The Aravidu Dynasty of Vijayanagara, Vol. I v1.c12: Chapter VI. Early Telugu Invasions into the South

The Aravidu Dynasty of Vijayanagara, Vol. I v1.c12

Language: English

Chapter VI. Early Telugu Invasions into the South

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SUMMARY.—1. Muhammadan conquest of Madura.—2. Vira Ballala III's war against the Muhammadans.—3. Foundation of Vijayanagara. Reconquest of Madura by Kumara Campana.—4. Restoration of the Pandyas. Expeditions of Harihara II.—5. Lakkana and Madana instal the Pandya heirs on the Madura throne.—6. Campaign of Narasa Nayaka.—7. Krishna Deva Raya's conquests in the south.—8. The King of Travancore invades the Pandya country.—9. Achyuta's expedition against Travancore.—10. Results of this campaign.—11. The Paravas of the Fishery Coast put themselves under Portuguese protection.—12. Nagama Nayaka and his son Visvanatha Nayaka.—13. Visvanatha's first Viceroyalty in Madura.—14. Nagama Nayaka's campaign against Vira Sekhara Chola.—15. Visvanatha reinstates Chandra Sekhara Pandya on the throne of Madura.—16. Second Viceroyalty of Visvanatha in Madura.—17. Visvanatha Nayaka appointed King of Madura.

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*Contemporary Sources.*—1. Hindu inscriptions and grants.—2. *Pandy-an Chronicle*; *Tanjavuri Andhra Rajula Charitra*; *Mrtyunjaya MSS.*; *Supplementary MSS.*; *History of the Karnataka Governors*; *The Royal Line of the Karnataka Princes*; *Description of the Karnataka Lords*. 3. Amir Khusru, *Tarikh-i-Alai*; *Travels of Ibn Batuta*. 4. St. Francis Xavier's letters.—5. Nuniz's *Chronicle*; Sousa, *Oriente Conquistado*; Du Jarric, *Thesaurus*; Nieuhoff, *Travels*.—6. *Jaimini Bharatam*; *Saluvabhyudayam*; *Ramabhyudaya*; *Achyutarayabhyudayam*; *Varadambika—Parinayam*.

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IN reviewing the history of the Telugu domination over the South of India, the climax of which was reached during the fourth Dynasty of Vijayanagara, it is now opportune to give a brief account of the early Telugu expeditions into the southern dominions, which will enable us to understand better the subsequent military exploits of the Aravidu Emperors and their subordinate Telugu chiefs in those regions.

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The city of Madura, which was the capital of the kingdom of the Pandyas several centuries before the Christian Era, had fallen into the hands of the Muhammadans in the beginning of the 14th century. In or about 1310, the Sultan of Delhi, Alau-d-din Khilji, sent an expedition to the South under the command of his Minister Malik Kafur, at the request of Sundara Pandya who had been driven from his kingdom by his rival half brother Vira Pandya¹. When Malik Kafur arrived at the city of Madura, he found it empty. Vira Pandya had abandoned it on hearing of the approach of the Muslim army². It seems however that Malik Kafur set out from Madura in pursuit, and at last succeeded in capturing Vira; for the *Pandyan Chronicle* and the *Supplementary MSS.* say that Paracrama-Pandyon-dever (Vira Pandya) was seized by the Muhammadans and sent to Delhi³. The Muhammadan historian says that after some months, Malik Kafur accompanied by his army returned to Delhi with all the plunder⁴. But we are sure that part of the military garrison remained in Madura; as the *Pandyan Chronicle* states that three years after the conquest of Malik Kafur, "all things were conducted in the Muhammadan manner; men were in dread of showing themselves to each other; all things were in strife and disorder". Subsequently several Muhammadan governors are mentioned⁵.

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¹ Amir Khusru, *Tarikh-i Alai*, Elliot, III, p. 88.

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² *Ibid.*, p. 91.

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³ *Pandyan Chronicle*, Taylor, O. H. MSS., I, p. 33; *Supplementary MSS.*, *Ibid.*, p. 203.

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⁴ Elliot, *l. c.*

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⁵ *Pandyan Chronicle*, *l. c.*

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We may take it, however, that the native rulers of the South, some years later, defeated the Muslim usurpers⁶. For Ferishta informs us that in the year A. H. 727, corresponding to our 1327, the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad Tughlak, "subdued the whole of the Karnatik both in length and breadth, even to the shore of the sea of Oman", that is the Indian Ocean⁷. But it seems that the Muhammadan general who led this expedition into the south, knowing the difficulties of the Sultan in the North, broke allegiance with the Sovereign and declared himself independent Sultan of Ma'bar. Ibn Batuta only says that "those parts (Ma'bar) were seized by the Sherif, Jalal-ud-din Hasan Shah" ¹. We are told that this happened when he killed the lieutenants and agents of his sovereign, and struck gold and silver coins bearing his own name ². Now the earliest date of the coins of Jalal-ud-din is 1335, while coins of Muhammad Tughlak have been found in Madura bearing the dates of 1330, 1333 and 1334. We may conclude from these dates that the rebellion of the Sherif of Madura took place at the end of 1334 or in 1335. Ibn Batuta, who was the brother-in-law of the first Madura Sultan, states that Jalal-ud-din Hasan Shah reigned for five years. Before his death he appointed one of his Amirs, Alai-ud-din, as his successor, who was, however, soon after accidently killed by an arrow during a sally. He was succeeded by Qutb-ud-din, his brother's son; but he too was killed, in consequence of his bad conduct. Then another Amir of Jalal-ud-din was elected named Ghiath-ud-din, who married a daughter of the same Jalal-ud-din ³.

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⁶ Dr. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, in his *Introduction* to R. Sathyanatha Aiyar's *History of the Nayaks of Madura*, p. 5, mentions a "temporary turning out of the Muhammadan garrison by the Malabar ruler, Ravi Varman Kulasekhara, in 1316."

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⁷ Ferishta, I, p. 413.

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¹ Defremery, *Voyages d' Ibn Batoutah*, IV, p. 189.

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² Elliot, III, p. 618. There is one of these coins in the British Museum.

