symbols 屮 and 🜲. In the Archer type, class II, var. E, of Chandragupta II, there are 18 coins, but five different symbols. There are only five coins of the Couch type of Chandragupta II and they show two different symbols. It is only in the case of var. C of the Standard type of Samudragupta that we see one and the same symbol 🜳 throughout.

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During the reign of Kumāragupta I, a tendency arose to discourage diversity in the forms of symbols. His Archer type was issued in mass quantity, and yet the symbols it shows are only half a dozen.

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Out of the seven varieties of the Horseman type, only two, class II, vars. B and D show the symbol. It is uniformly one and the same in class II, var. B, viz. ☩; in class II, var. D we have usually 🜴. The variety A of the class II of the Lion-slayer type of this ruler with the legend Sākṣādiva narasiṁhaḥ has one and the same symbol 屮. The coins of the rare types of Kumāragupta I have particular symbols of their own. The Swordsman type has the symbol 🜳 and the Rhinoceros-slayer type 🜲. But these symbols cannot be described as being specially associated with particular types; for the symbol 🜳 occurs not only on the Swordsman type, but also on the Chhatra and Apratigha types. The coins of Skandagupta usually show one of the two symbols, 屮 and 🜲. It is the former of these symbols which alone appears on the coins of Ghaṭotkachagupta, Budhagupta and Kumāragupta II. The coins of Narasiṁhagupta have also this symbol.

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in addition to the cognate one 🜂. The coins of Prakāśāditya show a unique and original symbol 🜄 and none other.

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The reverse with one symbol in the upper left corner is the usual feature on Gupta gold coins. We shall now enumerate below the exceptions.

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1. A symbol occurs on the obverse also of a coin of the Standard type of Samudragupta in the Bodleian collection (No. 688) in addition to a symbol occurring on the reverse. See however the Addenda.

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2. Two symbols occur on the reverse, one in the upper left corner and the other in the upper right one on the following coins:—
(a) Chandragupta I; some coins; (Pl. I. 8).
(b) Samudragupta; the Standard type, about 15% coins.¹
(c) Chandragupta II, Archer type, Class I, var. b, one coin; (Pl. IV. 10).
(d) Kumāragupta I, Horseman type, var. D, some coins; (Pl. IX. 12-13).

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¹ Not illustrated in our plates; see B.M.C., G.D., Pl. I. 1-4; C.C. B.H., I. 14., II. 2.

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3. On the following coin-types, there is no symbol on the reverse, its place being usurped by some other object.
(a) Samudragupta, Aśvamedha type; Pl. III. 6-8.
(b) Samudragupta, Tiger-slayer type; Pl. III. 13-14.
(c) Chandragupta II, Archer type, class II, var. H; Pl. V. 7.
(d) Chandragupta II, Couch type, var. A; Pl. III. 15-16.
(e) Chandragupta II, King and Queen type, Queen’s head occupying the place of the symbol; Pl. IX. 6.
(f) Chandragupta II, Lion-slayer type, a few coins; Pl. VI. 8, 13.
(g) Chandragupta II, half-Dināra; Pl. V. 13.
(h) Kumāragupta I, Lion-slayer type, var. A; Pl. XII. 1.

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(i) Kumāragupta I, Archer type, class III, var. C; Pl. X. 4-5.
(j) Kumāragupta I, Horseman type, class I, vars. A-D, class II, var. A; Pl. X. 11-15, XI. 1-8.
(k) Kumāragupta I, Aśvamedha type; Pl. XIII. 7-10.
(l) Kumāragupta I, King-and-Queen type; Pl. XIV. 4.
(m) Kumāragupta I, Elephant-rider type; Pl. XII. 14-15.
(n) Kumāragupta I, Elephant-rider Lion-slayer type; Pl. XII. 1-2.
(o) Kumāragupta I, Lyrist type; Pl. XIV. 5.

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4. On the following types, there is no symbol, though its place is empty on the coin.
(a) Samudragupta, Lyrist type, var. A; Pl. III. 15-16.
(b) Chandragupta II, Chhatra type, var. B; Pl. VIII. 10.
(c) Chandragupta II, Horseman type, class II, some coins; Pl. VIII. 3, 5.
(d) Chandragupta II, Lion-slayer type, some coins; Pl. VI. 8, 13-14; Pl. VII. 1, 4.
(e) Kumāragupta I, Horseman type, class I, var. C; Pl. X. 14-15.
(f) Kumāragupta I, Kārtikeya (Peacock) type; Pl. XIII. 11-12.

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5. On the following coin-types, the symbol is shifted to the centre of the left side:--
(a) Kācha, var. A; Pl. IV. 1-4.
(b) Kumāragupta I, Lion-slayer type, var. D; Pl. XII. 6.
(c) Kumāragupta I, Apratigha type; Pl. XV. 1-3
(d) Budhagupta, one coin; Pl. XV. 8.

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The symbols occurring on Gupta coins are all shown on Pl. XXVII.

2. Metrology

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We have already made several general and detailed observations about the metrology of the different types and varieties of the coins issued by the Gupta emperors, while discussing and describing them in the preceeding pages. It is, however, necessary to treat the subject in a connected manner in order to understand it properly.

