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India as Known to Panini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashtadhyayi c8.s14: Section 16. Music

India as Known to Pāṇini: A Study of the Cultural Material in the Ashṭādhyāyī c8.s14

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Section 16. Music

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The tradition of the musical art in India is of high antiquity. In the sculptures at Bharhut and Sanchi both vocal and instrumental musicians are found frequently represented. In the *Arthaśāstra* of Kauṭilya music and musicians are often mentioned. In the *Jātaka* literature music forms a chief item of social and individual entertainment. Pāṇini's *Ashṭādhyāyī* which in point reflects an even earlier stage of culture, shows an equally full acquaintance with the various branches of the musical art. Besides referring to vocalists and instrumentalists, the *Ashṭādhyāyī* also mentions orchestral bands including singers to the accompaniment of *vīṇā*, one of the most popular instruments in ancient Indian music.

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MUSIC, A ŚILPA—In Pāṇini's days music was regarded as an art (*śilpa*). Not only instrumental music as cymbals, tabor, (IV.4.55-56) but also dance (III.1.145) and vocal music (III.1.146-47) are mentioned under the category of *śilpa*. In the *Jātakas* also music is a *sippa*.

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Music comprised *nṛitya* (dance), *gīta* (song), *vāditra* (instrumental music), and sometimes also *nāṭya* (stage-acting). The *Khantivādi Jātaka* mentions these four branches together as part of royal entertainment (*gīta-vādita-nachchesu chekā nāṭakitthiyo gītādīni payojayiṁsu*, *Jāt.* III.40). Kauṭilya also treats *gīta*, *vādya*, *nṛitta*, and *nāṭya* as parts of music (*Arth.* II.27, p. 125). The *Ashṭādhyāyī* refers to all of them, e.g. song is referred to as *gīti* (III.3.95) and *geya* (III.4.68), a vocal singer as *gāthaka* (III.1.146) and *gāyana* (III.1.147), a songstress as *gāthikā* and *gāyanī*, a dancer as *nartaka* (III.1.145 as explained by Patañjali), dance as *nṛitya* (I.3.89, VII.2.57), and a player on an instrument as *parivādaka* (III.2.146). Stage acting is mentioned as *nāṭya* (IV.3.129).

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Pāṇini's reference to a treatise called the *Naṭasūtra* (IV.3.110) shows that the theoretical side of the dramatic art was also studied.

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ORCHESTRA—The idea of having a concert of different instrumentalists was known to Pāṇini. The band was collectively known as *tūrya*, and individual members *tūryāṅga* (II.4.2). In concert two allied instrumentalists were grouped together, and the group was denoted by a compound in the singular number (II.4.2). For example, the set of players on *mṛdaṅga* and *paṇava* was referred to as *mārdaṅgika-pāṇavikam*. The *Kāśikā* adds to this *vīṇāvādaka* (lute-player)—*parivādakam*. Pāṇini refers to *parivādaka* in *sūtra*, III.2.146 without stating its meaning. It appears that *parivādaka* was a player on a stringed instrument. Patañjali, considers *parivādaka* as a lute-player (*Bhāshya*, VII.4.1; III.345; *avīvadad-vīṇāṁ parivādakena*). Pāṇini refers to *vīṇā* in several *sūtras* (III.3.65), and we learn from the *Jātakas* that *vīṇā* formed part of an orchestral band (*vīṇādīni turiyāni*, *Jāt*. III.40).

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SAMMADA—Pāṇini explains *sammada* and *pramada* as festivity (*harsha*, III.3.68). It was a kind of opera as illustrated in a sculpture at Bharhut, inscribed as '*Sāḍakaṁ sammadaṁ turaṁ devānaṁ*,' an opera (*saṭṭaka*) comprising both instrumental and vocal music performed in the palace of gods (Barua *Barhut*, Book I, plate 2; also Book III, Fig. 34). The scene shows several groups, namely, singers, four female dancers, and an orchestral band (*tūrya*) comprising of female lyre-players, a hand-clapper, a cymbalist and a taborer. According to the *Nidāna-kathā* a *tūrya* party consisted of players on five musical instruments (*pañchaṅgika tūrya*, *Jāt*. I.32), probably by adding a flute-player to the four represented in the Bharhut scene. *Sammada*, therefore, appears to have been a festive celebration in which dance and music played an essential part.

