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Prehistory and Protohistory in India and Pakistan c7: Chapter II. Middle Palaeolithic Cultures of India: Middle Stone Age

Prehistory and Protohistory in India and Pakistan c7

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Contents

Chapter II. Middle Palaeolithic Cultures of India: Middle Stone Age

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MIDDLE PALAEOLITHIC CULTURES OF INDIA

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TILL very recently, so late as 1954, it was not possible to say what happened to Early Palaeolithic man in India. For except in the north-west Panjab, Kandivli¹ near Bombay and in Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh, the layers lying above those which contained hand-axes and cleavers were supposed to be barren. No doubt, there was a large number of several groups of tools collected and exhibited in a few museums. But their cultural significance was not known, as they were all from the surface. Thus except for the three regions mentioned above, the rest of India seemed to have passed from the Early Palaeolithic right into sub-recent times. It was therefore said by an American that there was almost complete ignorance about her (India's) ancient past.³

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¹ See however below p. 112 for our latest observations, according to which Kandivli has one or two main deposits, but the industry is primarily of one type.

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³ SANKALIA, H. D., *J. I.*, No. 12, 1956, pp. 35-52.

Discovery at Nevasa

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Then in 1954-55 tools of quite a different nature and material were discovered at Nevasa on the Pravara, District Ahmednagar. The earlier tools (called initially Series I)—hand-axes, cleavers—were found in a thin basal gravel resting over the rock, while another layer of gravel, fine and less cemented superposed over it, yielded smaller tools (Series II)—scrapers, points and a few blade-like tools on chert and jasper. These have been provisionally called so far "Series II tools."² Further search along the Pravara and the Godavari brought to light several sites, the most important being Bel Pandhari, Suregaon and Kalegaon on the Godavari. At the latter, the tools were found embedded in the head of an extinct type of ox, called *Bos namadicus* Falconer in a thick cemented gravel deposit. *Pl. IV, (Fig. 43b.)*

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² William HOWELL in the *American Museum of Natural History*, Science Series, British Edition, 1947, p. 245. Cited by FÜRER-HAIMENDORF in *Man in India*, Vol. XXVIII, 1948, p. 197.

Taminhal

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These discoveries gave a fresh impetus to other workers in the field. Stratified deposits of such smaller tools were located at Taminhal,⁴ where earlier Series I tools had been found *in situ*. This immediately gave a meaning to the large collections previously made by the late Shri CHAPGHAR from Bagalkot on the Ghataprabha and handed over to the writer in 1958-54.

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⁴ BANERJEE, K. D., *Middle Palaeolithic Industries of the Deccan*, Ph.D. thesis in Archaeology, Poona University and Deccan College Library, 1957, p. 41 and JOSHI, R. V., *Pleistocene Studies in the Malaprabha Basin*, Poona, 1955.

Maheshwar

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By persistent search and examination of the area around Maheshwar on the Narmada, District Nimad, Madhya Pradesh, it was ascertained that Series II tools belonged to the gravel phase of Terrace II at a height of about 60 ft., the first terrace being 80 ft. (Fig. 37.) Here again the tools are found in fairly well cemented gravels, whereas huge factory sites lie further away to the north and south at Choli and Dongargaon respectively.

Other Regions

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Students of the Deccan College have traced such tools in their survey of the river valleys in Malwa, Central India, Southern Rajputana, Orissa and Kurnool, whereas members of the Archaeological Department, Government of India and Bombay, discovered such tools in Saurashtra, Madhya Pradesh and elsewhere. Wherever good sections exist and have been carefully examined, for instance Nevasa,⁵ Kalegaon, Bel Pandhari, Nandur Madhmeshwar on the Pravara-Godavari in Ahmednagar District, Taminhal on the Malaprabha, in North Karnatak, in Kurnool at several sites, at Bijatala and Kandha on the Khadkai and others in Orissa,⁶ in Madhya Pradesh,⁷ at Mandasor, Nahargadh on the Sivna, these tools occur in "middle gravels," above the bed of a highly cemented pebbly gravel and separated at times by a layer of yellowish silt and below a layer of fine gravel, capped by yellowish silt. In Western Rajputana the conditions are different.⁸ Here in the Luni and its tributaries—at Shri-krishnapura, Khari, Dundara—the tools are found in the only gravel that is found in the region, though it is capped by silt and sand and rests on the rock.8a

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⁵ SANKALIA *et. al.*, *From History to Prehistory at Nevasa*, pp. 102 and 528.

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⁶ MOHAPATRA, G. C., *The Stone Age Cultures of Orissa*, Ph. D. thesis, Poona University and Deccan College Library Poona, 1960, pp. 79-81.

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⁷ KHATRI, A. P., *Stone Age Cultures of Malwa*, Ph.D. thesis, Poona University and Deccan College Library, Poona, 1958, p. 163.

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⁸ See MISRA, V. N., *The Stone Age Cultures of Rajputana*, Ph.D. thesis in Archaeology, Poona University and Deccan College Library, 1961, pp. 50-56.

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8a See, however, below p. 98.