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The reader of this book must have been surprised to learn of the wide variations in weight in the specimens of the same type or variety, that we have met with. The weight of the Aśvamedha coins of Samudragupta, which are well preserved, varies between 112 to 121 grains. In the Archer type of Chandragupta II, some coins weigh 127, some 124 and some 121 grains. The weights of the coins tend to increase with each successive reign. In modern times, we are not accustomed to such phenomena. The weight of the Indian rupee has not changed between 1856 and 1956, though there were five different kings or authorities who issued them. Further, all the coins that are issued by a state meticulously follow the standard prescribed for the currency. No two dollars or pounds or rupees would be found to be varying from each other in their weight. Modern mint-authorities are very particular in seeing to it that all coins issued from the mint do conform to the precise prescribed standard. If any piece is found to be deficient or excessive in weight, it is condemned and melted down. It appears that the mint authorities of ancient times, whether of India or Rome or Greece, were not very meticulous about the weights of the pieces they sent into circulation. Well preserved gold coins of the Kuṣāṇas and the Guptas often vary in weight between 118 and 122 grains. The gold aurei of Julius Cāeser vary in weight between 121 to 125 grains. The theoretical weight of the Greek silver drachm was 67.2 grains, but the silver issues of Demetrius in this denomination vary from 55 to 61 grains and those of Eucratides from 52 to 67 grains.

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It seems that in the absence of the modern scientific means of weighing, it was not easy to issue from mints pieces, which would be all accurately uniform in weight. The difference of a grain or two was probably overlooked. Gold coins were offered in exchange only on rare occasions; it is not unlikely that each one of them might have been weighed by the recipient on such occasions in order to satisfy himself about its precise weight. It may be added that till the middle of the last century, a goldsmith used to assist the village *patwari* in assessing the values of different type of rupees and other coins that were offered by the ryots in payment of the land revenue.

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We have shown already how Gupta gold coinage was considerably influenced by the Kushāṇa prototype, and its metrology was no exception. The traditional weight of the ancient Indian gold coin (*suvarṇa*) was 80 *rattis* or about 144 grains. Chandragupta I, who started the Gupta coinage, did not care to revive this ancient standrad, but contented himself by following the Kushāṇa standard of 120 or 121 grains, which in its turn was based upon the weight of the Roman gold coin *aureus*, normally weighing 121 grains. All well-preserved coins of Chandragupta I weigh between 120 and 121 grains. The vast majority of the coins of Samudragupta follow the same standard.

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The reader of this work must have noticed that we have often referred to the standards of 121, 124 and 127 grains being followed in the reigns of Chandragupta II and Kumāragupta I. It may well be asked whether these were three different weight standards or only accidental variations in weight due to the admitted carelessness of the mint-masters in fixing the weights. We think that the former alternative is likely to be the more correct one in view of the circumstanace that some varieties are seen to be rigidly conforming to one of these standards. Thus in the Archer type of Chandragupta II, all the coins of class I, where the goddess is seated on a throne, weigh in the vicinity of 121 grains; there are none which weigh 123 or 124 or 126 or 127 grains. All the coins of this type, where the king holds a sword by his side, are seen to weigh about 126 or 127 grains. All the coins of Kumāragupta I of the Archer type, class I, var. A, where the king holds the bow at the top, weigh about 124 grains; there are none which weigh in the vicinity of either 121 or 127 grains. It is therefore reasonable to assume that there were three different weight standards in the reigns of Chandragupta II and Kumāragupta I; why this should have been the case, we are not in a position to explain.

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Chandragupta II issued coins to three weight standards of 121, 124 and 127 grains. Of these 121 grains standard was most popular; about 80% coins were issued to it. In the reign of Kumāragupta I the standard of 121 grains became scarce. About 10% of his coins were issued to the standard of 121 grains, about 15% to the standard of 124 grains and about 75% to the standard of 127 grains. In the reign of Skandagupta, all these standards were given up; his King-and-Lakshmī type and one variety of the Archer type were issued to the standard of 130 or 132 grains, while his second variety of the Archer type was issued to the standard of about 144 grains, which is identical with the ancient Indian suvarṇa standard of 80 rattis.

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We are not yet able to explain why the weight standard of the gold currency should be gradually increasing from reign to reign in the above fashion. It is possible to agrue that gold was becoming cheaper in terms of silver, and hence the state felt compelled to give a progressively bigger gold coin to its subjects. There is, however, no evidence to show that gold was thus actually getting cheaper; it may be also doubted whether the gold currency was so accurately adjusted to the prices of silver in ancient times.

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The other possible explanation is that the government wanted to replace the foreign standard of 121 grains by the indigenous standard of 144 grains. This is quite a plausible view, but one wonders why the government found it necessary to take about 75 years to achieve this desideratum. It could have introduced the national standard all at once, without going through the intermediate stages of 124, 127, 132 grains. It may be pointed out that the jump from 132 grains to 144, taken by Skandagupta, was quite a big one. Why was not a leap of a double the magnitude taken at an earlier stage?

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There is no doubt that the heavy weight standard of the later Guptas was intended to conform to the *suvarṇa* standard. But what was given by one hand was cleverly taken away by the other. The coins of the early Guptas contained an alloy of 10%, as has been observed by Cunnigham. A coin of 125 grains would thus contain about 113 grains of pure gold. The coins of Skandagupta, Budhgupta, Prakāśāditya, Narasimhagupta and Kumāragupta II (of the purer varieties) contain an alloy of about 25%. So their coins weighing about 150 grains also contained only 113 grains of pure gold.

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It is usually assumed that the strained condition of the imperial treasury was responsible for the adulteration of the Gupta gold currency. This does not seem to have been the case. It is forgotten that every gold coin in ancient India was accepted at its real value and not at its face value. The state in ancient India was not bound to issue coins; many governments did not issue them at all. I believe that the heavier alloy of 25% in the coins of the later Gupta emperors was due to the desire to have a coin of the traditional weight of *suvarṇa*, but giving only 112 grains of gold as before.

