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Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champa; Vol. II: Suvarnadvipa) v2.c20.s5: Chapter IV. § 1. Javanese Literature

Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champā; Vol. II: Suvarṇadvīpa) v2.c20.s5

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Contents

Chapter IV. § 1. Javanese Literature

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From an early date Indian literature was carried to Java, though the nature and extent of this importation are not exactly known.¹ The study of this literature led to the growth of an Indo-Javanese literature, which forms one of the most characteristic features of Indian colonisation in that island. Nowhere else, outside India, has Indian literature been studied with so much advantage and with such important consequences. The range and intrinsic value of this Indo-Javanese literature are, indeed, very great. As in other departments of civilisation, so here, too, a fine superstructure was built in Java upon foundations so well and truly laid by the Indians. It will be beyond my scope to enter into a detailed discussion of the contents and merits of this literature, and I shall therefore confine myself only to a general outline of the subject.

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¹ For an account of the Sanskrit texts now found in the island of Bali cf.
(i) Mededeelingen van de Kirtya Liefrinck van der Tuuk, aflef. I, Singharadja, 1929.
(ii) S. Lévi—Sanskrit Texts from Bali (Baroda, 1933).

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As we have seen above, the history of the Indian colony in Java may be divided into three broad chronological periods, according as the chief seat of political authority was in the west, centre, and the east of the island. For the first of these periods, we have no trace of any literature proper, although the inscriptions of Pūrṇavarman clearly testify to the knowledge of Sanskrit language and literature. This knowledge becomes more intensive and extensive during the second period. This is proved not only by inscriptions, but also by the extensive monuments of the period, both Brāhmancial and Buddhist, as the sculptures carved therein are mostly, if not exclusively, illustrations of Indian books. This period also probably saw the beginnings of Indo-Javanese literature; I say probably, because only three books may be tentatively ascribed to this period, and the date of each of them is a subject-matter of great controversy. It is only when we come to the third period that we find the Indo-Javanese literature taking a definite shape. For nearly five hundred years (1000-1500 A.D.) this literature had an unbroken and flourishing career in the east under the patronage of the kings of Kaḍiri or Daha, Singhasāri and Majapahit.

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The Muslim conquest of Majapahit brought to an end what is usually called the Old-Javanese literature. The subsequent development of Javanese literature took place in different localities. The Javanese who took refuge in Bali continued the literary efforts, and their literary products are referred to as Middle-Javanese. On the other hand, there was a revival of literary culture in Central Java, in the new Muslim kingdom of Matarām, and the result was the growth of what is called the New-Javanese literature.

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While the Middle-Javanese literature may be regarded as a normal development from the Old-Javanese, the same cannot be said of the New-Javanese; for although the literary traditions of the Old-Javanese still form its main basis, it shows a wide divergence from the latter in language, form, and substance. In other words, the process of Javanisation is more noticeable in New-Javanese than in the Middle-Javanese.

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Two different views have been entertained regarding the origin of the New-Javanese literature. According to the older view¹ it is the result of a conscious but futile effort to imitate the Old-Javanese literature of the east, and its futility and the consequent artificial and degraded character are due to the influence of Islam. For the Islamic conquest of Java not only ushered in a period of political unrest, chaos, and confusion which proved fatal to all fine arts including literature, but also thrust in a wedge between the old and the new, obliterating, or at least considerably blurring the past and giving a new orientation to the present and the future.

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¹ Cf., e.g., G. A. J. Hazeu—Oud en Nieuw uit de Javaansche Letter-Kunde (1921), pp. 6-7.

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According to the other and more recent view,¹ the rise of the New-Javanese literature in the new kingdom of Matarām was a revival of the literary traditions of Central Java which lay dormant for a period of nearly six or seven hundred years. The long gap or break in the continuity of the traditions is regarded as sufficient to explain the wide divergences from the Old-Javanese. The greater progress of Javanisation is further explained by the fact that the absence of political centres in Central Java loosened the hold of Indian civilisation and inevitably led to a corresponding increase in the indigenous influence.

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¹ Berg-Hoofdlijnen, pp. 16-17.

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The artificial classic language of the New-Javanese literature is called Kavi². Formerly this word was used to denote the old language of Java in general, but now the term Old-Javanese is used to indicate the language which was current up to the fall of Majapahit, and the Middle-Javanese to indicate that used by the Javanese in Bali. We thus get three broad divisions of Indo-Javanese literature, viz.—

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² Ibid., p. 20, f.n. 1.

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1. Old-Javanese.
2. Middle-Javanese.
3. New-Javanese.

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In the following pages we shall make an attempt to give a short account of the first two only, as the third really falls beyond the Hindu period in Java.³

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³ Since this chapter was written, Mr. H.B. Sarkar has published his book "Indian Influences on the Literature of Java and Bali" which gives a more detailed account of many of the books which are only briefly touched upon here.