Stratigraphy

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At a few sites, for instance Nevasa on the Pravara, Nandur Madhmeshwar on the Godavari, Maheshwar on the Narmada, and Tandrepadu, opposite Kurnool, the tools can be confidently co-related to Terrace II. Little doubt thus now exists about the stratigraphical position of the industry comprising these tools. It succeeds the Hand-axe and precedes the Blade-and-Burin Industry in Kurnool and Bombay area and possibly in Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnatak. In all these regions the latter industry is not yet available in abundance and in stratified deposits.

Nevasian

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For this reason, it has been proposed to call the assemblage and the cultural stage it signifies "Middle Palaeolithic," or "Nevasian" after the type site, Nevasa.⁹ The term "Middle Palaeolithic" has both a chronological and typo-technological significance, and has nothing to do with the European term and culture "Middle Palaeolithic" or even the African, with both of which some of its tool types show a certain amount of resemblance.

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⁹ BANERJEE, K. D., op. cit., p. 135.

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Fig. 36. Section on the Pravara at Hathi Well site, near Nevasa (suggested reconstruction).

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*Middle Palaeolithic or Middle Stone Age (?)*

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It has been urged¹⁰ that the term "Middle Palaeolithic"¹¹ should not be used for this industry, for it immediately makes one compare it with its namesake in Europe, and the term "Middle Stone Age" be used instead. In the first place, the term "Middle Palaeolithic" may by usage remind one of the European, but these are most simple, common terms, and not like the words "Acheulian" or "Aurignacian," after a particular French site which connote a particular type of culture, that their use should be confined to Europe. The alternative suggestion "Middle Stone Age" is also in imitation of an African practice, and thus not free from similar objection. Moreover, the African analogy does not help, because there the term "connotes a large group of cultures, differing from region to region and with different names, but all having a great deal in common with regard to technique and typology...."¹² Secondly, there is a "lack of sufficient stratigraphical evidence," whereas in India, the stratigraphical position restricts it to the "middle gravels," which succeed the Middle Pleistocene, almost everywhere, and on the present palaeontological evidence can be dated to the Middle Pleistocene, but may be placed in the early Late Pleistocene. According to one suggestion,¹³ the industry might be regarded as a "Flake Culture" of the Lower Palaeolithic. This suggestion satisfies the palaeontological evidence, but not the stratigraphical and typo-technological. Until better, more positive, evidence is available to place the culture later (or earlier?), this new Stone Age Culture should be called "Indian Middle Palaeolithic" or "Nevasian." It falls in the early Late Pleistocene period, when under a wet phase, practically all over the the Peninsular India, the rivers deposited over or against the older gravel or silt, a comparatively finer gravel. This formation occurs as a low Terrace (T2) at Maheshwar, Nevasa, Mehenduri, Nandur Madhmeshwar, and Tandrepadu, opposite Kurnool. In the last region, there are other sites, where too this second deposit occurs banked up against the older, but not as a distinct broad terrace. *(Figs 36-37.)*

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¹⁰ SUBBARAO, B., *The Personality of India*, 2nd Ed. Baroda, 1958, p. 39 and after him ALLCHIN, BRIDGET, "The Indian Middle Stone Age: Some New Sites in Central and Southern India, and their Implications" in the *Bulletin of the London Institute of Archaeology* Number, II (1959), p. 1 (of the reprint).

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¹¹ There is in fact no logical contradiction between the terms "Middle Stone Age" and "Middle Palaeolithic". In the former, the entire Stone Age is divided into three subperiods: (i) Early Stone Age, (ii) Middle Stone Age and (iii) Late Stone Age. In the latter, the Old Stone Age itself is divided into three sub-periods: (i) Early or Lower Palaeolithic, (ii) Middle Palaeolithic and (iii) Late or Upper Palaeolithic. Thus the former is more extensive in its connotation and applications. The latter has a limited and precise meaning. The difficulty arises when the Early Stone Age is equated with the Early or Lower Palaeolithic, and the Middle Stone Age with the Mesolithic, which is regarded as a transitional period between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic. The propounders of the term "Middle Stone Age" think that there is no sufficient evidence to place the recently discovered industry or industries (to be described) in the Palaeolithic period or within the Middle or Late Pleistocene. And therefore it is advisable to have a term of wider connotation. For the reasons mentioned, it is, I think, unnecessary to adopt a term which is not precise. For if it is agreed that the industry denoted by Series II falls within the Pleistocene and is thus Palaeolithic, and its earliest occurrence is in the middle gravels, and in character the industry is not only different from the earlier handaxe industry, but has its own individuality and further leads on to the blade industries of the succeeding period, then the name "Middle Palaeolithic" admirably brings out its stratigraphical horizon and cultural stage.

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¹² MALAN, B. D., "The Term 'Middle Stone Age'" in the *Proceedings of the Third Pan-African Congress on Prehistory*, 1955, pp. 223-27.

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¹³ Prof. F. E. ZEUNER in his Report on Dr. K. D. BANERJEE'S thesis in *Archaeology on the Middle Palaeolithic Industries of the Deccan*, submitted for the Ph.D. degree of the Poona University in 1957.