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It is only in the case of class II of Narasimhagupta and Kumāragupta II that the coinage can be said to have been heavily adulterated. They contain only 54% gold; i. e. instead of giving 112 grains of gold, their coins give only about 75 or 80 grains. The currency of Viṣṇugupta is still baser; it contains only 43% gold, i. e. only about 62 grains of gold. Why these rulers issued so heavily adulterated currency, we do not know. Possibly they ruled over very small kingdoms or were going through critical times.

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Before we proceed to make our remarks about metrology of the coins of individual rulers, we have to consider the case of some Gupta coins of abnormally low weight, with which we come across almost in every reign. These coins weigh between 95 and 110 grains and many of them are quite in good condition, showing no trace of any use and wear. They could hardly have lost a couple of grains due to the letter cause. The Bayana hoard contained about 12 such coins, e.g. Nos. 48, 55, 89, 108, 138, 150, 184, 186, 196, 579, etc. The British Museum has also got a few specimens of this light variety, e. g. Nos. 5, 34, etc. It is not easy to explain the abnormally low weight of these coins. The weight of some of them would be 4/5 of the normal gold coin. But we have usually a half or a quarter denomination, but never a four-fifth denomination.

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We have seen already how the weight of a coin was not rigidly fixed, and how it could vary to the extent of a quarter or half a grain. Let us suppose that gold sufficient for the minting 50 coins to the standard of 121 grains was handed to the mint authorities and about 30 of these coins were issued half a grain heavier in weight. The last coin which we may for the sake of convenience call the ‘remainder’ coin, would have a flan of 105 grains only. It would appear that most of the low weight coins weighing between 95 and 112 grains were ‘remainder’ coins of this nature.

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Conversely if a dozen coins in a minting operation issuing coins of 127 grains standard were under-weight by half a grain each, the ‘remainder’ coin will be a heavy piece of 133 grains. The rare coins of Chandragupta II, weighing about 133 or 134 grains, are probably to be explained by this assumption.

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We shall now make brief observations about the metrology of the different types and varieties of the Gupta coinage.

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The coins of Chandragupta I follow the standard of 121 grains. The same seems to be the case with more than 80% of the coins of Samudragupta. Most of his coins of the Battle-axe type, the Archer type, the Lyrist type, smaller variety, and the Tiger-slayer type conform to the 121 grains standard, The same is the case with the vast majority of the coins of the Standard type. But quite a pretty number of the coins of the Standard and the Aśvamedha types are seen to weigh in the vicinity of 115 and 118 grains. It appears that there were issued some coins to these two lighter weight standards as well. Why he should have done so, we do not know.

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In the reign of Chandragupta II, the above two lighter weight standards were give up; coins were issued to three weight standards of 121, 124 and 127 grains.

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In the Archer type class I, Throne reverse, all the coins follow the standard of 121 grains. In the Archer type, class II, Lotus reverse, 65% coins follow the 121 grains standard, 20% follow the standard of 127 grains, and 15% of 124 grains. In some varieties of this class, only one definite standard is followed. Thus in class II, vars. D, G, I and J the standard of 121 grains is followed and in var. F that of 127 grains. In the Chhatra type 90% coins follow the 121 grains standard and about 10% that of 124 grains. In the Horseman type all the three standards are adopted; about 75% follow 121 grains standard, 15% follow 124 grains standard and 10% 127 grains standard. In Lion-slayer type 85% follow the 121 grains standard, 15% the 124 grains standard and 5% the 127 grains standard. The Couch type follows the standard of 121 grains. The Standard type weighs 118 grains and the King-and-Queen-on-the-Couch type weighs 112 grains. The latter is probably due to its worn out condition; a new specimen in normal condition, recently discovered, weighs 118.2 grains.

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In the reign of Kumāragupta I, the standard af 121 grains becomes rare and the standard of 127 grains becomes popular. In the Horseman type more than 90% of the coins follow the 127 grains standard, 8%, 124 grains standard and 2%, 121 grains standard. The same is the case with the Lion-slayer, Tiger-slayer and the Kārtikeya types. In the Rhinoceros-slayer, King-and-Queen, Chhatra, Lyrist, Aśvamedha, Elephant-rider and Lion-slayer types, most of the coins follow the 127 grains standard; by way of rare exception, we sometimes get a piece of 124 grains standard.

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The coins of the class I, var. A of the Archer type (where the bow is held at the top) usually follow the standard of 124 grains. In class I, var. B, where the king holds the bow by the middle, 85% coins follow the 121 grains standard, 10% the 127 grains standard and 5% the 124 grains standard. Variety C of class I, with the legend *Guṇeśo mahītalam*, generally follows the light standard of 121 grains.

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Skandagupta abandoned all these weight standards and adopted the standard of 132 grains for his King-and-Lakṣmī type and Var. A of the Archer type. In variety B of the latter, he adopted the national *suvarṇa* standard of 144 grains. Most of his successors accepted the *suvarṇa* standard introduced by him and issued coins weighing between 142 to 146 grains. Recently some of the coins of these later rulers were asseyed in the British Museum, and if the coins selected were the representative ones, it appears that the gold contents of the coins of Narasiṃhagupta, class I, Kumāragupta, class I, Budhagupta, Vainyagupta and Prakāśāditya were 71, 79, 77, 73 and 77% respectively. Coins of Narasiṃhagupta, class II, Kumāragupta II and Viṣṇugupta are heavily adulterated; their gold contents are 54, 54 and 43% respectively.