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³ Defremery, *l. c.*

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2. The Muhammadan conquest of Madura naturally had very bad consequences for the Hindu population. The Pandyan Chronicle says that "the proper tutelary god of Madura went into the Malayalam country. Then the wall of the temple, the fourteen towers on it, and the streets inside were destroyed. The shrine of the god, the small choultry and the great choultry escaped" ⁴.

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⁴ *Pandyan Chronicle*, Taylor, O. H. MSS., I, 35.

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The old Pandya rulers, enfeebled by previous internal disensions, were unable to resist the fanatical power of the Muslims. But there was another Hindu Monarch in the South who ventured to uproot the followers of the Prophet from the soil; and although he did not succeed himself, yet he paved the way for his successors, the Emperors of Vijayanagara, who finally obtained a triumphant victory over the Muhammadans. This monarch was the Hoysala King Vira Ballala III.

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This sovereign, whose army amounted to one hundred and twenty thousand men, had been at constant war against the Muslims. In one of his campaigns he even reached the southern point at Rameswaram. At the entrance of its bridge he set up a pillar of victory. 1.

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Ibn Batuta speaks of one of the battles that took place at Madura between Vira Ballala and Sultan Ghiath-ud-din in 1342. This was the last battle fought by the brave Hoysala Monarch. He says that Vira Ballala made an attack on the town of Cobban², which belonged to the Madura Sultan and was garrisoned with six thousand soldiers. Having defeated them, he invested the town. "This was reported to the Sultan", says Ibn Batuta, "and the town was nearly lost. He then marched out with his forces amounting to seven thousand, every man of whom took off his turban and hung it upon the neck of his horse, signifying that they were bent upon death. They then made a charge upon the infidel king, while his men were taking their midday repose; and routed them thoroughly. The greater majority were killed; not one escaping except the cavalry and some of those who concealed themselves in the woods, escaping. The Sultan (viz. King Vira Ballala) was taken prisoner, his wealth seized, himself afterwards killed, and I saw his body hanging against a wall in the town" 3.

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² Lee. *The Travels of Ibn Batuta*, p. 193, reads Kiar Dr. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, *South India*, p. 238, says that Cobban may be read Koppam, and identifies it with Kannanur-Koppam, a little north to Srirangam.

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3. Such was the glorious end of Vira Ballala III. His rival, the Madura Sultan, died shortly after and was succeeded by his nephew Nasir-ud-din, whom Dr. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar makes responsible for the murder of Vira Ballala 4. We know several coins of some of his successors, during whose time the Madura Sultanate became every day more and more enfeebled. This period witnessed the separation of the southern provinces from the old kingdom of Madura. On the eastern coast particularly the extensive districts of Ramnad and Marava had given up all allegiance both to the Pandyas and to the Muhammadans¹.

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¹ *Ep. Carn.*, X, Mr, 82.

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³ Defremery, o. c., p. 195-8.

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¹ Wilson, *Historical Sketch of the Kingdom of Pandyas*, The Madras Journal of Literature and Sciences, VI, p. 199.

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When the Hoysala Empire became extinct, as a result of this continuous fighting with the Muhammadans, five princes feudatory to that family retired northwards. They wished to oppose any Muslim invasion coming from the Deccan, in order to isolate the Muhammadans of Madura. Thus "through the influence of Vidyaranya, the Kingdom of Anaikhondi (Vijayanagara) was established"². Prince Bukka, by the foundation of Vijayanagara, became "an elevator of the Hoysala Empire"³. This glorious event may be placed about 1340. The Vijayanagara Empire had inherited from the Hoysala Emperors the war traditions against the Madura Muhammadans, and faithfully carried them on.

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² Koyilolugu, *Ep. Ind.*, VI, p. 323. Cf. S. Srikantaiya, *The Hoysala Empire*, Q. J. M. S., VIII, p. 74; S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, *South India*, p. 181; the same author in his *Introduction to Sathyanatha Aiyar's History of the Nayaks*, p. 1; Krishnamacharlu, *The Origin, Growth and Decline of the Vijayanagara Empire*, *Ind. Ant.*, LI, p. 233; H. Krishna Sastri. *The Hoysalas in the Chola Country*, A. S. I., 1909-10, p. 159.

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³ *M. E. R.*, 1918, sec. 47.

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One of the founders, Bukka, sent his son Kumara Kampana Odeyar towards the South in order to drive the Muhammadans from Madura⁴. We know from lithic records that this prince⁵ conquered Tondai-mandalam⁶, took possession of the kingdom of Rajagambhira, (the Pandya kingdom) ¹, and captured a portion of the Ramnad zamindari. This is stated in two inscriptions of his in the old temple of Vishnu at Tirup-pullani ². The Kamparayacharitam, a historical poem written by Ganga Devi, one of the wives of Prince Kampana, informs us that, while proceeding to the South, he reduced the city of Kanchivaram, after defeating the forces of the Tamilian King Chanparaya and killing him in a duel. The poem likewise states that, in the battle with the Muhammadans previous to the capture of Madura, the Sultan ruling in the place was also killed ³. The Pandyan Chronicle also gives a very interesting account of the conquest of Madura and of subsequent events. It says: "Kampanudaver (Kampana Odeyar), a native of Karnata, having conquered the Muhammadans, took possession of the kingdom. He opened the Siva and Vishnu temples, which had been locked up. He opened the god's temple at Madura, and obtained a personal view of the god. Things were found precisely as on the day when the temple was shut; the lamp that was lighted on that day, the sandal wood powder, the garland of flowers, and the ornaments usually placed on the morning of festival days, were now found to be exactly as it is usual to find them in the evening of such festival days ⁴. The general seeing this miracle was glad, struck his eyes, and with great piety made the customary offerings; he gave many villages to the temple and many jewels, and established ordinances for the regular perfomance of worship." ⁵.

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⁴ Sewell, p. 27, and, after him, Hemingway, *Trichinopoly Gazatteer*, p. 48, say that Bukka conquered all the kingdoms of the South: but Nuniz, whose authority Sewell refers to, only says that "he conquered many lands which, at the time of the destruction of that kingdom, remained rebellious". Sewell, p. 300. Were these lands the southern kingdoms? If so, perhaps these words of Nuniz also refer to the conquest of Kampana.