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*Evidence*

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The palaeontological evidence is not negligible, though based on one solitary find only and confined to one river valley. At Kalegaon, the tools were in close association with—actually embedded in the skull and horn of *Bos namadicus* Falconer, found in a 8-10 ft. thick, well cemented gravel, consisting of tiny trap pebbles, chunks of agate, chalcedony etc. Other fossil remains have also been found by a member of the Geological Survey of India from the same region in 1959-60, but not yet reported, whereas Dr. KHATRI reports similar discoveries on the Narmada at Devkachar and Barman Ghat.13a

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13a Likewise tools with remains of *Bos* and *Elephas* have been reported from stratified deposits at Siddeswar in Parbhani District and some unidentified fossils on the Wardha at Walgaon in Wardha and Amaroti Districts. *I.A.R.*, 1960-61, pp. 63-64.

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The composition of the gravel elsewhere is similar, though not fossiliferous. In Kurnool, and elsewhere on the East Coast, where the gravels are reddish owing to staining or lateritization, the same distinction, between the older, old and comparatively recent gravels can be made.

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Thus lithologically and stratigraphically the gravels that yielded Middle Palaeolithic tools have a distinct individuality.13b

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13b This is also the observation of Dr. JOSHI in the Kopra Valley, Damoh region. *A.I.*, No. 17 (1961), p. 21.

Mode of Occurrence

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Before turning to the tool-types, one other point needs clarification. These tools are often found in fields with black or brown soil (as in Central India around Maheshwar, Kasrawad, Choli and Kurnool), and therefore it was at one time thought that these being surface occurrences, are late. Very often the tools occurred together with microliths. Hence they were thought to be microlithic. Careful observations in three regions—parts of Maharashtra, Central India, and Andhra—have shown that wherever the soil cover is thin and immediately overlies the gravels, or wherever there are veins of jasper and chert, with factory sites, as for instance at Dongargaon and Choli near Maheshwar, or Khadki Mata near Mandasor, the black soil which is a later formation—is full of nodules, cores, and large flakes and tools of Middle Palaeolithic industry.13c

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13c Many more factory sites have been discovered elsewhere on the Narbada and in Ahmadnagar District. *I.A.R.*, 1960-61, p. 60 and p. 19.

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Since the Microlithic and the Chalcolithic cultures succeeded—though after a long time—the Middle Palaeolithic, and their practitioners occupied the same sites, at some places only we find an admixture of several cultural groups. But this in no way indicates the lateness of all the tools.

Environment

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The Middle Palaeolithic Culture so far consists of various types of tools, and at two or three sites in association with an extinct fauna consisting of the wild ox and other bovids. While the gravels in which the tools are embedded indicate a comparatively wet period, the climate seems to be less humid than in the first wet phase. However, the tools suggest a considerable change and difference in the life—and possibly environment—of the men who made them. Light forested region seems to have been preferred.

Tool Size

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First the size and material. Contrary to the general impression that the Middle Palaeolithic tools are small, it must be said that in size, they are only relatively "small." While some may be as small as one inch (about three centimeter), the largest is as big as six to eight inches (about 15 centimeter) in length and about three to four inches in width and about an inch in thickness. Thus these tools are in no sense microlithic.

Raw Material

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The raw material differs from region to region, but even here there is a distinct uniformity which unites all the regional groups. What the man needed was a fine-grained material. So while all over the Deccan, where there are veins of jasper, chert etc. in the basaltic trap, the material is invariably this, whether it be Maharashtra, Central India—West or East—and Saurashtra. Even elsewhere, for instance in Orissa, Andhra or Mysore (North Karnatak), it is the jaspery, brownish chert or jasper which is the preferred material, though in Kurnool, sometimes quartzite is also used. In Western Rajputana and north Central India outside the Malwa plateau (which is of trap), the preference is for flint or flint-like chert or jasper, which is yellowish and patinated beautifully like flint.

Techniques

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New techniques are also visible in the preparation of tools. In the preceding phase of the Stone Age, tools were made on either flakes removed from huge cores or on pebbles or on the core after the removal of the flake, first by 'free' and later by 'controlled' method of flaking. Thus the resultant flakes had high angles and prominent bulbs, and the cores showed deep flake scars, whereas controlled flaking had left 'steps' either along the margin or on the face of the finished product. Occasionally the flakes show the preparation of the striking platform, but so far "tortoise cores" have not been reported (from the hand-axe area), so that we cannot say definitely that the full Levallois technique was known or employed in the manufacture of flakes.