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The Gupta epigraphs show that the gold coins of the dynasty were usually known as *Dīnāras*; it is likely that the later coins of the heavier weight were known as *Suvarṇas*.

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Sub-multiples like half or quarter *Dīnāras* were rarely issued from the royal mints. So far we have discovered only one half-*Dīnāra* weighing 57.6 grains. No quarter *Dīnāra* or double-*Dīnāra* has so for been discovered. Quarter-*Dīnāras* were frequently issued by Kanishka and Huvishka and some rare double-*Dīnāras* of Wima Kadphises are known.

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The metrology of the silver coins of the dynasty calls for only a few remarks. They were issued to fill the vacuum created by the disappearance of the Kshatrapa silver currency and naturally follow its weight standard of 30 grains. Their theoretical weight was probably 33 grains, which was equal to half a Greek drachm. Here also the weights vary between 27 and 34 grains, due partly to the wear and use and partly to the carelessness of the mint-masters.

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The copper currency apparently follows no definite weight standard. It is not in the least influenced by the Kushāṇa weight standard of the copper currency, nor by the metrology of the Pañchāla or Kauśāmbī or Mathurā coin-types. Some coins weigh 87 grains, some 57, some 49, some 44, some 35, some 25 and some 18 grains. One can hardly detect any denomination scheme in this weight system.

3. Palaeography

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In the Gupta coin legends the letters usually display the same norms which are seen in the contemporary lithic records. The normal forms of letters, however, often get compressed on coin flans owing to the want of adequate space. This frequently happens on the Gupta silver coins, where *ga* often loses its left limb and *ka* its horizontal line; *ta* and *na* often dwindle into a vertical line. We shall make a few observations about the normal form of Gupta characters.

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Owing to typographical difficulties it did not become possible to give each coin legend in its original letters at the place where the coin on which it occurs is described in the book. All the coin legends have, however, been given in their original script in plates **XX-XXVI**, and a reference to the place of each legend in the plate has also been given at the appropriate place in the book to enable the reader to find out the place of each legend in order to study its characters. Facing each legend-plate is a page giving the rendering of its legends in the Devanāgari and Roman characters. This will facilitate their study and decipherment.

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The reader will notice a stylistic difference in the forms of letters as they occur on plates **XX-XXIV** on the one hand and on plates XXV-XXVI on the other. In the first five plates, Mr. C. Sivaramamurti, who kindly prepared them at my request, has tried to give the actual form of the letters as seen on the Gupta coins of the Bayana hoard. The last two plates copy the forms of the letters as they are given in the plates published by Mr. Allan in the *B.M.C., G.D.* Mr. Allan has idealised the forms of the Gupta letters, prepared their types and then composed the legends in them. The two types of plates will enable the reader to visualise both the actual and idealised or generalised forms of Gupta characters.

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The well known characteristics of the Gupta script can be seen in the coin legends. *A*, *ka* and *ra* have a long vertical; it is but rare that this vertical develops a tail (Pl. XXIV. 69). The veriticals of *gha*, *pa*, *ya*, *la* and *sa* dwindle down almost to the same height as the limbs on the right or left. The left limbs of *ga* and *śa* become shorter than the right ones and develop a scrif at the bottom. The letters *ma*, *la*, *sha*, *sa*, and *ha* show two forms in the lithic records, the so-called eastern and the western ones. From among these letters the coin legends show both the forms in the case of *ma* and *ha* only. The eastern forms of *sa*, *la* and *sha* do not appear on the coins. The so-called eastern forms for *ma* or *ha* appear on some coins of the Battle-axe¹ and the Archer² types, and on the variety A of the Lyrist type of Samudragupta,³ on some coins of Kācha⁴ and on all the coins of class I of the Chhatra type of Chandragupta II.⁵ It is interesting to note that on several coins, the so-called eastern and western forms of *ma* appear together,⁶ one on the obverse and the other on the reverse. This would tend to show that both the forms were current in the same locality and had no special territorial significance. It is necessary to add that the eastern forms of *ma* and *ha* become rare in the reign of Chandragupta II and disappear in later reigns altogether.

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¹ Pl. III. 3-4.

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² Pl. II. 12-14.

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³ Pl. III. 15.

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⁴ Pl. IV. 1-2.

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⁵ Pl. VIII. 6.

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⁶ Pl. I. 15.