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INSTRUMENTS—Amongst stringed instruments the lyre (*vīṇā*) is mentioned. The term *upavīṇayati*, 'sings with the lyre,' points to the popular practice of combining vocal and instrumental music. Singing without lyre was denoted by the expression *apavīṇam* (VI.2.187). The musical notes produced from a lyre were known as *nikvaṇa* or *nikvāṇa* (III.3.65, *Kvaṇo vīṇāyāṁ cha*).

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Of the percussion and ringing instruments mention is made of *maḍḍuka*, a small tabor (IV.4.56) and *jharjhara* (IV.4.56), the players being known as *māḍḍukika* and *jhārjharika*, taborers and cymbalists, respectively. Keeping time by the clapping of palm is referred to in the expressions *pāṇigha* and *tālagha* (III.2.55; cf. *pānissara* or clapper in the *Vidhurapaṇḍita Jāt.* VI.267).

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The *dārdurika* seems to have been a player on a drum made of an earthen jar (IV.4.34). In the *Jātakas* we find *kumbha-thūṇika* mentioned in a list of musical players which the commentary explains as *ghāṭadaddara-vādaka* (*Jāt.* VI.276). The *Kāśikā* explains *dārdurika* as a potter, signifying one who was the maker of those particular pots used as *vādya-bhāṇḍa*.

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*AKĀLAKA VYĀKARAṆA*—Pāṇini's system of grammar became known to the ancients as a grammar without 'time' (*akālaka*). The *Kāśikā* repeats thrice the statement that Pāṇini was the promulgator of a grammatical treatise from which he excluded the discussion of the precise denotation of the various time-divisions (*Kāśikā*, II.4.21; IV.3.115; VI.2.14; also *Chāndravṛitti*, II.2.68, *Pāṇiny-upajñam akālakaṁ vyākaraṇam*). 'How much is the duration of the day, when does present (*vartamāna*) end and future (*bhavishya*) begin, what is *adyatana*, and how much interval of time makes *paroksha*, etc.?'—these are questions considered by Pāṇini as not coming within the province of grammar, but to be decided with reference to current usage (I.2.57, *Kālopasarjane cha tulyam*). *Patañjali* tells us that other teachers had entered into hair-splitting discussions about these matters (*Bhāshya*, III.2.123; II.123).

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Pāṇini, however, deals with the general divisions of time (*kāla-vibhāgas*, III.3.136), *e.g.*, night and day (*ahorātra*, III.3.137), fortnight (*paksha*, V.2.25), month (*māsa*, V.1.81), half-year (*shaṇmāsa*, V.1.83), year (*varsha*, V.1.88), and the solstitial division (*ayana*, VII.4.25).

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The more frequent word for time was *kāla*, although *samaya* and *velā* are also used (III.3.167). According to an unnamed author of a *vārttika* on Pāṇini, VII.3.15, the word *parimāṇa* in the *Ashṭādhyāyī* applies to measures other than those of time (*Bhāshya*, III.321). Pāṇini, however, treats Time as a measure of life (*kālāḥ parimāṇinā*, II.2.5); for example, a person after birth comes under the measure of time as *dvyaha-*, *tryaha-*, *māsa-*, *saṁvatsara-jātaḥ*. On the above *sūtra* Patañjali notes an important fact that time is an entity by which growth and decay of visible objects are indicated and that the movement of the sun (*āditya-gati*, I.409) is responsible for portioning out time into days and nights, months and the year by constant repetition (*asakṛid-āvṛitti*). The sun is referred to as *ahaskara*, maker of the day (III.2.21), and the heavenly bodies as *jyotis* (VI.3.85; *vār.* on I.3.40; *Pat.* I.231). Persons born under the same constellation were called *sajjyoti*.