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In the Middle Palaeolithic of India, the one thing that strikes a student is a mixture of several techniques—old and new. While the old techniques mentioned above persist (as may be seen in some cores as well as flakes) and this is quite natural, among the newer methods are visible (a) flakes with faceted platform, (b) flakes removed by a pointed punch-like instrument which has left very tiny platform and small prominent bulb with the encircling ring. This is usually prominent in very fine-grained material. (c) Round, oval or triangular flattish flakes with prepared platform and with previous work on the core heralding the true Levallois technique. The corresponding cores are also at times available. (d) Use of flat or suitable nodules or cores very often with cortex which have been turned into thick pointed borer or borer-cum-hollow based scraper, by careful (or casual) retouch. (e) Occasional occurrence of small hand-axes on jasper or points (borers) on large-sized flakes or even on pebbles of quartzite. But on the whole hand-axes and cleavers are absent. If the hand-axe is the type tool of the Lower or Early Palaeolithic, the borer or borer-cum- Scraper may be regarded (in our present knowledge) as the type tool of the Middle Palaeolithic¹⁴.

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¹⁴ Thus the situation reminds one in Western Europe, where Movius sub-divides the Lower and Middle Palaeolithic on typological grounds as marked by the presence or absence of hand axes or bifaces, *Anthropology Today*, p. 166.

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The retouch along the edge or both sides of the borer is also an invariable feature. But it is not necessarily fine or regular. What was intended or required was a thick or thin point and a scraping edge. And these have very often been obtained by a minimum of effort, leaving large scalloped retouch scars on the edges of the tool.

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*Flake Culture (?)*

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Tools on flakes are indeed in a majority and statistically the Middle Palaeolithic may be called a "flake culture." But the flakes were not regarded as absolutely essential, particularly the Levallois type. Any flat piece—flake, nodule or core—was good enough for being converted into a borer or a scraper. Hence it is not a true flake culture like the Middle Palaeolithic of Europe and Africa. Impression is thus left that the man during this period was clever and capable, but probably idle. Rarely did he exert himself fully so that artistic pieces are few.

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Disturbing as these mixed features might appear to those who are accustomed to observe certain marked features only in any past cultural assemblage, because of selective collection or any other prediliction on the part of the collector, it is these features which characterize the Middle Palaeolithic culture wherever some systematic work has been done—either Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajputana, Central India or Andhra. It is possible that with further work distinction in tool types and techniques corresponding to stratigraphical subdivisions will be made, so that we shall have divisions in the main Middle Palaeolithic or some types will be relegated to the Lower or Upper Palaeolithic respectively.

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*Tool Types*

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The main types of tools are as follows:
(1) Scrapers of several types such as : (*a*) Single hollow-sided scraper, (*b*) Double hollow-sided scraper, (*c*) Straight-sided scraper, (*d*) Scraper-cum-point or borer, (*e*) End Scraper and (*f*) Side-and-End scraper.
(2) Points (including arrowheads)
(3) Borers
(4) Points, borers and even scrapers with incipient tang.

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Their relative proportion is available from Maharashtra, Northern Karnatak, Malwa, Southern Rajputana, Orissa and Kurnool, where systematic work has been done so far, and the results can be readily inspected.

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*Maharashtra*

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The most important stratified sites in Maharashtra are Nevasa, on the Pravara and Bel Pandhari, Suregaon, Kalegaon and Nandur-Madhmeshwar on the Godavari. It may be recalled that it was the last mentioned site which had yielded these tools in situ gravel in 1943.¹⁵ Barring Nevasa (where thin deposits of earlier cemented gravel are left), and Nandur-Madhmeshwar where earlier gravel lies in the river bed and also Bel Pandhari where in the recent visit with Professor ZEUNER earlier deposits and tools were discovered in a nala, elsewhere only thick deposits of this (second) gravel are visible, banked up against the silty cliff section. This also suggests their late, subsequent deposition in a comparatively wet phase, sometimes on an eroded earlier gravel. In composition and appearance this gravel is different from the earlier (Gravel I) and the later (Gravel III). Nodules and pebbles of the secondary minerals like jasper, chalcedony, zeolite are prominently seen, whereas those of trap are rare. Cross bedding is common. It is believed to be laid down in shallow water.¹⁶

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¹⁵ SANKALIA, H. D., "Studies in the Prehistory of the Deccan, A Survey of the Godavari," BDCRI, IV (1944), pp. 186-98.

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¹⁶ BANERJEE, op. cit.

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At Bel Pandhari, Kalegaon and Nadur-Madhmeshwar on the Godavari the gravel rises to height of nearly 10 ft. from the water level, whereas at Nevasa at Locality I (about 4 furlongs to the west of the Ladmod mound and opposite the BAROT'S well on the opposite side), Locality V (Hathi well—west) and Locality VII (just below the excavated mound of Ladmod), the second gravel rests upon thin deposits of earlier gravel.

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On the three Godavari sites, the gravel appears as a ledge away from the yellowish-brown silty cliff. It was formerly inferred by Banerjee and me that this silt rested on the gravel. However, my subsequent examination of the Godavari-Pravara Valleys, almost right from their source upto their confluence and beyond, seems to indicate that as in the Narmada the earliest gravel phase in these rivers was capped by a very thick deposit of yellowish silt. And this forms the first or the highest (or the oldest) terrace. In the subsequent cycles of wet and dry phase, the river never reached this height. The gravel and silts when deposited were banked up against this cliff. This formed Terrace II. And because of its low position the gravels of this terrace are eroded, and except at a few places mentioned above, lie scattered in the present river bed.