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We shall now make a few remarks about individual letters. The right limb of *a* is angular in some cases¹ and round in others;² in rare cases its vertical develops a tail.³ *U* shows a pronounced loop in its lower limb.⁴ The vertical of *ka* is long and its horizontal line straight; but sometimes owing to want of space, the horizontal line changes into two lines meeting the vertical at acute angles.⁵ *Kha* has a triangular base.⁶ *Ga* and *gha* have been already commented upon. The letter *ña* appears only as the first part of the conjunet *ñha*; it is like *ja* without the central horizontal line.⁷ The form of *cha*⁸ is the usual one, while *chha* is of the butter-fly type.⁹ The horizontal lines of *ja* sometimes show a slight tendency towards becoming slanting.¹⁰ The letters *jha*, *ñ*, *ṭ*, *ṭha*, *ḍhh*, *pha*, *sha* and *jña* do not appear in the legends. The letter *ḍa* is of the usual type.¹¹ The bipartite form of the letter *ṇa* is rather rarely used,¹² probably because it required more space; the letter usually shows one vertical with one horizontal line above and another below.¹³ The letter *ta* is without a loop and its right limb is often longer than the left one;¹⁴ sometimes the top vertical is omitted.¹⁵ *Tha* is usually a circle,¹⁶ but sometimes it opens at the top.¹⁷ *Da* opens to right and *dha* shows the semicircle to the left.¹⁸ The letter *na* has usually a loop in the left limb;¹⁹ it is dispensed with only on rare occassions.²⁰ The letter *ba* is a square²¹ and the right lower limb of *bha* is usually slightly angular.²² The letter *ma* has four forms. Its lower limb shows sometimes a triangle²³ and sometimcs a circle.²⁴ In its third form the two upper lines are seen to meet the lower one at two different points,¹ and in its fourth form, these lines meet the lower one at one point.² *Ya* is usually tripartite,³ both its limbs being usually denoted by a curve. From the reign of Kumāragupta I, we begin to get a *ya*, where the left limb curve tends to become a straight line in continuation of the base line.⁴ *Ra* is a long straight line, but the vertical of *la* dwindles in height.⁵ *Va* has usually a triangular base,⁶ but on rare occassions it becomes a circular one.⁷ *Śa* has usually a round back with a horizontal line joining its two arms, of which the right one is longer than the left one.⁸ The letter *sha* appears only in the conjunct *ksha*; it is like *pa* with a horizontal line, which does not always join its two limbs.⁹ Both loops of *sa* are well formed and its vertical dwindles in height.¹⁰ Besides its usual form, the letter *ha* shows the eastern one also where the base line is suppressd.¹¹

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² Pl. XXIII. 45.

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³ Pl. XXIV. 69.

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⁴ Pl. XV. 14.

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⁵ Pl. XXIII. 41.

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⁶ Pl. XXII. 36.

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⁷ Pl. XXI. 17.

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⁸ Pl. XX. 1.

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⁹ Pl. XXIII. 43.

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¹⁰ Pl. XX. 3.

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¹¹ Pl. XXII. 36.

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¹² Pl. XXV. 7.

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¹³ Pl. XXI. 17.

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¹⁴ Pl. XX. 3.

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¹⁵ Pl. XXIII. 42.

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¹⁶ Pl. XX. 4.

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¹⁷ Pl. XX. 9-10.

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¹⁸ Pl. XX. 4-5.

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¹⁹ Pl. XX. 1.

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²⁰ Pl. XXIV. 68.

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²¹ Pl. XXII. 35.

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²² Pl. XXII. 35.

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²³ Pl. XX. 3-4.

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The medial *ā* is denoted by a line slanting upwards and attached to the top of the letter;¹² in rare cases it is horizontal and separated from the letter; cf. *Kācha* and *rūpākṛiti*.¹³ Medial *i* is denoted by a short curve to left¹⁴ and *ī* by a similar curve to right.¹⁵ The latter, however, is more frequently denoted by a curve opening upwards. The medial *u* is sometimes denoted by a short vertical line as in *pu* and *su*,¹⁶ sometimes by a curve attached to the right limb and opening high upwards as in *gu* and *śu*,¹⁷ and sometimes by a curve opening to right as in *ku*.¹⁸

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The medial long *ū* is denoted merely by the elongation of the vertical in one place, where it occurs; probably a short horizontal stroke has not come out here.²⁰ The medial *e*²¹ is

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shown by a short slanting stroke to left and *ai* by two such strokes on the same side.¹ Medial *o* is indicated by two strokes, one slanting to right and the other to left.² The medial *ṛi* is denoted sometimes by a curve open to right³ and sometimes by one open to left.⁴ Sometimes there is a great flourish in the former;⁵ sometimes it is denoted by a short curve open upwards.⁶ In one case the engraver has committed the mistake of combining both the medial *i* and *ṛi* vowels⁷ in the word *pṛithivī*. It is obvious that in the Gupta age, as now, *pṛithivī* was pronounced as *pṛithivī*.

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¹ Pl. XX. 11.

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² Pl. Ibid.

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³ Pl. XXIII. 7.

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⁴ Pl. XXI. 24.

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⁵ Pl. XX. 4.

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⁶ Pl. XX. 5.

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⁷ Pl. XXI. 23.

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Only a few conjuncts deserve to be mentioned here. In most of the conjuncts like *ṅha*, *pta*, *nta*, *tva*, *ksha*, *tta*, *jja*, *nva*, *ska*, *mba*, *sva*, *dgh*, the normal full forms of both the letters are distinct, but usually with only one common vertical. The subscript *ra* is usually denoted either by a line⁸ or a curve⁹ attached to left. The subscript *ya* is usually bipartite.¹⁰ The superscript *ra* is denoted by a short vertical line attached to the top of the letter.¹¹

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⁸ Pl. XXIV. 55.

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⁹ Pl. XXIV. 56.

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¹⁰ Pl. XX. 5.

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¹¹ Pl. XX. 7, 9.

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The *halanta n* occurs in one legend at the end and is denoted by the usual letter, but written in a smaller size.¹² In the legend *Śrīmān vyāghrabalaparākramaḥ*, it is denoted by an *anusvāra*.¹³

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¹² Pl. XXII. 35.

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¹³ Pl. XXII. 35.

4. Hoards and Finds

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We shall give in this section a brief account of the hoards and finds of Gupta coins discovered so far. All of them are hoards of gold coins. A few hoards of silver Gupta coins are known to have been found in Western India, but no detailed accounts of theirs have been preserved.