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Pāṇini's reference to *vidhun-tuda* (III.2.35) points to the belief in the legend of Rāhu causing a lunar eclipse, also referred to in Vedic literature (*Vedic Index*, I.254; also *Tāṇḍya Br.* Caland, VI.6.8).

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The following time-divisions are referred to in the *Ashṭādhyāyī*:

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*AHORĀTRA* (III.3.137, VI.2.33)—Night and day constitute the fundamental unit of time-reckoning. The terms *naktandivam* and *rātrindivam* (*sūtra*, V.4.77) are according to Fleet rather peculiar since in India the day has always been measured from sunrise and he suggested that the forms may be due to euphonic considerations. Dr. Keith, however, thinks that they were genuine old expressions preserved in Pāṇini from a very remote past when the day was reckoned with sunset (*J.R.A.S.*, 1916, p. 143-6).¹ It is admitted that in the Sūtra period the day was reckoned with sunrise.

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The day was further divided into *pūrvāhṇa* and *aparāhṇa*, forenoon and afternoon (IV.3.24), and the night into *pūrvarātra* and *apararātra* (V.4.87). The union of night and day in the morning and evening is referred to as *saṁdhi-velā* (IV.3.16).

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The division of the day into *muhūrtas* was also known, the expiry of a *muhūrta* period being quoted as a factor to determine tenses (III.3.9; III.3.164). Patañjali on *sūtra*, II.¹.28 refers to a variable period of six *muhūrtas* (*shaṇ-muhūrtāś charācharāḥ*, I.384). This may be understood in the light of Kauṭilya who states that the day consisted of 30 *muhūrtas* and that the equinoctial day and night of 15 *muhūrtas* each fell in the month of Chaitra and Aśvayuj; the solstitial points, however, caused night and day to increase and diminish by three *muhūrtas* each (*Artha.* II.20, p. 108). These six *muhūrtas* representing the maximum increase of day in summer and of night in winter must have been called *charāchara*.

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¹ Cf. also Fleet's reply (*J.R.A.S.*, 1961, p. 356); Keith's rejoinder (p. 555) and Fleet's final reply (p. 561), in which Fleet's view seems well-grounded.

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MONTH—The month consisted of the usual two *pakshas* of which the *Amāvāsyā* and the *Paurṇamāsī* formed the closing days. Pāṇini refers to the opening day of a *paksha* as *pakshati* (V.2.25) which the *Kāśikā* takes as a synonym of the *Pratipad* day.

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*Sāvana Month.* The reckoning of a *Sāvana* month consisting of 30 days is deducible from the phrase *shashṭi-rātra* (V.1.90), literally 60 nights equivalent to two months. Kauṭilya also refers to a period of thirty days and nights together making one working month, (*prakarma-māsa*, *Artha.* II.20 p. 108). In this arrangement the last day of the half and the full month need not coincide with *Amāvāsyā* and *Paurṇamāsī* which were the characteristic days or *parvans* of a lunar month. Pāṇini derives two special words *ardha-māsa-tama* and *māsa-tama* to signify the last day of the half-month, and the last day of the full month respectively (V.2.57). It appears that the need for these two terms arose as they were not synonymous with *Amāvāsyā* and *Paurṇamāsī*. The words *ardha-māsa-tama* and *māsa-tama* may be taken to refer to the fifteenth day and the thirtieth day of the *prakarma-māsa* or the civil month used especially in the case of government or public offices. Patañjali clearly acquaints us with the existence of a *bhṛitaka-māsa*, month by which the wages of labourers were reckoned. Both Kātyāyana and Patañjali interpret *sūtra*, IV.2.21 (*Sāsmin Paurṇamāsīti*) in a way so as to distinguish the lunar month ending with *Paurṇamāsī* from some different reckoning (*Bhāshya*, II.275). The *prakarma* month of Kauṭilya seems to be the same as the *bhṛitaka* month of Patañjali.