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⁵ Dr. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, in his *Introduction to Sathyanatha Aiyar's History of the Nayaks*, p. 3, says that the local chronicles of Madura assign him the task of 'door-keeper of the last great Hoysala King, Vira Ballala.'

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⁶ *Ep. Carn.*, III, Nj, 117; IV, Yl, 64, and Gu, 32. It seems that at Kanchivaram and Tiruvannamalai there are inscriptions confirming the same. Cf. Francis, *South Arcot Gazetteer*, p. 36.

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¹ 18 of 1899. Cf. Ep. Ind., VI, p. 324, and Ind. Ant., XX, p. 289.

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² Sewell, I, p. 301 and 302.

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³ S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, Sources, p. 23-4; Ramabhyudaya, Ibid., p. 32.

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⁴ Evidently these facts are exaggerated by the chronicler.

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⁵ Taylor, O. H. MSS., I, p. 35-7.

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The Supplementary MSS. inform us that he removed the covering of sandal paste from the images of the Siva and Vishnu temples. Since the time of the Muhammadan invasion the performance of pujas had been discontinued ⁶.

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⁶ Ibid., p. 205.

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The Hindu cult was likewise restored in Srirangam as a result of Kampana's campaign. In the *Prapannamrtam* it is related that when Gopanaraya, Prince Kampana's minister¹ and Governor of Jinji, learnt of the progress of his master in the Pandya country, he went to Tirupati, took with him the idols of the god Ranganatha and of his two queens, which had been sent there from Malabar and Mysore², and proceeded to his own town of Jinji, where for a time he kept the idols in a rock-cut temple at Singavaram. Staying at Jinji he obtained information as to the strength of the Muhammadans, and at a favourable moment set out for Srirangam with his army. The Muslim forces were defeated by Gopana, who replaced the three images in their shrine at Srirangam, after re-consecrating the god and his two consorts³. Saluva Mangu, one of the ancestors of Saluva Narasimha, the founder of the second Dynasty, was also one of the generals who took part in this expedition against the South. He was an intimate friend of Prince Kampana⁴.

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¹ 250 of 1901.

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² An inscription on the Ranganatha temple at Tiruvasi states that Gopanaraya himself recovered the images of Ranganatha and his consorts from the Muhammadans. 55 of 1892.

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³ S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, *Sources*, p. 35-6. Cf. *Ep. Ind.*, VI p. 322-3.

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⁴ *Jaimini Bharatam*, S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, *o. c.*, p. 29; *Saluvabhyudayam*, Ibid., p. 30 and p. 90; *Ramabhyudaya*, Ibid., p. 32.

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As to the date of Kampana's expedition Dr. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar⁵ puts it prior to 1358. Certainly, if the date of the inscription referred to by the learned Professor, and those of the above mentioned inscriptions at Ramnad are correct, we must perforce assign that early date to the military exploits of the son of Bukka I. But since this is not yet proved, we cannot explain how, if he and his successors were Viceroys in Madura, the Muhammadan Sultans could have struck money in the same capital. We have coins of the last Sultan Ala-ud-din Sikandar Shah, dated A. H. 779, which corresponds to A. D. 1377¹. And since we know that Kumara Kampana drove out of Madura the followers of the prophet, we think it reasonable to assign this final date for the completion of his conquest in the South².

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⁵ South India, p. 182.

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¹ Brown, *The Coins of India*, p. 82.

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² Mr. Rangachari, *The Life and Times of Sri-Vedanta-Desika*, J. B. B. R. A. S., XXIV, p. 308, states that the whole conquest of the South was over in 1365. The fact that the date assigned for the restoration of the sacred images to Srirangam was 1371-2, according to a local inscription, does not prove that the conquest was finished at that time, since such a restoration could take place before the final conquest of the whole country.

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After his conquests Prince Kumara fixed his residence at Madura. He ruled all over the South as a semi-independent Viceroy. We know from epigraphical records that "he was pleased to conduct the rule of the earth on a permanent throne" ³. His prime minister Somappa is mentioned in two of his inscriptions at Melpadi ⁴ and at Achcharapakkam ⁵. He was succeeded by his son Jammana Odeyar ⁶, called sometimes Embana Udeiyar ⁷, or Ommana Udaiyar ⁸. It seems that his brother-in-law, Porkasa or Prakasa succeeded him, and he ceased to reign in 1404⁹. During this length of time the Emperors of Vijayanagara always remained the over-lords, as a Srirangam inscription of Harihara II, dated 1379 or 1399, evidently shows ¹⁰.

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³ 18 of 1899.

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⁴ Ibid.

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⁵ 250 of 1901.

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⁶ Hultzsch, *South Indian Inscriptions*, I, 72.

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⁷ Nelson, *Madura Country*, III, p. 82.

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⁸ *Ep. Ind.*, VI, p. 325. Cf. *Pandyan Chronicle*, Taylor, O. H. MSS., I, p. 35-7.

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⁹ Nelson, l. c., Sewell, II, p. 223.

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¹⁰ 29 of 1890.

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4. One of the most transcendental acts of Kumara Kampana in the South was the restoration of the Pandya monarchs. He made inquiries concerning persons of their race and their respective rights. The result of these inquiries was the coronation of Soma Sekhara Pandya as the Pandya sovereign. The Supplementary MSS. mention fourteen of his successors until the conquest of Visvanatha Nayaka¹.

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¹ Taylor, *O. H. MSS.*, I, p. 205.

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These Pandya chiefs were probably content to be dependent on Vijayanagara. They maintained a modified subordinate authority in at least a part of their dominions. But when the dynasty founded by Kampana was tottering, they began to think of independence, and actually, more than once, it seems, tried to expel from their country the officials of the Emperors of Vijayanagara. There is good evidence of a successful Pandya inroad as far as Kanchivaram in 1469². This explains the subsequent military expeditions sent by the sovereigns of Vijayanagara from time to time.

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² Cf. Hemingway, *Trichinopoly Gazetteer*, p. 49.