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In the Hathi Well locality at Nevasa the gravel and silt seem to be plastered over the partly eroded and exposed earlier gravel and its silty cliff. This was further covered by a thin deposit of loose kankary gravel during the latest aggradation, at many places along these rivers as well as on the Narmada. In fact this seems to be a feature in Peninsular India, for it has been observed by me on the Chambal and Narmada in Central India as well as in Kurnool.¹⁷

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¹⁷ Even at Poona the section on the right side of the Bund Garden shows a fairly thick bed of pebbly gravel capped by a thick deposit of yellowish silt. If this belongs to one wet and dry cycle, as agreed to by Professor ZEUNER, then the subsequent deposit of a finer gravel must be at a lower level. The latter now lies eroded in the river bed up and down stream.

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If these observations are correct, then the sections at Nevasa, Bel Pandhari, Kalegaon and Nandur Madhmeshwar should be drawn as shown in Fig. 36.

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Since 1955 several small in situ collections have been made, particularly from Nevasa, Bel Pandhari and Nandur-Madhmeshwar, whereas tools have also been collected from the gravel heaps on the Mula-Mutha at Poona (Bund Garden). Koregaon on the Bhima, about 16 miles north from Poona, and the gravels which have been brought from this place and spread in the compound of the Deccan College and adjoining golf ground. Other regions like Talegaon on the Indrayani and several sites on the Tapi in Khandesh¹⁸ᵃ and several sites in Vidarbha¹⁸ᵇ have yielded similar tools.

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SECTION ACROSS THE RIVER NARBADA OPPOSITE SAHASRADHARA

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Fig. 37.

Tool Percentage

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Since this collection goes on increasing every year, it is not statistically treated. For the present, the figures arrived at by BANERJEE are given here.¹⁸ Of the total collection of 1851, nearly half is a stratified number from Bel Pandhari, Kalegaon, Nevasa and Nandur-Madhmeshwar. And of the entire collection only about 21 per cent consists of regular tool types, leaving out cores, flakes, utilized nodules and rejects. This small assemblage includes only four main tool types:

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¹⁸ For a complete analysis and statistics, see, ibid., p. 145.

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| I | Points | ... | ... | ... | 15·7% (60) |
| II | Scrapers | ... | ... | ... | 57·3% (219) |
| III | Borers | ... | ... | ... | 24·9% (95) |
| IV | Scraper-Borer | ... | ... | ... | 2·1% (8) |

Points

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The points are further sub-divided into:

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(a) Simple Points ... ... ... (73·8%, 44)
(b) Tanged Points ... ... ... (26·7%, 16).

Simple Points

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The first—simple points—may be further split up into a number of groups according to the nature (core or flake), shape, position of the bulb (if any) and nature of retouch. This will give a large number of sub-groups¹⁹ and an insight into the character of the industry. Suffice, here, to emphasize the fact that its makers have not been particular in having only certain kinds or types of cores or flakes. Any suitable piece of stone was used. It is this aspect which is sought to illustrate while citing the specimens.

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¹⁹ BANERJEE, op. cit.

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(1) Thin, leaf-shaped point on a Levallois-like flake, simple faceted platform, but the upper surface has a very shallow roughly parallel-sided flake scar ending in a point; wavy edge on both sides marked by scalloped and flattish irregular retouch from either surface. The tool may also pass off as a scraper-cum-borer, if held horizontally; for one of the longer or lateral undersides has two tiny notches removed to give a small borer-tip. But this process was never completed. No. 283, Nevasa (NVS), Loc. II, surface, brownish jasper.²⁰ (2) Sub-triangular point on a thick Levallois-like flake, about 90° angle, platform faceted, diffused bulb. Upper surface has a regular mid-ridge, almost up to the butt, which has shallow scars probably to facilitate hafting. Rest of the three sides bear steep minute retouches from the upper side. No. 118, Kalegaon (KG), in situ gravel, mottled jasper.

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18a I.A.R. 1956-57, p. 11 and Fig. 5.

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18b I.A.R., 1960-61, pp. 63-64.

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²⁰ See, SANKALIA, H. D., A.I., No. 12 (1956), p. 49, fig. 10, no. 283 and BANERJEE, op. cit., p. 158, pl. 4 d. It may be mentioned that this was the first definite tool type, which led to the later systematic investigation at Nevasa.

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(3) Small triangular point on a flake, with uneven undersurface, mid-ridge on the upper, with a sloping flaked butt. No. 825, Bel Pandhari (BPD), coarse quartz with greenish specks.

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(4) Small, roughly oval point on flake, bulb portion steeply flaked away from the under-side. Upper has a mid-ridge, which is partly removed at the pointed end. Steeply retouched on both sides, but the left has a thick encrustation. No 880, BPD, in situ gravel, greenish jasper.

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(5) Small point on a flat, heart-shaped, Levallois-like flake, faceted butt, 90° angle. A broad angular point achieved by two shallow flakes on the angular side. No, 118, NVS, fleshy jasper.