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The *Sāvana* month of thirty days is again referred to by Patañjali as *triṁśadrātra*, consisting of two equal halves of fifteen days each, the first one of which was called *avara pañchadaśa-rātra* or *avara ardhamāsa*, and the second by implication as *para-* (*Bhāshya*, III.3.136, II.162). It is interesting to note that Patañjali uses the term *rātri* for 'day' while referring to the *Sāvana* month of 30 days and its half of 15 days. This practice goes back to Pāṇini, who uses the word *rātri* (=*ahorātra*) in the phrase *shashṭi-rātra*, a period of 60 days, being twice of the *Sāvana* month called *triṁśad-rātra* by Patañjali.

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*Lunar Month*. The prevalence of a lunar calendar with a month (*chāndramāsa*) of 29½ days depending on the two *parvans*, *Amāvāsyā* and *Paurṇamāsī* was definitely known. It appears that in the *Ashṭādhyāyī* the *pūrṇimānta* basis of reckoning the lunar month was accepted. This is suggested by the fact that the name of the month was derived from that of the *Paurṇamāsī* falling in it, of which Pāṇini refers to *Āgrahāyaṇī* (IV.2.22), *Phālgunī*, *Śravaṇā*, *Kārttikī* and *Chaitrī* (IV.2.23). In one example the settlement of a debt claim is said to fall due on the *Paurṇamāsī* day (i.e. *Āgrahāyaṇī*, IV.3.50), this too pointing to *pūrṇimānta* reckoning. Moreover, the use of special terms *upa-paurṇamāsī* and *upa-paurṇamāsam* (V.4.110) meaning 'about the date of the month called *Paurṇamāsī*,' is more likely to have become current on the basis of a *pūrṇimānta* month, while no such idiom is available for *amāvāsyā*. Both Kātyāyana and Patañjali clearly accept *Paurṇamāsī* as the closing day of a month¹ (IV.2.35; II.277).

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¹ (Vār.) *Pūrṇamāsādan* (Bh.) *Pūrṇamāso vartate' smin kāle Paurṇamāsī tithiḥ* (II.277).

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*Names of Months.* Some Vedic names of months as *Nabhasya, Sahasya, Tapasya* are implied in *sūtra*, IV.4.128. But the prevailing month-names were those derived from the names of *nakshatras*. Dr. A. B. Keith observes that the method of naming the months from the *nakshatra* names began in the *Brāhmaṇas*, while it is found regularly in the Epics and later (*Vedic Index*, II.162). He also points out that the name of the *nakshatra* in the *Brāhmaṇas* is more often turned into a derivative adjective and used with *Pūrṇamāsī* or *Amāvāsyā*, as in *Phālgunī Paurṇamāsī*, but it is more usual in the *sūtras* to use the *nakshatra* adjective alone to denote the full-moon night (*Vedic Index*, I.420). The *Ashṭādhyāyī* refers to the latter practice *e.g.* *Āgrahāyaṇī, Phālgunī, Śravaṇā, Kārttikī, Chaitrī*, etc. (IV.2.22-23) as names of *Paurṇamāsīs* in which the full moon is in conjunction with the lunar mansions called Phālgunī, Śravaṇa, Kṛittikā, Chitrā, *etc.* The months in which these *Paurṇamāsīs* occur are called after them (*Sāsmin Paurṇa-māsīti saṁjñāyām*, IV.2.21).