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The Alampundi Plate of Virupaksha informs us that this Prince, son of Harihara II, conquered the kingdoms of Tundira, Chola and Pandya in the beginning of his father's reign and brought the booty to him³. And this same Prince in his poem *Narayanivilasam* calls himself the governor of the Karnata, Tundira, Chola and Pandya Mandalas, and even claims to have set up a pillar of victory in the island of Ceylon⁴.

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³ *Ep. Ind.*, p. 53, v. 6.

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⁴ S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, *Sources*, p. 53.

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5. Two officers of the Empire were again governing in Madura during the reign of Devaraya II. Their names were Lakkana and Madana. The *Pandyan Chronicle* gives forty-seven years as the period of their governorship. In this case, the time of their rule lasted more than the reign of the aforesaid Emperor. We may take it, however, to be a mistake on the part of the *Chronicle*; since it is quite evident that the dates and especially the figures given are inaccurate. Probably Madana died before Lakkana or was deprived of his post earlier, because the *Chronicle* says that Lakkana, "having brought the children of a Pandya King by his (the King's) concubine, one Abirami, a dancing girl of the Kali temple, he crowned them, paid them homage, and delivered over the kingdom to them, they being children of the Pandya; and they reigned”. Madana is not mentioned at all on the occasion of this ceremony, viz. the installation of the Pandya heirs on the ancestral throne by a representative of Vijayanagara. This perhaps means that their task in the South was either to subdue the country which had rebelled against the Pandyas, or to put an end to a family fight springing from a lack of legitimate offspring; for the Pandyas finally enthroned by Lakkana were the sons of a concubine. This fact would perhaps indicate that, from this time, the legitimate descent of the Pandya family was at an end. Some years later Achyuta Raya learnt from Nagama Nayaka that Chandra Sekhara Pandya, the King of Madura, who had been deposed by the Chola King, and whom he had to re-instate, also was an illegitimate heir of the Pandya kingdom¹. The Pandyas raised by Lakkana to the throne were, according to the *Chronicle*, Suntara-tora-mavili-vanathi-rayer, Kaliyar-somanar, Anjatha-perumal and Muttara-satiru-mali-mavili-vanathi-rayer².

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¹ Tanjavuri Andhra Rajula Charitra, S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, *Sources*, p. 320.

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² Taylor, *O. H. MSS.*, I, p. 37.

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6. The expedition led about a century later by Narasa Nayaka, the founder of the third dynasty, was supposed to be against a Pandya sovereign named Manabusha. This is based on the Krishnapuram plates of Sadasiva. Manabusha was probably allied with a chief of Nadu-nadu, Sundarattoludaiyan Mavalivanadarayan, who was in possession of the city of Madura³. Narasa Nayaka was then a great general of the army of Vijayanagara. The *Varahapuranam* extols him as the generalissimo of all the forces of the Empire, and in great favour with king Saluva Narasimha⁴. But his expedition to the South was somewhat earlier, because the Pandya King Manabusha, who must be identified with Arikesari Parakrama Pandya bearing the surname of Manakavacha ¹, ruled till about 1466. This date brings us up to the reign of either Mallikarjuna or Virupaksha, during which this general's glorious achievements in the South must be placed.

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³ Gopinatha Rao, *Inscriptions of Later Pandyas*, T. A. S., I, p. 53.

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⁴ S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, o. c., p. 87-8.

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¹ Cf. Gopinatha Rao, o. c., p. 52, and *Ind. Ant.*, IX, p. 330. Dr. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, in his *Introduction* to Sathyanatha Aiyar's *History of the Nayaks*, p. 7, says that the expedition took place in the period of the usurpation of Saluva Narasimha.

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In the Krishnapuram plates of Sadasiva, it is stated that the Pandya king and his confederates of the South were forced " to bear his commands (vis. Narasa Nayaka's) on their heads as flowers on their crowns " ². This clearly indicates a victory on the part of the Vijayanagara general. But the *Achyutarayabhyudayam* gives a full account of the campaign. According to it, Narasa Nayaka captured the fort of Manava (Manuva?) Durga from its Muhammadan ruler and gave it back to him. Laying a bridge across the Kaveri, he captured Srirangam and after defeating and killing the Marava ruler, finally seized the city of Madura. Then in another battle he defeated a chief called Konetiraja, who opposed him with his elephant forces, ³.

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² *Ep. Ind.*, IX, p. 340, vv. 9-11.

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³ S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, *Sources*, p. 108.

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It seems certain that there were many rebellious princes in the South at or about this time. The *Varadambika-Parinayam* gives a more minute account of the campaigns of Narasa, and more than once mentions kings defeated by him. Marching across the Tondai-mandalam Narasa approached the Chola kingdom, whose king had been opposing his troops and harassing the country, then crossed to the South of the Kaveri and awaited the arrival of the enemy who prepared to fight. But in the fierce battle that ensued Narasa imprisoned the Chola chief and took possession of his capital, probably Tanjore. Then the Vijayanagara general entered the town of Madura and was presented by its sovereign with valuable articles. He proceeded to Rameswaram across the sea. This means probably that the Pandya King declared himself tributary to Vijayanagara, without opposing the army of Narasa. But before reaching Rameswaram he had to defeat and kill the Marava ruler, according to the other poem referred to above. Thence he proceeded against Seringapatam. It was easily reduced, after constructing a bridge across the Kaveri which was then in flood. The Seringapatam ruler surrrendered with all his relatives. Narasa forgave him and restored his kingdom to him ¹.

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¹ S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, *Sources*, p. 170-1. Cf. *Pandyan Chronicle*, Taylor, *O. H. MSS.*, I, p. 37.

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These vicissitudes of the Vijayanagara power and the power of the Pandyas over the kingdom of Madura are also mentioned in the *Pandyan Chronicle*, which states that before Krishna Deva Raya "the kings who ruled over the Mathurai-mandalam were for a part of this period of the Pandya race. In some portion of it, some of the afore-mentioned kings (of Vijayanagara) expelled the Pandyas and ruled themselves. During all this" adds the same chronicle, "twice they (the Pandyas) took refuge in other villages" ².