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Tanged Points (Fig. 38)

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These are indeed rare and probably the first of their kind to be recorded from India. Compared to the Aterian, these are very crude, both the workmanship on the tang as well as on the tip of the point. But the conception was there and can be seen even in scrapers. Two types are distinguished: (a) Single-shouldered (b) Double-shouldered.

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One each from a group of seven and nine respectively are here illustrated.

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Single-shouldered Point

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(6) A small triangular flattish flake having cortex on the longer side. From the under-surface a large flake was (perhaps previously) removed, giving a flat surface. This tip was then retouched so as to give a point. On the upper surface, from one side of the butt, small notches have created a shoulder. This could be for scraping also! No. 389, BPD, green jasper.

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Double-shouldered Point or Borer (?)

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(7) An elongated flake of Levallois type having a simple platform. 90° angle with two or three shallow longish flakes removed from the tip near the bulbar end. Deep scar on the top centre. Tang or the borer point fairly elongated and made by deep notches on one side, the other looks angular.

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Since one of the longer sides is retouched, the tool could have been a scraper. But most probably, looking to the bulbar end, and the deep scar (which facilitated handling) it appears to be a borer. And the illustration is given accordingly. Calcareous encrustation on one side of the tang or borer point. No. 49, NVS, green jasper.

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Borers (Fig. 39)

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As in Points, a naturally pointed piece—nodule, core, or a flake—was taken and with a little or elaborate retouch (which includes primary removal of the notches on either side of the point and subsequent finer work on it) an excellent borer was prepared. Four specimens illustrate the main types.

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Borer on Flake

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(1) Roughly oval Levallois-like flake with a well elongated and thin borer point. This is achieved by notches on either side of the point and on the front of the under surface. Borer-tip further retouched. No. 1, DC (Deccan College compound), glossy carnelian.

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1

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2

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3

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4

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5

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6

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7

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Fig. 35. Points and Scrapers, Maharashtra (1/1)

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1

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3

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5

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2

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4

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6

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Fig. 39. Borers and Scrapers, Maharashtra (1/1).

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(2) Borer on large sub-rectangular flake.²¹ The upper surface has two natural facets and one large flake scar; underside primary flake surface, the pointed end hollowed on either side, the longer one being marked by a few bold steep retouches. One straight side bears signs of use. No. 174, KG, *in situ* gravel, banded jasper.

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²¹ BANERJEE, *op. cit.*, p. 202, pl. 14, b.

Borer on Core or Nodule

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(3) Thick rectangular piece with flattish undersurface, steep sides and uneven upper surface with patches of cortex has been converted into an efficient borer by two deep notches at the pointed end, and the edges have been later perfunctorily retouched. The curved front midridge seems to have been retouched. Chandoli,²² mottled greenish-red jasper.

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²² On the Ghod River, Poona District. Found on 11-1-1961. The material is identical in every respect with that of the point from Kalegaon.

Borer on Side Flake

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Usually the borer point is at right angles to the longer axis of the tool with a shorter butt-end, but in a number of cases this point is opposite the longer side which is often very thick and serves as a convenient handhold. The specimen described below is of this type.

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(4) Borer on thick flake, having bulb and simple platform; the thinner side has a short borer point, by retouching steeply from the upper side of one notch and by retouching from the underside on the other notch; for the thumb-hold a fairly deep flake is removed from the upper surface and the thick back. No. 207, KG *in situ* gravel, jasper.

Borer-cum-Scraper

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(5) This is one of the most notable tools in the collecton from Nevasa region. Two deep notches were made on the adjacent sides of a quadrilateral piece. This has given three projections. The main concavities upto the tip of the projection are steeply retouched resulting in double-hollow and triple point borer. Such tools must have been used as spokeshaves for smoothing the shafts of the spear-heads (or arrow-heads).²³ No. 887 BPD, red jasper.

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²³ BANERJEE, *op. cit.*, p. 210, pl. 14, 9, and SANKALIA *et. al.* FHPN (From History to Prehistory at Nevasa) fig. 60, no. 10, (The site number differs).

Scraper

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Not only is the percentage of scrapers large, but there are a number of varieties. The main groups are: (*a*) Side scraper, (*b*) End scraper, (*c*) Hollow scraper, (*d*) Round scraper, (*e*) Point scraper and (*f*) Borer-cum-scraper.

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The last two have been already described while dealing with these two types of tools. Here the main scraper types are given.

Side Scraper

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As the name signifies, the scraper edge is on one (lateral) side, parallel to the long axis of the tool, the opposite side being thick or thin and straight or rounded (as in a crescent) or even angular. Thus the exact description of the tool might vary, depending upon the shape.

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(6) Side scraper on a thick large crescentic end flake. Slightly rolled, so that the edge which has three or four irregular retouches looks thick and dull. The back or the curved side is very thick and is also deeply flaked. The tool looks like a macrolunate or crescent and even larger ones have been reported from the Tapi and Waiganga Valleys. No. 150, BPD, greenish jasper.