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NAKSHATRAS—Pāṇini analyses *nakshatra* into *na-kshatra* (VI.3.75), a derivation found also in the *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* (II.¹.2.18, *nakshatra* 'no light', explained with a legend). The *Nirukta*, although it cites this Brāhmaṇa derivation, prefers to derive *nakshatra* from *naksha* 'to come near' (*nakshater—gatikarmaṇaḥ*, Nir, III.20; Cf. *Vedic Index*, I.409). Pāṇini strangely enough followed the *Śatapatha* tradition. The following Nakshatras are mentioned in the *Ashṭādhyāyī*:

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¹ *Kṛittikā*. Referred to in the form *Kārttikī*, the full-moon day of Kṛittikā (IV.2.23). Pāṇini gives another name of *Kṛittikā* as *Bahula* (IV.3.34) which word came to signify the asterism of Pleiades on account of the knowledge that this constellation consisted of numerous stars. The *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa* significantly remarks: *bhūyishṭhā yat Kṛittikāḥ* (II.1.2.3). *Bahula* and *Bhūyishṭha* are interchangeable terms

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according to Pāṇini, VI.4.158 (*Bahor-lopo bhū cha bahoḥ*).¹

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3. *Mṛigaśīrsha*. Not referred to by the name of the *nakshatra*, but the full-moon night called *Āgrahāyaṇī* is mentioned thrice (IV.².22; IV.3.50; V.4.110). The month was named *Āgrahāyaṇika* (*Āgrahāyaṇiko māsaḥ*). Pāṇini refers to agreements for repayment of loans on the *Āgrahāyaṇī* day (IV.3.50). The time near about *Āgrahāyaṇī* was called *upāgrahāyaṇam* and *upāgrahāyaṇī* (V.4.110).

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4. *Ārdrā* (IV.3.28). A person born under *Ārdā* was named *Ārdraka*.

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5. *Punarvasu*. Pāṇini knows that there were two stars in this constellation; the two stars of Punarvasu and one of Tishya make three, but they are expressed by the dual number, as Tishya-Punarvasū (I.².63). But in *sūtra*, IV.3.64 he mentions Punarvasu in the singular, the form found both in the *Maitrāyaṇī* and *Kāṭhaka Saṁhitās* (*Vedic Index*, I.413). According to rule I.2.61 the singular form was optionally used in the Vedas.

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6. *Tishya*. Besides the form *Tishya* (I.2.63; IV.3.34; VI.4.149), Pāṇini mentions its two other names, *Pushya* and *Siddhya* (*Pushya-Siddhyau nakshatre*, III.¹.116). The person born under this asterism was also called *Tishya* (IV.3.34), a common name in the *Jātakas* under the form Tissa, and also Phussa from Pushya.² In the *Arthaśāstra*, *Tishya* had been replaced by the form *Pushya*, which Patañjali also prefers (I.462; II.35). *Pushya* in preference to *Tishya* seems to be a feature of the post-Pāṇinean period.

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¹ The number of stars in the Kṛittikā is counted seven in the *Taitt. Br.* III.1.41, *viz.* Ambā, Dulā, Nitatnī, Abhrayantī, Meghayantī, Varshayantī, Chupuṇikā. In classical literature this number is six, from which comes the epithet *Shāṇmāturaḥ* as the name of Kārttikeya. Pāṇini's *sūtra mātur-ut-saṁkhyā*.... (IV.1.115) is illustrated by *Dvai-mātura* and *Shāṇ-mātura*.

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² Fausböll, *Jātaka Index*, p. 64, Tissa amachcho, Tissa-kumāra, Tissa Buddha, Tissa *thera*, and Tissa *aggasavika*; also p. 89 for Phussa.

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9-10. *Phalgunī*, a double constellation called *Phalgunyau*;

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and also in the plural as *Phalgunyaḥ* (I.2.60).

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11\. *Hasta*, IV.3.34.

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12\. *Chitrā*, IV.2.23, its full-moon day being called *Chaitrī*.

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13\. *Svāti*, IV.3.34.

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14\. *Viśākhā*, double stars, named optionally as *Viśākhe* and *Viśākhā*, I.2.62. The *Tait. Saṁhitā* prefers the former and the *Kāṭhaka* the latter form. Pāṇini himself prefers the singular form *Viśākhā* (IV.3.34).