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1. The Kālighāṭ hoard¹ found in 1783 at Kālighāṭ on the eastern bank of the Hugli near Calcutta is the earliest recorded hoard of Gupta coins. No information is available about the exact contents of this hoard, but Nab Kishen, its discoverer, seems to have presented about 200 of its coins to Warren Hastings, the then Governor-General of India. These coins were later sent to the Directors of the East India Company London, who presented 24 of them to the British Museum, nearly an equal number to the Museum of Mr. Hunter, and some pieces to the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford and to the Public Library at Cambridge. The remaining pieces were eventually melted down by the Directors in a mercenary fit. To judge from the extant specimens of this hoard, it appears that it consisted mostly of the issues of the later Gupta emperors.

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¹ B.M.C., G.D., pp. cxxiv; B.H., pp. iv-v.

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2. The Bharsar hoard,² discovered in 1851 near Banaras, consisted of 160 coins; but we have an account of only 32 of them. Coins of the emperors from Samudragupta to Skandagupta were found in the hoard. Prakāśāditya was the last king represented in it. The analysis of these 32 coins is as follows:—

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² B.M.C., G.D., cxxvi-vii; J.A.S.B. 1852, pp. 390-400., B.H., p. v.

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| Samudragupta | : Standard type | ... 3 |
| " | Archer type | ... 2 |
| " | Lyrist type | ... 2 |
| Chandragupta II | : Archer type | ... 8 |
| " | Horseman type | ... 2 |
| Kumāragupta I | : Archer type | ... 2 |
| " | Horseman type | ... 4 |
| " | Tiger-slayer type | ... 1 |
| " | Peacock (Kārtikeya type)... | 1 |
| Skandagupta | : Archer type | ... 6 |
| Prakāśāditya | : Horseman-lion-slayer type | ... 2 |
| | Total | 32 |

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3. The Hugli hoard,¹ found near Hugli in 1883, consisted of 13 coins, classified as follows:

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¹ *J.A.S.B.*, 1884, p. 152; *B.H.*, p. vi.

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| Samudragupta | : Standard type | ... | 1 |
| Chandragupta II | : Archer type | ... | 5 |
| Kumāragupta I | : Archer type | ... | 3 |
| ” | Horseman type | ... | 3 |
| ” | Lion-slayer type | ... | 1 |
| | Total | | 13 |

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4. The Tanda hoard² was found in Fyzabad district in Uttar Pradesh in 1885, but its contents were not carefully noted. The hoard seems to have had the following coins:—

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² *Proc. A.S.B.*, 1886, p. 68; *B.M.C., G.D.*, cxxviii. *B.H.*, p. vi.

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5. The Kotwā hoard³ was found in Gorakhpur district in Uttar Pradesh in 1886, scattered below some bricks in a *dih*. The following kings and types were represented in it:—

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³ *J.R.A.S.*, 1893, p. 47.

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| Chandragupta II | : Archer type, } | | |
| | Lotus reverse } | ... | 5 |
| ” | Lion-slayer type | ... | 1 |
| Kumāragupta I | : Archer type with *Ku* | ... | 1 |
| ” | Kārtikeya type | ... | 2 |
| ” | Horseman type | ... | 6 |
| ” | Lion-trampler type | ... | 1 |
| ” | Unidentified | ... | 1 |
| | Total | | 17 |

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6. The Basti hoard⁴ of 11 coins was found near the jail of that town in Uttar Pradesh in 1887. The 10 coins, which could be recovered, were the issues of Chandragupta II, nine of the Archer type, Lotus reverse, and one of the Chhatra type.

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⁴ *Pr. A.S.B.*, 1887, p. 221.

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7. The Hajipur hoard¹ was discovered near the bazar of the town of that name in Bihar. It contained 22 coins, but only 14 could be recovered. They were as follows:—

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¹ Proc. A.S.B., 1894, p. 57; B.H., p. vii.

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| Chandragupta I | : | King-and-Queen type | ... 1 |
| Samudragupta | : | Standard type | ... 2 |
| | | Archer type | ... 1 |
| | | Battle-axe type | ... 1 |
| Chandragupta II | : | Archer type | ... 3 |
| | | Chhatra type | ... 3 |
| | | Lion-combatant type | ... 3 |
| | | **Total** | **14** |

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8. The Tekri Debra hoard² was found in the Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh in 1912. It consisted of 40 coins:—

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² Num. Ch. 1910, pp. 398-408.

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| Samudragupta | : | Standard type | ... 2 |
| | | Battle-axe type | ... 1 |
| Chandragupta II | : | Archer type | ... 15 |
| | | Lion-slayer type | ... 9 |
| | | Lion-retreating type | ... 1 |
| | | Horseman type | ... 8 |
| Kumāragupta I | : | Archer type | ... 1 |
| | | Lion-slayer type | ... 1 |
| | | Horseman type | ... 2 |
| | | **Total** | **40** |

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9. The Kasarva hoard,³ found in the Ballia district of Uttar Pradesh, consisted of the following coins:—

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³ J.A.S.B., 1914, p. 174.

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| Samudragupta | : | Standard type | ... 12 |
| | | Aśvamedha type | ... 3 |
| | | Battle-axe type | ... 1 |
| Kācha | : | Chakradhvaja type | ... 1 |
| | | **Total** | **17** |

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10. The Mithathal hoard¹ was found in 1915 in the Hissar district of the Punjab. It consisted both of the coins of the Guptas and of the later Kushāṇas. Unfortunately its contents could not be properly noted. It contained 86 coins, of which 26 were melted down. Of the remaining, 33 were the issues of Samudragupta and 27 of the later Kushāṇas. Among the former was a rare coin of the Battle-axe type, showing the king on the left and the attendant on the right.