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² *Pandyan Chronicle*, Taylor, *O. H. MSS.*, I, p. 32.

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7. During the reign of Krishna Deva Raya we find a great expedition of this King, probably into the Tamil country. We say 'probably' because the town mentioned by Nuniz while narrating this campaign has not been hitherto identified. He narrates that, after having finished the war with the king of Orissa, Krishna Raya "made ready a large army and prepared to attack Catuir, which is the land of a lord who had been in revolt for fifty years; this land is on the Charamandel (Coromandel) side. And he marched against it, and laid siege to one of the principal cities where the lord of the land was; and it is called....(Unfortunately there is here a blank in the original) and is surrounded with water".

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"Now at the time when Crisnarao attacked this city," continues Nuniz, "it was winter, for which cause the river that surrounded it was so swollen, and carried down so much water, that the king could do no harm to the place. And King Crisnarao, seeing this, and seeing that time was passing away without his attaining his desire, commanded his men to cut many new channels in order to be able to attack that principal (river) which had opposed itself to the fulfilment of his wishes. And this was done in a short time, since he had many soldiers; and after the (new) water-courses were finished and brought to where the water should go, he opened mouths in the river, the water of which very soon flowed out so that the bottom could be seen; and it was left so shallow that it enabled him to reach the walls of the city; and the river was thus diverted into fifty different beds. Inside the city were one hundred thousand foot-soldiers and three thousand cavalry, who defended themselves and fought very bravely; but this availed little to prevent Crisnarao from entering in a few days and slaughtering all of them. He found large treasures in this city, including a million and six hundred thousands pardaos in ready money, besides jewels and horses, which were numerous, and elephants. And after he had finished the capture of this land Crisnarao divided it amongst many of his captains, giving to each one what was necessary for him: and the chief who lived in the city and who was lord of the land was taken captive and carried to Bisnaga, where he died in the King's prison" 1.

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The account of Nuniz is supplemented by a more recent but not less trustworthy work. In the beginning of the 19th century, Colonel William Macleod, acting Commissioner in Arcot, requested a learned man of Jinji, named Narayen, to write a history of the Karnataka country. Narayen making use of the old traditions as well as of the available documents, produced the Karnataka Rajakal Savistara Charitram. Section eight of this work is all devoted to the history of Jinji. There he narrates that during the reign of Krishna Deva Raya, the Jinji country was divided among several petty chiefs who did not acknowledge the authority of the emperors of Vijayanagara. In order to reduce them, Krishna Raya sent a considerable army into the Karnatik, which is said to have consisted of 100,000 men, under the command of four chiefs named Vaiyappa Nayaker, Tubaki Krishnappa Nayaker, Vijaya Raghava Nayaker and Venkatappa Nayaker. The army encamped near Vellore. No battle or attack on the fort is there mentioned but the submission of all the chiefs of the surroundings seems to point to a victory of the imperial army. Narayen says that the chief of Chittoor and other petty rulers of the Tondamandalam country had an interview with Vaiyappa Nayaker, who seems to have been the generalissimo. One of the chiefs mentioned is Bomma Reddi of Calastri. On this occasion Vaiyappa fixed their rate of tribute. From Vellore the imperial army proceeded to Jinji. Hear another meeting was held with the chiefs of the Chola mandalam, and their tribute was also settled. In the meantime, while in Jinji, he despatched the subordinate generals towards the South to levy tribute on the Pandya, Chola and Chera Kingdoms. They were respectfully received by the rulers of these kingdoms, and the tribute was paid. Krishna Deva Raya derived three crores of rupees from the eastern Karnataka. For the administration of these newly acquired dominions, he divided the whole country into three parts under three Viceroys. The first extended from Nellore to the river Colerun; this was placed under Tubaki Krishnappa Nayaker, who fixed his capital at Jinji. The second was the fertile country washed by the Kaveri river, and was governed by Vijaya Raghava, who resided at Tanjore. Finally the third was the whole country South of the said Kaveri river, and this was assigned to Venkatappa Nayaker, who eventually settled at Madura ¹.

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¹ Sewell, p. 320-2.

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¹ Taylor, Catalogue Raisonnee, III, p. 39. Both expeditions, the one of Nuniz and this of Narayen seem to refer to the same event, for the aim of both was the same, viz. the subjection of the eastern Karnatik. After both expeditions the country was divided among the generals of Krishna Raya. Moreover Catuir may be a corruption for Chittoor. Finally the first city that fell into the hands of the imperialists seems to have been, according to Narayen, Vellore. Now Sewell, p. 320, note, identifies the unnamed city captured by Krishna Deva Raya in Nuniz's chronicle with this city of Vellore: "The description of the town answers to Vellore in North Arcot, the fine old fort at which place is surrounded with a deep moat. According to tradition, this place was captured by Krishna Deva Raya from a Reddi chief". An apparent objection to the identification of these two campaigns may be the fact that the expedition mentioned by Nuniz was led by the same sovereign, who is not mentioned in Narayen's account. But if we consider that the capture of Vellore seems to have been omitted by the latter, we may also conclude that the fact of Krishna Deva Raya not being mentioned cannot afford a valid argument against our theory.

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Moreover Paes says that Krishna Raya "has five kings, his subjects and vassals" ¹, and Nuniz gives a fuller information; "The kings who are subject are these," says he, "besides this king of Bengapor, namely the king of Gasopa (Gersoppa) and the king of Bacanor (Barkur) and the king of Calecu (Calicut) and he of Batecala (Bhatkal) and these, when they come to the court of Bisnaga, are not held in higher esteem than any other captains, either by the king or by the other nobles" ².

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¹ Sewell, p. 281.

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² Ibid., p. 374. Naturally Nuniz mentions only the king of Kanara who was in the vicinity of the Portuguese forts.

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No more information concerning the south is given during the time of Krishna Deva Raya; but from a fact narrated in the beginning of the reign of Achyuta, we note that a rebellion took place in the Tamil country at the end of the reign of Krishna. This forced Achyuta to prepare a new expedition into the south on the first day after his coronation.