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15\. *Anurādhā*, IV.3.34.

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17\. *Mūla*, IV.3.28.

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18-19. *Ashāḍhā*, IV.3.34.

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20\. *Abhijit*, IV.3.36.

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21\. *Śravaṇa*, IV.2.23. The *Kāṭhaka Saṁhitā* names it as *Aśvattha* (*Vedic Index*, I.413), a term also known to Pāṇini (IV.2.5; IV.3.48). The *Kāśikā* takes *Aśvattha* as the season when the berries of the Pīpal (*Ficus religiosa*) ripen.

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22\. *Śravishṭhā*, IV.3.34.

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23\. *Śatabhishaj*, IV.3.36.

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24-25. *Proshṭhapadā*, a double asterism called *Proshṭhapade* and *Proshṭhapadāḥ* (I.2.60), and also in the masculine gender as *Proshṭhapada* (V.4.120), a form used in the *Tait. Saṁhitā*, and also by Pāṇini when speaking of the deity of this asterism (IV.2.35) to whom religious homage (*bhakti*) was paid by its devotees.

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26\. *Revatī*, IV.1.146.

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27\. *Aśvayuj*, IV.3.36. The *Āśvayujī* full-moon day was considered auspicious for sowing crops (IV.3.45).

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ORDER OF NAKSHATRAS—The Vedic list of *nakshatras* begins with *Kṛittikā*. According to Hopkins: 'As late as Yājñavalkya's law-book, I.267, the Pleiades hold this position as opposed to the still later scheme (since c. 490 A.D.) beginning with *Aśvinī* to indicate the vernal equinox' (*J.A.O.S.*, XXIV, p. 34). Patañjali's illustration *Kṛittikā-Rohiṇyaḥ* to show the order of precedence in the asterisms as required by a *vārttika* on II.2.34 points to the fact that up to his time the *Kṛittikās* headed the list.

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The question has to be considered in relation to Pāṇini from a different stand-point. In mentioning a list of about ten stars Pāṇini opens the list with *Śravishṭhā*:

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*Śravishṭhā—Phalguny—Anurādhā—Svāti—Tishya—Punarvasu—Hasta—Viśākh=Āshāḍhā—Bahulāluk* (IV.3.34).

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What does the beginning with *Śravishṭhā* indicate? Now the list of the *Vedāṅga Jyotisha* also commences with *Śravishṭhā*, and Garga says that the *Kṛittikās* are the first asterism for the ritual, while *Śrāvisṭha* is the first for ordinary reckoning: *Karmasu Kṛittikāḥ prathamam (nakshatram), Sravishṭhā tu saṁkhyāyāḥ* (cited by Tilak, *The Orion*, p. 30). Hopkins who discussed this question with reference to the *Mahābhārata* evidence found that the *Mahābhārata* refers to two beginnings, *viz.* (1) with *Dhanishṭhā* (another name of *Śravishṭhā*) as in the Vanaparva (230. 10), and (2) with *Śravaṇa* as in the Aśvamedha-parva (44.2, *Śravaṇādīni ṛikshāṇi*) (*J. A. O. S.* XXIV, p. 15, 34). Fleet discussing independently another *Mahābhārata* passage, *pratiśravaṇa-pūrvāṇi nakshatrāṇi chakāra yaḥ* (Ādiparva, 71.34) showed that the 'two passages of the *Mahābhārata*, giving a Śravaṇādi list of the *nakshatras* are noteworthy as coming from a time when it was recognised that the winter solstice had travelled westwards from the first point of *Śravishṭhā* (*Dhanishṭhā*), where it was placed by the astronomy which was preserved in the *Jyotisha Vedāṅga*, and was in the preceding Nakshatra *Śravaṇa* (*J.R.A.S.*, 1916, p. 570). Pāṇini's mention of *Śravishṭhā* at the head of his list is evidently in conformity with the Vedāṅga astronomy and points to a time anterior to the revision of the *Nakshatra* list, or, as Dr. Keith would have it (*J.R.A.S.*, 1917, p. 139), its reform by substituting *Śravaṇa* for *Śravishṭhā*. The point is of some importance for the relative chronology of Pāṇini, as explained in the last chapter.