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¹ A.S.I., A.R., 1915-16, Part I, p. 19; Ibid, 1926-27, pp. 233-4.

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11. Kumarkhan hoard² of 9 Gupta gold coins was found in that village in Viramgaon Taluka of Ahmadabad district in Gujarat in 1953. It consisted of one coin of the Battle-axe type of Samudragupta, two coins of Kācha and seven Archer type coins of Chandragupta II. Among the latter, one had Throne reverse and on one the king was holding the bow by the middle.

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² J.N.S.I., XV., p. 195.

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12. Sakori hoard, discovered at Sakori in Damoh district of M. P. in 1914 and now preserved in the Central Museum, Nagpur, consisted of the following 24 coins³:—

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³ According to the information supplied by the Museum authorities.

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| Samudragupta | : Standard type | 7 |
| Kācha | : Chakradhvaja type | 1 |
| Chandragupta II | : Archer type | 11 |
| ” | Horseman type | 1 |
| ” | Chhatra type | 1 |
| ” | Lion-slayer type | 2 |
| Skandagupta | : Archer type, light weight | 1 |
| | Total | 24 |

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13. Before referring to the biggest hoard of the Gupta coins,—the Bayana hoard, we may dismiss a few hoards and finds/of which only meagre details have been handed down.

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(a) A hoard was found at Jaunpur in U. P. in a building popularly known as Jai Chandra’s Mahal; it consisted of a small number of coins; no further details are known.⁴ (b) Gopalpur hoard found in Gorakhpur district of U. P. consisted of 20 pieces, of which 7 were of Chandragupta II.¹

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⁴ J.A.S.B., 1884, p. 150.

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¹ *J.A.S.B.*, p. 152; *J.R.A.S.*, 1893; p. 49.

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(c) Jhusi hoard found at Jhusi opposite Allahabad is said to have consisted of about 20 or 30 pieces, of which two were of the Archer and 8 of the Kārtikeya type of Kumāragupta II.²

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² *J.A.S.B.*, 1884; p. 152; *J.R.A.S.*, 1893; p. 49.

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(d) At Banka in Bhagalpur district of Bihar 4 Gupta coins were discovered in 1912, which were later acquired for the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Two of them belonged to Chandragupta II and two to Kumāragupta I. Their types are not known.

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(e) A hoard of Gupta coins was found in a mound on the bank of the Rapti; some of the coins in the collection of Hoey, which is now with Mr. D. G. Hamilton, were apparently from that hoard, according to the information supplied by the latter gentleman.

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(f) At Pattan in Baitul district of M. P. a hoard was apparently discovered at an unrecorded date; one of its coins is now in the Central Museum, Nagpur.³

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³ From information supplied by the Nagpur Museum authorities.

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(g) At Devattha village in Ballia district of U. P. a big hoard was reported to have been found in *c.* 1940 A.D. consisting of more than a thousand Gupta gold coins. No coins however could be recovered; they were either melted down or concealed and later sold in the market.

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14. The Bayana hoard was discovered under the embankment of a field in the village of Hullanpur near the town of Bayana in Rajasthan on the 17th of February, 1946. It apparently consisted of about 2,100 coins, but only 1821 of them could be recovered. These have been described by me in a detailed manner in *The Catalogue of the Gupta Gold Coins of the Bayana Hoard*, published in 1954. The hoard, as recovered, consisted of the following coins:—

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Chandragupta I : 10 coins

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KING-AND-QUEEN TYPE ... 10

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Samudragupta : 183 coins

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| STANDARD TYPE, | var. A, legend beginning from I and *Samudra* under l. arm.. | 77 |
| " | var. B, as above but with a crescent on obverse | 16 |
| " | var. C, small and neat fabric... | 18 |
| " | var. D, as in variety A, but legend beginning at VIII | 25 |
| " | var. E, as above, but with *Samudra* under l. arm and *gupta* outside | 7 |
| AŚVAMEDHA TYPE | ... | 20 |
| BATTLE-AXE TYPE, | var. A, with *Samudra* under left arm.. | 7 |
| " | var. B, with *Kri* under l. arm... | 2 |
| ARCHER TYPE, | var. A, legend ending with *sucharitairdivaṃ jayati* | 2 |
| " | var. B, legend ending with *avaniśo divaṃ jayati* | 1 |
| LYRIST TYPE, | var. A, large size, without symbol and with foot-stool. | 2 |
| " | var. B, small size, with symbol but without foot-stool... | 4 |
| TIGER-SLAYER T., | var. A, different legends on both sides | 1 |
| " | var. B, with *Vyāghraparākramaḥ* on both sides.. | 1 |

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Kācha : 16 coins

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CHAKRADHVAJA T., var. A, without *Garuḍadhvaja* on the obv. ... 15

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CHAKRADHVAJA T., var. B, with *Garuda* and *Chakra-dhvajas* on the obv. ... 1

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Chandragupta II : 983 coins

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ARCHER TYPE, class I; Throne reverse Var. A, with *Chandra* under l. arm ... ... 25 Var. B, with *Chandra* between the bow and the bow-string.. ... ... ... 7 Var. C, bow-string outside... ... ... 1 Var. D, bow held at the middle ... ... 8