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8. One of the subordinate governors of Krishna in the South, named Sellapa, had revolted against him. He was defeated by an imperial army, fled from his province, and took refuge in the kingdom of Travancore. What province was the one ruled by Sellapa is not quite clear; but it seems probable that Sellapa was the same ruler of the Chola kingdom whom the *Achyutarayabhyudayam* speaks of a little later on ³. Travancore was supposed to be at this time tributary to Vijayanagara, ⁴. Its king not only received the fugitive under his protection, but made an alliance with him. Both invaded the Pandya kingdom, waged war against its ruler and drove him from his ancestral dominions ⁵.

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³ Canto VI, S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, *Sources*, p. 159.

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⁴ Faria y Sousa, I, p. 81, while relating the history of the year 1506 says: "Aqui empieca el de Travancore, a que llamamos Grande, por ser mayor de los Malabares; y es sujeto al de Narsinga".

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⁵ *Achyutarayabhyudayam*, canto IV, S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar *Sources*, p. 153-9.

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There had been occasional fights between Travancore and the Pandyas from the beginning of the fifteenth century. In the first half, Chera Udaya Marthanda Varma had captured all the south-eastern possessions of Travancore on the Tinnevelly side which, he said, had been taken from his predecessors by the Pandya king. This Chera Udaya often resided at Valliyur and Chera Maha Devi, in the newly conquered territories 1. The Balabhagavatam records the campaign of another Raja of Travancore against the Pandya kingdom in which he was aided by Chinna Timma, a Prince of the Aravidu family who received the title of Tiruvadi Rajyasthapanacharya 2. The monarch of Travancore who received in his territory the insurgent Sellapa and afterwards invaded the Pandyan dominions, was Bhutala Sri Vira Udaya Marthanda Varma (1494-1535) of the Tirupattur branch. He had previously exacted tribute from Ceylon, and used to keep a corps of three hundred female archers 3. With the aid of Sellapa and taking advantage of the decease of the Emperor, which Nuniz speaks of, 4 Marthanda Varma over ran a large part of the Pandya country consisting practically of the whole present district of Tinnevelly 5. The Tumbichchi Nayaka Kumaralinga, (1502-1535), whose rebellion is recorded in these years, probably joined the invaders against the neighbouring Pandya 6. This unfortunate ruler was Srivallabhadeva, the son of Ahavarama 7. He was unable to challenge the allies and retreated without giving battle to the enemy. No encounter is mentioned anywhere between these parties. But he appealed at the same time to the Vijayanagara Emperor for help.

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¹ Shungoonny Menon, *A History of Travancore*, p. 94 S. Parameswara Aiyar, *Travancore and Vijayanagar*, C. C. M., XXII, p. 181.

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² S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, *Sources*, p. 205.

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³ Nagam Aiya, *Travancore Manual*, I, p. 297.

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⁴ Sewell, p. 336.

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⁵ Nagam Aiya, o. c., p. 295.

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⁶ Cf. Rangachari, *The History of the Naik Kingdom*, *Ind. Ant.* XLIII, p. 189.

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⁷ Cf. Gopinatha Rao, *Vellangudi Plates*, *Ep. Ind.*, XVI, p. 303, and *Inscriptions of Later Pandyas*, T. A. S., I, p. 55-6. Rangachari, o. c. p. 190, thinks that the Pandya ruling at this time was Srivallabha's father Ahavarama.

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When this news reached the capital, Krishna Deva Raya was probably near the last days of his life, and consequently nothing was said to him. But as soon as Achyuta Raya arrived from Chandragiri and was crowned at Vijayanagara, his minister informed him of the affairs of the Empire, and reported to him the rebellion of Sellapa and the war of the Travancore sovereign against the Pandya. Achyuta Raya consequently resolved upon making war against Sellapa and king Marthanda Varma, and ordered his brother-in-law, the Mahamandalesvara Salakaraja Chinna Tirumalayyadeva-Maharaja, ¹ whom he appointed generalissimo, to be ready with his army to march southwards after some days.

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¹ 51 of 1912.

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9. The King in person commanded the expedition. Achyuta started from Vijayanagara after a while and went straight to Chandragiri in a few days. "There he stationed his troops," says the *Achyutarayabhyudayam*, which gives a full account of this campaign, "and went to Tirupati to worship the god at the place. He presented to the god a pair of earrings, a padaka ² and a jewelled crown, and stayed there for a few days. He then went to Kalahasti, worshipped the god at the place and gave him large grants. From there Achyuta proceeded with his army to Kanchi. There the King weighed himself against pearls, which were distributed in charity. While at Kanchi, several forest-kings (or chiefs) waited upon him with tribute and presents. Accompanied by them, he proceeded farther south and went to Arunasaila (Tiruvannamalai). After worshipping the god of the place, he entered the Chola country and, after a few days march, reached Srirangam." Achyuta Raya did not proceed further; either lured to stay there by the pious and lonely character of the place, or persuaded by the generalissimo that in subduing and capturing such a miserable rebel as Sellapa his presence was unnecessary. So the poem mentioned above tells us that the Emperor remained at Srirangam and his army went from there southwards under the command of Salakaraja Chinna Tirumalayyadeva.

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² 'A jewelled medallion hung on the necklace and worn on the breast'. S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, *Sources*, p. 159.

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After passing the city of Madura, the imperial army encamped on the banks of the Tamraparni. Thence Salaka Chinna despatched one of his subordinate officers to march against the confederates. The Travancore King with his army advanced against him near the mountains. There a great battle was fought. Having been defeated in this battle Marthanda Varma, with the remnant of his troops, approached the general, acknowledged his own defeat, and handed over to him the fugitive Sellapa. He also made him presents of elephants and horses. The general accepted these presents on behalf of his Sovereign and, accompanied by the King of Travancore, proceeded to Trivandrum, to worship the god of the place. Hence in a few days he returned to Srirangam, where the Emperor had stayed and was spending his time in the company of poets and scholars. The general presented to him the King of Travancore and the other prisoners, and submitted to him a report of the expedition. Achyuta ordered Marthanda Varma, who had invaded the Pandya territories, to be punished, and the Pandya King to rule over his ancestral territories. Thence Achyuta returned to Vijayanagara, marching along the Kaveri and passing through Seringapatam¹.