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Pāṇini also subscribes to the Vedāṅga conception of the *nakshatras* as a scale divided into twenty-seven equal parts. Under this division of the ecliptic, the twelve months were named after the moon's entry into the mansion of a particular star (*Nakshtreṇa yuktaḥ kālaḥ*, IV.2.3.). When the full-moon was in conjunction with the asterism of *Chitrā*, that day was known as *Chaitrī Paurṇamāsī* (IV.2.3), and the lunar month which included the *Chaitrī Paurṇamāsī* was named *Chaitra* (VI.2.21). The name of the star even without a suffix was used as synonymous with the time, for example, the expression *adya Pushyaḥ* indicated the day named after the star, as we name our days at present after the *tithis* like *Pratipad*, *Dvitīyā*, etc. (IV.2.4).

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Pāṇini also regulates the naming of the day or night after two stars being in conjunction with the moon as *Rādhānurādhīya* and *Tishyapunarvasavīya* day (IV.2.6).

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Pāṇini uses the word *lagna* in the sense of *sakta* (VII.2.18) and not in the technical sense of *rāśīnām udaya*. According to Dr. Kaye the system of the zodiac scale of twelve divisions replaced the *nakshatra* division of the ecliptic at a fairly late date, probably about 450 A.D. (Kaye, The Nakshatras and Precession, *Ind. Ant.* Vol. 50, p. 45).

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SOLISTICE—The *sūtra* VIII.4.25 (*Ayanam cha*) refers to *antarāyaṇa* or the time within the solstice, *i.e.* the period spent by the sun in proximity to the solstitial points. The alternative form *antarayana* denoted the countries situated within the tropics.

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SEASONS AND YEAR—The year is referred to under various names as *varsha* (V.1.88), *samā* (V.1.85; V.2.12), *saṁvatsara* (V.1.87) and *hāyana* (III.1.148; V.1.130), the last word denoting both time and a kind of harvested paddy. The month-name *Agrahāyaṇa* points to its being the first month of the year. Pāṇini also refers to the various terms making up the five-year cycle, *e.g.* *Idvatsara*, *Saṁvatsara*, *Parivatsara* (V.1.91-92). The *Arthaśāstra* mentions the cycle of five years as constituting one *yuga*.

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The year was divided into two halves, each semester being known as *shaṇ-māsa* (V.1.83). The first half-year was called *avarasamā*, and the loan to be repaid during that period was *āvarasamaka* (IV.3.49).

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Pāṇini names all the six seasons, *e.g.* *vasanta* (IV.3.46), *grīshma* (IV.3.49), *varshā* (IV.3.18; also called *prāvṛish* (IV.3.17; 26), *śarad* (IV.3.12; 27), *hemanta* (IV.3.21-22) and *śiśira* (II.4.28). Each season (*ṛitu*) comprised two months, as shown by the mention of the two parts of a season, like *pūrvavārshika* and *aparavārshika*, the first and latter part of rains (*Avayayād-ṛitoḥ*, VII.3.11; see also *Bhāshya*, I.1.72.18; I. 186 mentioning *pūrva-* and *apara-śārada*, and also *-naidāgha*). Patañjali tells us that *śiśira* preceded *vasanta* and that the winter solstice began with *śiśira* (*śiśira-vasantāv=udagayanasthau*, *Bhāshya*, II.2.34; I.436). In the *Arthaśāstra* also *uttarāyaṇa* begins with *śiśira*, consisting of the two months *Māgha* and *Phālguna* (*Artha*. II.20 p. 109).