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The Old-Javanese literature is marked by several important characteristics. Its poetry follows rules of Sanskrit metre, its subject-matter is derived mainly from Indian literature, and it has a strong predilection for using Sanskrit words and quoting Sanskrit verses. But even in subject-matter the deviation from the Sanskrit original is often considerable. We know that in India itself there were many local versions of Indian epic tales, and so it is difficult to say how far the difference in the Old-Javanese literature may be ascribed to this fact. Another factor may be looked for in the indigenous influence, but our complete lack of knowledge of the pre-Hindu literature in Java or other neighbouring islands¹ prevents us from estimating it at its proper worth.

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¹ Berg-Hoofdlijnen, pp. 18-20.

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As already said above, the beginnings of this literature may be traced to the period when Central Java was the political centre of the island. The earliest book that we may definitely refer to this period is an Old-Javanese version of a Sanskrit work, Amaramālā,² which like Sanskrit Amarakośa, and other Indian lexicons, contains synonyms of different gods, goddesses, and other animate and inanimate objects. This work was written under the patronage of king Jitendra of the Śailendra dynasty. Unfortunately this king is not known from other sources, and so we cannot trace his relationship to other kings of this well-known dynasty of Central Java.

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² Krom-Geschiedenis (Second Edition), pp. 150-151.

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Another work which may perhaps be ascribed to the same period is Sang hyang Kamahāyantikan, a Mahāyāna text, to which detailed reference will be made in connection with Mahāyāna Buddhism in the next chapter.

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According to Poerbatjaraka the composition of the Old-Javanese Rāmāyaṇa has also to be referred to the same period.³ This is one of the best and most famous works of Indo-Javanese literature. Its subject-matter agrees quite well with that of Sanskrit Rāmāyaṇa, but it concludes with the reunion of Rāma and Sītā after the fire ordeal of the latter, and does not contain the story of her banishment and death. Some portions of this work, particularly in the last two *Sargas* or Cantos, have no corresponding passages in Vālmīki's Rāmāyaṇa, and are probably local additions. These portions may, however, be interpolations of a later date. The style is rich but simple, though occasionally the author makes an attempt to show off his learning.

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³ Gedenkschrift Kon. Inst. 1926, p. 265. T.B.G. Vol. 72 (1932), pp. 151 ff. The view is, however, opposed by Stutterheim (B.K.I., Vol. 85, pp. 483-7).

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The Old-Javanese Rāmāyaṇa is not a translation of the Sanskrit epic, but an independent work. Kern held the view that its author did not know Sanskrit and must have derived his materials from other sources.¹ It may be noted here that the story of Rāmāyaṇa had a wide currency, and we have both Malayan and Balinese versions of it, *viz.*, Seri Rāma and Rāma Kidung.

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¹ Poerbatjaraka maintains that the author knew Sanskrit and was acquainted with Vālmīki's Rāmāyaṇa (T.B.G., 1932 pp. 168 ff.). Mr. M. Ghosh contends that the author was acquainted with Bhaṭṭikāvya and that his Rāmāyaṇa 'is partially a translation and partially an adaptation' of this Sanskrit work (J.G.I.S., Vol. III, pp. 113 ff.).

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The name of the author of the Rāmāyaṇa and the date of its composition are not definitely known. Kern, who edited it, referred it to the beginning of the thirteenth century A.D. But according to Dr. Brandes and Dr. Stutterheim it belongs to a much earlier period. In a Wawatekan, Mpu Yogīśvara is cited as the author of the Rāmāyaṇa, and 1016 (=1094 A.D.) is given as the date of its composition. How far this tradition can be relied upon, it is, of course, difficult to say. As already noted, Poerbatjaraka refers the composition of Rāmāyaṇa to the period of Central Java. There is thus a wide divergence of opinion about the date of this famous work.²

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² For Rāmāyaṇa cf. B.K.I., Vol. 71, p. 559 ; Krom-Geschiedenis², p. 174. For the spread of the Rāma-legend in Indonesia and its different versions, cf. (i). Stutterheim—Rāma-legenden und Rāma-reliefs in Indonesien (1924). (ii) J. Kats—The Rāmāyaṇa in Indonesia (Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, Vol. IV, pp. 579-585).

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The next important landmark in connection with the development of Old-Javanese literature is the prose translation of the great epic Mahābhārata during the reign of Dharmavaṁśa. The Old-Javanese translation of Ādi-Parva, Virāṭa-Parva, and Bhīṣma-Parva may be definitely ascribed to the initiative and patronage of this king, while the Āśrama-Parva, Musala-Parva, Prasthānika-Parva, and Svargārohaṇa-Parva are of later date. There is also a version of Udyoga-Parva, written in very corrupt Sanskrit, and full of lacunae. The Virāṭa-Parva was composed in 996 A.D., just ten years before Java was overtaken by the great catastrophe which destroyed both Dharmavaṁśa and his kingdom.

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The Old-Javanese translations closely follow the original epic, but are more condensed. Their style is very primitive and lacks literary merit. Their importance, however, cannot be over-estimated, as they made the Great Epic popular in Java and supplied themes for numerous literary works which exhibit merits of a very high order.¹

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The Old-Javanese Rāmāyaṇa was edited by Kern (1900). It is being translated by Juynboll in parts (Translation of Sarga XXIII appearing in B.K.I., Vol. 92 (1934).