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1

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6

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2

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3

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5

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4

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Fig. 40. Scrapers, Maharashtra (1/1).

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*End Scrapers* (Fig. 40)

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These are on thick, or thin, flat-based pieces, not necessarily specially made flakes.

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(1) End scraper on a thick flake. Only the front fan-shaped, convex side is retouched in a rather large, but regular retouch. No. 124, BPD, greenish jasper.

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*Hollow Scrapers*

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These are on thin or thick flat-based pieces which may be flakes, cores or nodules. At times both the hollow front and the hollow back or straight sides are also retouched, giving us a double-edged hollow scraper.

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(2) A fine double-edged hollow scraper on a flat Levallois-like end-flake, having a faceted butt. The thick curved back is specially prepared and further retouched, as also the front hollow edge. No. 554,²⁴ NVS, Loc. II, *in situ* gravel bed II. Chert (partly patinated).

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²⁴ See SANKALIA, *A.I.*, No. 12, p. 47, fig. 9.

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*Double-edged Side Scrapers*

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(3) Hollow and Side Scraper on a thick crescentic end flake, unfaceted platform, bulb and some portion erased. The curved back is steeply retouched either for hafting or for scraping. The opposite side was either hollowed or was naturally so, but has been subsequently retouched. Fine specimen. No. 816, NVS, greenish chalcedony.

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(4) Fine blade-like end flake, which has been further slightly cross flaked on the underside at the butt, and on the upper at the shorter end, has been extensively retouched (though partly the edge looks battered due to use) on both the longer sides from the upper surface. No. 468, NVS, Loc. I, *in situ* gravel III; brownish mottled chalcedony.

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(5) Side Scraper on a thick long blade-like flake. One of the lateral sides retains cortex, but the other slopes steeply and has been likewise retouched, No. 150, BPD, mottled jasper.

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*Round Scraper*

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(6) On a thin, roundish, perfect Levallois flake, having a faceted platform, and a thin triangular flake from the upper surface, removed while trimming the core. The edges all round have been partly retouched. No. 874, Loc. I, NVS, mottled greenish yellow chert.

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*Karnatak*

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In North Karnatak so far only one or two stratified sites are known, the most important being Taminhal (TH) and Almatti (AM). At Bagalkot (BGKT) a thick loose deposit of second smaller gravel rests over and against the older gravel, which is also loose and spread in the river bed.²⁶ᵃ

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²⁶ Ibid., p. 49, fig. 10.

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BANERJEE²⁷ notes that the Karnatak Middle Palaeolithic Industry (called "Karnatak Nevasian" by him), is characterized by a high percentage of irregular flakes, cores, and nodules, the main tool types being points having various sub-types and some showing incipient or ill-developed tang, scrapers, borers, borer-cum-scrapers, flakes and cores. The borer or borer-cum-scraper is once again the most prominent tool in the industry.

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²⁵ Ibid.

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26a Very interesting tools have been reported from Salvadgi etc. in Bijapur District. Some of these were exhibited by Dr. SESHADRI in New Delhi last year. If found in a stratified context, these will add materially to our knowledge of this and the succeeding culture. *I.A.R.*, 1960-61, p. 64.

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²⁷ BANERJEE, op. cit., p. 255, pl. 6, g.

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4

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1

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2

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3

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Fig. 41. Points, Borers and Scrapers, Karnatak (1/1).

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1

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3

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2

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Fig. 42. Scrapers, Karnatak (1/1).

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Percentage

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Of the total collection, regular tool types form 24.1% and fall into three groups:

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| I | Points | ... | ... | ... | 12.7% |
| II | Scrapers | ... | ... | ... | 39.1% |
| III | Borers | ... | ... | ... | 47.8% |

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The following tools are illustrated (Fig. 41).

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Points

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(1) Point-cum-Scraper: on a naturally pointed, ovalish, leaf-like flake which by slight retouch on one side and at the butt-end to facilitate hafting, has been converted into a tool. Since one side is thick, it is possible that it was a scraper. Note the cortex formation on the sides near the tip. No. 159, AM, chert.

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(2) Tanged Point-cum-Scraper²⁸ on an ovalish end-flake which has been retouched along the edges to form a scraping edge and a blunt rounded point made by making a small notch on the other side. This along with another on the butt-end has produced a small tang. The tang will facilitate hafting, but does not anticipate a socket, for which it is too irregular. No. 359, AM, chert.

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²⁸ BANERJEE, op. cit., p. 288, pl. 6, i. It is called simply "a tanged point".

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End Scrapers (Fig. 42)

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The industry includes a large number of scrapers, but among these, this variety is the finest and better than any in Maharashtra. BANERJEE found one scraper in association with a hand-axe in the lower gravel at Taminhal. He further thinks that these are genetically related to the Hand-axe Industry.²⁹ Another remarkable feature is the sub-groups within the main formed by the types of edge or general shape, and the attempt to provide a tang.

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²⁹ BANERJEE, op. cit., p. 234.