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¹ Achyutarayabhyudayam, cantos V-X, S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, o.c., p. 159-60.

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10. The effects of this campaign greatly influenced the future of the South of India in its relations with Vijayanagara. The King of Travancore professed himself a tributary of the Emperor of Vijayanagara. We suppose this to be the punishment inflicted by Achyuta. We have this information from an inscription of Bhutala Vira Rama Varma at Suchindram in Travancore². As to the Pandya King, he remained very grateful to Achyuta for restoring his old territory to him. An inscription at Kanchivaram states that, after this campaign the Emperor married a daughter of the Pandya King³.

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² 64 of 1896.

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³ 49 and 50 of 1900 ; M. E. R., 1900, p. 27.

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This shows the latter’s gratitutde and his desire to cement the friendship between the Emperor and himself. With the aid of Vijayanagara, he “brought back the Pandya kingdom to its pristine glory”. On account of that, in the Pudukkottai Plates of Srivalabha and Varatungarama Pandya, he is given the title of “Pandya-rajyasthapanacharya” that is ‘establisher of the kingdom of Pandya’ ¹.

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¹ *T. A. S.*, I, p. 54.

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But he is not the only person who bears this title. Achyuta Raya himself is honoured with it in the *Achyutarayabhyudayam* ². The Krishnapuram plates of Sadasiva also give the same title to the Nayaks of Madura ³; most probably some of their ancestors took part in this campaign of Achyuta. But as a matter of fact, we know from other sources that Nagama Nayaka, the father of the first Nayak of Madura, was one of the generals in this campaign. It seems that he lived in Kanchivaram, while holding the military command over the Tondai-mandalam. He would therefore have been taken by Achyuta when the latter went to Travancore. For Nagama was naturally able to give first class advice, on account of his familiarity with the Tamil people and their language ⁴. Nagama’s son Visvanatha was also probably in the imperial army ⁵. Another in the army was probably the powerful magnate called Nagappa ⁶.

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² S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar, *Sources*, p. 165.

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³ *Ep. Ind.*, IX, p. 341, vv. 46-57.

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⁴ Cf. *Ep. Ind.*, XVI, p. 303, and *T. A. S.*, I, p. 56.

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⁵ Padmaneri grant of Venkata II, *Ep. Ind.*, XVI, p. 297, vv. 58-59; Vellangudi plates of Venkata II, Ibid., p. 320; *M. E. R.*, 113 of 1988; 1905-6, App. A, copper-plate 14; 1909, p. 119. The *Tiruppani-malai* says also that Visvanatha defeated Tiruvadi in battle and compelled him to pay tribute. Cf. *Ep. Ind.*, XVI, p. 305. Gopinatha Rao, *Vellangudi Plates*, o. c., p. 303, thinks that Visvanatha was not in this campaign, but in some other later on, perhaps in that of Vitthala.

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⁶ *M. E. R.*, 1900, p. 119.

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The *Pandyan Chronicle* records that the Viceroy of Madura at the time of the expedition of Achyuta was Aiyakarai Vaiyappa 1. Very little is known of the Madura Viceroys previous to Nagama Nayaka and Visvanatha. The *Pandyan Chronicle* gives a list of six of them from the time of Narasa Nayaka up to 1535 2, reproduced by Nelson and Sewell 3; the above mentioned Aiyakarai Vaiyappa appears ruling in the last period before Visvanatha's first rule, from 1530 to 1535, during which the expedition of Achyuta to Travancore took place. All seem to be Telugus excepting one, Narasa Pillai, a Tamilian, who ruled from 1515 to 1519. Pandit Subramania Sarma gives another name *viz.* Tirumal Nayaka as ruling in Madura before the re-establishment of the Pandyas by Visvanatha Nayaka 4.

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II. About the same time, when Achyuta and his generals were waging war with the sovereign of Travancore in favour of the Pandya king, several events took place in the Fishery Coast that occasioned many disagreeable encounters between the Nayaks of Madura and the inhabitants of that coast. Many influential Muhammadans had retreated there after their expulsion from Madura. They had practically become the ultimate owners of the pearl fisheries. Their tyranny over the poor Paravas, who for a long time had been the sole masters, was without limit. They would not allow the Paravas to fish without their permission, and they claimed the monopoly in dealing in pearls. The oppression of the Muhammadans had excited even the quiet poor people of the coast, when in 1532 a fight between a Parava and a Muslim occurred, from which the former emerged badly wounded and with one of his ears torn.

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That was an unbearable offence to the whole Parava caste; who, after some days of secret plotting, suddenly attacked the Muhammadan quarters of Tuticorin and killed a great number of Muslims. The rest had to commit themselves to their little boats and fly from the city for their lives.

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¹ *Pandyan Chronicle*, Taylor, *O. H. MSS.*, I. p. 137
2. Ibid.

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³ Sewell, p. 385, note.

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⁴ Subramania Sarma, *A Short History of the Pandya Kingdom*, p. 7.

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The revenge of the Muhammadans was terrible. They collected an army, made an alliance with all the petty rulers of the neighbourhood dependent on the Viceroy of Madura, and together advanced against Tuticorin by land and sea. The Nayaks of Bembar (Pedambur?) and Vaipar (Viranar?), far from joining this confederacy with the Muhammadans, even defended the Paravas' territories. The poor Paravas of Tuticorin and its vicinity were pitilessly massacred on this occasion. The persecution lasted for some considerable time.

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It happened that a Christian Malabarian named Joao da Cruz, who had been in Portugal as an ambassador of the Zamorin of Calicut, found himself on the Fishery Coast at this time. He advised the Paravas that since they could not expect help from the Viceroy of Madura, as the past events showed, they must go to the Portuguese Captain of Cochin who would willingly help them. Accordingly, fifteen of the most influential Paravas, whom Fr. de Sousa calls *Patengatis*, accompanied by da Cruz proceeded to Cochin. The Captain of that place was then Dr. Pero Vaz de Amaral, who received them in a very fatherly way and promised to take up arms against the Muhammadans, and to take the Paravas under the protection of the Portuguese nation on condition of their all becoming Christians. To this they gladly consented, and being instructed in the Christian faith by Fr. Miguel Vaz, Vicar General of India, who was then at Cochin, they were baptized some days after¹.