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VYUSHṬA, NEW YEAR'S DAY—Pāṇini refers to *Vyushṭa*, the new year's day, and to *vaiyushṭa*, the transanctions or payments made on that day (*Tatra cha dīyate kāryaṁ bhavavat*, V.1.96; *Vyushṭādibhyo'ṇ*, V.1.97). In the *Varāha Śrauta Sūtra* *pradosha* is the first *yāma* (3 hours) of the night, and *vyushṭa* the fourth (*Akulapāda Khaṇḍa* III); but in the *Arthaśāstra* (II.6-7, pp. 60 and 64) as Dr. Shamasastri has shown, *vyushṭa* denoted the New Year's day, *i.e.* the first day of the financial year commencing after the full-moon day of *Āshāḍha* (*Artha*. Trans. pp. 59, 64; Preface, xxiv; also the paper 'Vyushṭi or the Vedic New Year's Day' in the *Proceedings of the Second Oriental Conference*). Pāṇini seems to use *vyushṭa* in this special sense. Kauṭilya throws light on the nature of payments and business on this day. At the close of the financial year (*rāja-varsha*) on the Āshāḍhī, the Heads of the Accounts Department reported themselves at Headquarters with their registers in sealed boxes (*samudra pusta-bhāṇḍa*) and the cash balances (*nīvī*). There they declared the totals (*agrāṇi*) of the receipts (*āya*), expenditure (*vyaya*) and cash (*nīvī*) and then deposited the net revenue in hand. This illustrates the *vaiyushṭa* payments of Pāṇini (*tatra cha dīyate*).

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Next ensued the intricate checking and verification of accounts which corresponds to the business called *vaiyushṭa* by Pāṇini (*tatra cha kāryam*). In the *Arthaśāstra*, *Vyushṭa* (i.e. cash balance on the opening day) formed the bed-rock of this checking, heading each of the three lists of audit-points (II.7.) In the Asokan Edicts, the yearly diary began on the *Vyushṭa* day.¹

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¹ Cf Aśoka's Minor Rock Edict, Brahmagiri, for counting the days of the year from the *Vyushṭa* day: "This proclamation was issued by me on tour when 256 days had elapsed after *Vyushṭa*.'

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Pāṇini refers to the last day of the year as *saṁvatsaratama* (V.2.57), probably the day for the clearance of the *sāṁvatsarika* loans (IV.3.50, *saṁvatsare deyaṁ ṛiṇam*).

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Pāṇini refers to another allied term, *viz.* *mahāparāhṇa*, 'the great afternoon' (VI.2.38). As the other words in the *sūtra* VI.2.38 like *mahā-vrīhi* and *Mahā-bhārata* are technical terms, *mahāparāhṇa* also appears to be of the same category. We may connect this word with the afternoon of the last day of the year, or better of *Vyushṭa* itself. The *Sūryaprajñapti* states that the new year began with *the longest day* in the month of *Śrāvaṇa* (*Proc. Second Oriental Conference*, p.38). This day was truly a *Mahāparāhṇa* as its day-book (*ahorūpa*) would be long kept open for entries after verification. The *Mahābhārata* knows this term; Arjuna returning from the *svayamvara* 'entered the house on the *mahāparāhṇa* (day), surrounded by Brāhmaṇas like the sun in the midst of the clouds' (*mahatyathāparāhṇe tu ghanaiḥ sūrya iv=āvṛitaḥ*, Ādiparva, Critical Poona edition, 181.40). The metaphor would be appropriate only in the rainy season. The Brāhmaṇas wearing black antelope skins (*rauravājina-vāsibhiḥ*, Ādi. 181. 35) overshadowed Arjuna as masses of dark clouds cover the sun. This connects *Mahāparāhṇa* with the rainy season, and confirms its identification with *Vyushṭa*, i.e. the New Year's day in Śrāvaṇa, considered from the accounts point of view to be the "Longest Afternoon" of the whole year.

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