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(1) Large end-scraper on an end-flake with flat platform on a broad butt; fan-shaped convex edge, irregular, steep, retouch; two large flakes removed from either side, probably with a view to hafting. OB-1,³⁰ Chert.

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³⁰ Ibid., p. 236, pl. 10, c.

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(2) Ovalish end-scraper on an indeterminate flake; rolled. Roughly convex edge, steeply retouched, the butt-end probably intentionally narrowed by irregular flaking to facilitate hafting. Found in situ with hand-axe gravel I at Taminhal, No. 1, TH, chert.

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Hollow Scraper (Fig. 41, 3)

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(3) Made on a crescentic end-flake with a broader base, with fine bulb and narrow end. The concave edge achieved by steep flake, and later carefully retouched. No. 29,³¹ BGRT, chert.

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³¹ Ibid., pl. 18. d.

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Round Scraper (Fig. 42, 3)

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Roughly squarish flake retouched along the margin from the upper surface only. These are at some places very steep. BGRT-187, chert.³²

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³² Ibid., p. 241, pl. 18, h. Not illustrated here.

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*Borers*

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This forms, in Karnatak, numerically the largest group. Though anything—cores, nodules and flakes—is utilized for the purpose, nearly 90% of the borers are on flakes. But here again such pointed flakes were chosen, which lent themselves with minimum retouch for turning them into borers.

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(1) *Borer with little retouch*

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A leaf-shaped end-flake, retouched partly from the upper and partly from the lower to form a slightly protruding borer point. BGKT -365.³³

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³³ BANERJEE, op. cit., p. 246, pl. 15, a.

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(2) *Borer with elaborate retouch*

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This is a more advanced group in which the guards ar made as in the intermediate state.³⁴ but the point is well projected and very carefully prepared.

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³⁴ Here omitted.

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(3) *Borer on Core*

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A small unfinished borer on an oblong core. Partly retouched, but the point is still thick and hence probably incomplete. No. 326, BGKT.³⁵

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³⁵ Ibid., p. 255, pl. 17, a.

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Of all these four sub-types, only one is here illustrated. (*Fig. 41,4*)

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Borer on an elongated heart-shaped end flake. On the upper surface, the borer point is symmetrically brought out by hollowing its sides and careful retouch, whereas as butt end has been flattened to facilitate hafting. No. 105, AM, chert.

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*Kurnool*

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In Kurnool (Andhra), CAMMIADE and BURKITT had already classified typologically their collection into Series I, II, III, the first corresponding to our Early Palaeolithic.

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*Stratigraphy*

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Later, as mentioned above, ISAAC has covered a much wider field and collected extensively. The position of his Series II tools seems to be well indicated, though nowhere the tools occur in a cemented gravel as at Bel Pandhari and other sites on the Godavari or Maheshwar on the Narmada. At a number of sites these tools are mixed up with the later or earlier deposits, and since very often the same raw material viz. quartzite³⁶ is used for both the types of tools, it is difficult to differentiate, particularly those which are merely flakes. Hence the tools are not yet statistically treated, though arranged after BURKITT into four series. Both his Series II and III comprise tools which would be elsewhere called "Middle Palaeolithic" or simply Series II. Pending further clarification, a few important types are here illustrated. It should be pointed out that the collection includes all the main types which characterize the Nevasian, including the tanged variety of points, borers and scrapers. Another interesting feature is the size. On the whole, the tools are larger than those from Maharashtra or we may say larger than those from the basalt region. (*Fig. 43*)

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³⁶ This is particularly so in the Nallamalai region. In the Erramalai jasper and other fine grained material was preferred during the Middle Palaeolithic times.

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1

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2

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4

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3

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Fig. 43. Points and Scrapers, Kurnool, Andhra (1/1).

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1. Point,³⁷ leaf-shaped, on a large plano-convex flake, angle 90°, cortex on platform, erased bulb. A flake removed from the butt-end on the top. The margin near the working end trimmed. Included in Series III by ISAAC. VP, 224, quartzite.

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³⁷ ISAAC, op. cit., p. 521, LXIII, 219.

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2. Point,³⁸ bifacial and tanged, on a large flake. Beautifully worked on both faces by deep and shallow flake scars. Tang made by deep flaking on the underside. VP, 48, quartzite.

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³⁸ Ibid., p. 513, pl. LXXII, 192.

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3. Scraper,³⁹ Side-and Hollow, on a thick, irregular flake. It can be described as an End-Scraper as well. BGM, II, 45, cherty quartzite.

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³⁹ Ibid., p. 525, pl. LXXIV, 233.

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4. Scraper,⁴⁰ on a semi-circular flat flake, the margin of the semi-circular edge worked from both faces by bold retouch. PCF, II, 131, limestone.

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In other districts of Andhra no survey has been carried out, nor in the States of Madras and Mysore (barring Northern Karnatak). Thus the further southward distribution of this culture is at present unknown, but it can be confidently asserted that it will be found. And it is this industry which later developed into the Teri microlithic industry.⁴⁰ᵃ

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⁴⁰ Ibid., p. 513, pl. LXXIV, 249.

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