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ARCHER TYPE, class II; Lotus rev. Var. A, *Chandra* under l. arm, bow held at the top, string outside .. ... ... 700 Var. B, as above, but king with whip also by his side . . . . . 18 Var. C, as in var. A, but with sword.. ... 10 Var. D, obv. as in var. A, but goddess on rev. with l. foot tucked up ... ... 4 Var. E, obv. as in var. A, but no *Chandra* under l. arm . . . . . 1 Var. F, obv. as in var. A, but legend *Chandra-gupta* on rev. ... ... ... 1 Var. G, bow in r. hand and arrow in l., king looking l . . . . . 2 Var. H, bow in l. hand, but king looking r. ... 17 Var. I, king standing r., bow in l. hand, held by the middle ... ... ... 4

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HORSEMAN TYPE, class I, king to l. Var. A, king without any weapons ... ... 29 Var. B, king with sword ... ... ... 13 Var. C, king with bow ... ... ... 10

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HORSEMAN TYPE, class II. king to r. king without any weapons ... ... 30

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CHHATRA TYPE, class I, with legend, *Mahārājādhirāja-śrī-Chandraguptaḥ* ... 5

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CHHATRA TYPE, class II, with legend, *Kshiti-mava-jitya sucharitairdivam jayati Vikramādityaḥ*. Var. A, goddess standing facing on lotus ... 16 Var. B, goddess standing on pedestal ... 2 Var. C, goddess standing on mat, three-fourths to l. ... ... ... 17 Var. D, goddess walking to l. ... ... 16 Var. E, goddess double-marching ... ... 1

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LION-SLAYER TYPE, class I, lion-combatant Var. A, king facing l. and goddess holding lotus and noose ... ... ... 6 Var. B, king to r., and goddess with noose and lotus ... ... ... 10 Var. C, king to r., and goddess with lotus in l. hand, r. hand being empty ... 4 Var. D, king as above, but not stringing the bow ... ... ... 1

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LION-SLAYER TYPE; class II, lion-trampling Var. A, lion to l., goddess seated astride the lion 1 Var. B, king to l. and lion on rev. walking to r. ... ... ... 1 Var. C, king to l. and lion on rev. couchant ... 3 Var. D, king to l. with legend, *deva-śrīmahārāja...śrī-Chandraguptaḥ*; goddess sitting on lion walking to r.... ... ... 1 Var. E, king to r., and goddess seated facing on lion couchart, holding noose in r. hand and cornucopiæ in l. ... ... 2 Var. F, king to r.; goddess holds lotus in l. hand with r. hand empty ... 4 Var. G, king to r.; goddess seated astride on lion to l.... ... ... 5 Var. H, king to r.; goddess holds noose in right hand and lotus in l., and lion walking to l . . . . .

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LION-SLAYER TYPE, class III, lion-retreating ... 1 COUCH TYPE Var. A, king to l., and offering a lotus bud ... 1 Var. B, king holding flower in r. hand; r. hand of goddess empty ... ... ... 1 Var. C, king holding flower in r. hand and goddess holding noose in r. hand ... 1 CHAKRAVIKRAMA TYPE ... ... ... 1

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Kumāragupta I : 628 coins

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ARCHER TYPE, class I; *Kumāra* in field Var. A, bow held at the top and *Kumāra* under l. arm ... ... ... 14 Var. B, bow held at the middle and *Kumāra* outside the bow-string ... ... 58 Var. C, same as var. B, but with legend *Guṇeśo mahītalam*... ... ... 10 ARCHER TYPE, class II, with *Ku* under l. arm Var. A, with legend *Vijitāvaniravanipatiḥ Kumāragupto divam jayati* ... ... 33 Var. B, with legend, *Jayati mahītalamekaḥ śrī-Kumāraguptaḥ sudhanvī* ... 34 Var. C, with legend *Jayati mahītalam śrī-Kumāraguptaḥ* ... ... ... 6 ARCHER TYPE, class III, with neither *Kumāra* nor *Ku* in field Var. A, with legend *Parama-rājādhirāja-śrī-Kumāraguptaḥ* ... ... 27 Var. B, with legend, *Jayati mahītalam śrī-Kumāraguptaḥ* ... ... 1 SWORDSMAN TYPE ... ... ... 10 HORSEMAN TYPE, class I, goddess alone on rev. Var. A, with legend, *Pṛthivītalāmbaraśaśī Kumāragupto jayatyajitaḥ* ... 9 Var. B, with legend, *Jayati nṛporibhirajitaḥ* ... 1

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Var. C, with legend, *Kṣitipatirajito vijayī Kumāragupto divaṃ jayati* ... ... ... 37 HORSEMAN T., cl. II, goddess feeding peacock Var. A, with legend, *Guptakulavyomaśaśī jayatyajeyo jitamahendraḥ* ... ... ... 97 Var. B, with legend, *Guptakulāmalachandro mahendrakarmājito jayati*... ... ... 83 Var. C, with legend, *Kṣitipatirajito vijayī Kumāragupto jayatyajitaḥ* ... ... ... 69 Var. D, with legend as in var. C, but ending with *divaṃ jayati* ... ... ... 1 Var. E, with legend *Pṛthivitaleśvarendraḥ Kumāragupto jayatyajitaḥ* ... ... ... 8

c17.s4.67

KARTIKEYA TYPE Var. A, Kārtikeya three-fourths to l... ... 10 Var. B, Kārtikeya facing ... ... ... 3 CHHATRA TYPE . . . . . 2

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