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¹ Sousa, *Oriente Conquistado*, I, p. 129-30; Du Jarric, *Thesaurus*, I, p. 447-50; Juvencio, *Epitome Historiae Societatis Jesu*, I, p. 489; Maffei, *Historiarum Indicarum*, p. 538; Nieuhoff, *Voyages and Travels*, p. 225 and 246. Cf. Besse, *La Mission du Madure*, p. 370; D'Sa, *History of the Catholic Church in India*, II, p. 31. I have read in a recently published book the following: "The Paravas, the fisher-folk along the coast, were being rapidly converted to Christianity, and such conversions were interpreted as involving a change of allegiance of the inhabitants from their Indian rulers to the King of Portugal". No reference is there given to any historical source. How far it is from the truth, our narrative, based on contemporary sources shows. Nieuhoff, o. c., p. 225 says: "To shew their gratitude, they (the Paravas) received baptism immediately." He adds that 20,000 Paravas were then baptized. The right of the Portuguese

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In the meanwhile a fleet came from Goa, commanded by the Governor-General, Dom Nuno da Cunha, who proceeded personally to chastise the Muhammadans. About this St. Francis Xavier wrote from Tuticorin to St. Ignatius ten years later; "When the Governor received this information, he went personally with his fleet to chase the Moors (the Muhammadans), and overtaking them, made a great slaughter. He dispersed all, and captured all their boats without exception, and even those which they had taken from the Christians of this country¹. He gave back all these boats to the Christians. To those who had none nor means to acquire them, he handed over the boats captured from the Moors. It was certainly a great victory, and of happy remembrance. There are no Moors at all in that country at present"².

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¹ When the boats were taken there were no Christians; St. Francis Xavier means those who became Christians after the event.

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² From St. Francis Xavier to St. Ignatius, at Rome, Tutucurin, October 28, 1542, in *M. H. S. J., Mon. Xav.*, I, p. 275.

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John Nieuhoff while relating in his *Travels* the events of possession over the Fishery Coast proceeded from the fact that they protected from the oppression of the Muhammadans the poor folk, who were abandoned to their tyrants' hands by their rightful lord, the Nayak of Madura. Even if we suppose that the Nayak could not have defended the Paravas because he was at war with the Travancore king or with any other rebel, the right of lordship over the Paravas would still remain with the Portuguese. The Paravas had been abandoned by the Nayak of Madura and had willingly selected the Portuguese as their protectors and owners of their country. How the latter accomplished their task may be deduced from the following extract of a letter of a French Missionary of the South, Fr. P. Martin, who on the 1st of July, 1700, wrote from Caima Naiken Patty: "The freedom of trading with their neighbours, that the Paravas enjoyed under the Portuguese, was the cause of their being rich and powerful; but since they had been deprived of their protection, they have been again oppressed and reduced to an extreme poverty". Bertrand, *La Mission de Madure*, IV, p. 34. In the same letter Fr. Martin relates that the Portuguese protection was given on condition that they should become Christians.

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the year 1533, says: "After all the Nayak of Madura, having found means to get possession of this country, left the Portuguese in full possession of their jurisdiction over the Paravas and of the free exercise of their religion" 7. If this is true, the Nayaks of Madura did not fulfil such an agreement, as we shall see in the following chapter.

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12. We have already mentioned Visvanatha Nayaka and his father Nagama Nayaka, and now propose to deal with them in the rest of this chapter and in the following one.

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Nagama Nayaka, a descendant of the Kasyapa gotra 2, was born at Kanchivaram 3. He had been Tosekhana Adhikari, or officer of the treasury 4, and is said to have founded a village on the hill at Tirukkachchur for the merit of the king 5. He was much in favour with the founder of the Saluva dynasty, and was called, in two different inscriptions, "the foremost of the servants of the Saluva King Narasimha Raya" 6. His birudas may be seen in the Krishnapuram plates of Sadasiva 7. There is an inscription about him of the time of Saluva Narasimha in one of the gopurams of the temple at Virinjipuram. Another inscription at Chidambaram seems to mention him also 8.

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The Kuniyur plates of Venkata III say that Visvanatha was the fruit of the severe austerities and many virtues of his father, granted by the god Visvesvara 9. We do not know whether among these austerities we must account the traditional pilgrimage of Nagama to Benares 10. The Mrtyunjaya MSS., say that Visvanatha used to accompany the King in his hunting excursions when he was sixteen years of age, and relate, along with the *Tanjavuri Andhra Rajula Charitra* and the *History of the Karnataka Governors*, that once he destroyed a wild bison that was advancing upon Krishna Raya, with a single stroke of his sword¹. When already of age he was deputed by that Emperor to march against several princes of the north, who disputed their subjection as tributaries to the Emperor. The *Mrtyunjaya MSS.* say that these kings were the sovereigns of Anga, Vanga, Kalinga, Casmira and Nepala, ², which is nothing but an empty boast. They were probably the Kings of Orissa and some petty Rajas of the surroundings. Visvanatha "having successfully warred against them", says the *History of the Karnataka Governors*, "took them prisoners, appointed proper persons for the management of the conquered countries, and returned triumphantly to the Rayer, with the captives, elephants, camels, horses and all the treasure belonging to them. The Rayer was so well pleased with the bravery and success of Visvanatha, that he forthwith honoured him with distinguished tokens of approbation and favour, in bestowing on him all the banners or trophies which belonged to the refractory tributaries" ³.

Linked texts (7)

Varāhapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
تحفة النظار في غرائب الأمصار وعجائب الأسفار — Ibn Baṭṭūṭa, Arabic
Chidambaram — inscription (SII 4.257) — Sanskrit
Kanchipuram
Ranganatha Temple
Prapannāmṛta — Anantācārya, Sanskrit
Acyutarāyābhyudaya — Rājanātha Diṇḍima 1530, Sanskrit