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1. There is an extensive literature on the Javanese Mahābhārata. Juynboll has edited the Ādi-(1906) and Virāṭa-Parvas (1912), and translated, in Dutch, three other Parvas, *viz.*, Āśramavāsika, Mausala and Mahā-Prasthānika Parvas (Drie Boeken van het oud-javaansche Mahābhārata, Leiden, 1893). The portion of the Bhīṣmaparva, corresponding to Bhagavadgītā, has been translated and commented upon by J. Gonda (T.B.G., 1935, pp. 36 ff.) who will shortly publish an edition of the Bhīṣmaparva-text. For Udyoga-Parva cf. B.K.I., Vol. 69, pp. 219-296. For a discussion of the relation of Old-Javanese Mahābhārata to the different Indian versions of the epic cf. T.B.G., Vol. 49 (1901), pp. 289-357. For further information cf.

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(i) B.K.I., vol. 71, pp. 563-64. (ii) Sarkar-Literature, Chaps. XI-XII. (iii) Lévi-Texts, pp. xxxii ff. (iv) Mahābhārata published by the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Ādi-Parva, pp. xxv-xxvi, App. II. Virāṭa-Parva, pp. xi-xv, App. II. (v) Verslag van het Zevende Congres van het Oostersch Genootschap in Nederland, 1933, p. 29.

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The first work of this kind is Arjuna-Vivāha, written by Mpu Kaṇwa under the patronage of Airlangga (1019-1042 A.D.). It deals with an episode from the Mahābhārata in which Arjuna helps the gods in their fight against Nivāta-Kavaca. This is the first poetical work of which the date is known with certainty. It was a very popular work in Java. Its subject-matter formed the motifs of sculpture and the well-known lacon Mintarāga was based on it.¹

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¹ B.K.I., Vol. 71, p. 561; edited by Friederich in V.B.G., Vol. 23; B.K.I., Vol. 82 (1926).

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Two other poetical works may be referred to the beginning of the Kaḍiri period. The first is Kṛṣṇāyaṇa by Triguṇa. It deals with the famous episode of the abduction of Rukmiṇī by Kṛṣṇa and his consequent fight with Jarāsandha. It contains a beautiful description of Dvārāvatī, the capital of Kṛṣṇa, and gives the name of 10 out of his 16000 wives. The poem supplied the themes of sculptured reliefs of the temple of Panataran.² The next work Sumanasāntaka³ (death caused by a flower) is based on the story of the death of Indumatī, the queen of Aja and the mother of Daśaratha, so marvellously dealt with by Kālidāsa in his immortal work Raghuvaṃśa. While Aja was one day sitting with Indumatī, a garland of flowers fell from heaven upon the latter, and she died instantly. The poem was composed by Mpu Monaguṇa and refers to Śrī Varṣajaya. The Kṛṣṇāyaṇa also refers to a king of the same name. Krom thinks that this king is to be identified with Jayavarṣa (1104 A.D.). So these two works may be referred to the beginning of the twelfth century A.D.

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² For contents cf. Cat. 1, Vol. I, p. 156; for the date cf. T.B.G., Vol. 57, p. 515. The work was formerly referred wrongly to the period of Airlangga.

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³ B.K.I., Vol. 71, p. 561; Cat. 1, Vol. I, pp. 144ff. For the date cf. T.B.G., Vol. 57, p. 516. For the relation of the poem to Kālidāsa's Raghuvaṃśa—cf. B.K.I., series 6, Vol. VI, pp. 391ff.

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We next come to the most flourishing period of the Old-Javanese literature, *viz.*, the reign of Jayabhaya (1135-1157 A.D.). The greatest work of this period, which has all along enjoyed a very high degree of reputation is Bhārata-yuddha,¹ an independent work based on the Udyoga-parva, Bhīṣma-parva, Droṇa-parva, Karṇa-parva, and Śalya-parva of the Sanskrit Mahābhārata, in other words, those parts of the great Epic of India which deal with the great war. It is written in simple but epic style, and its grandeur, according to Juynbol, is comparable to that of the Greek epics. It was written by Mpu Sedah in 1157 A.D. by order of the Kaḍirian king Jayabhaya. According to one tradition, the poet incurred royal displeasure and the work was completed by Mpu Panuluh. As in the Rāmāyaṇa, there are many interpolations—mostly love-episodes—in this work. The continued popularity of the work is testified to by a New-Javanese version named Bratajuda.

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¹ B.K.I., Vol. 71, p. 560. The text was edited by J.G.H., Gunning (1903). Recently Poerbatjaraka and Hooykaas (Djawa, Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 1-87) have made a critical study of the work, and have given a summary of its contents.

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Mpu Panuluh, who completed the Bhārata-yuddha, evidently during the reign of Jayabhaya, also composed another poetical work, Harivaṃśa,² during the same reign. This book, like its Indian prototype, deals with the abduction of Rukmiṇī by Kṛṣṇa and the consequent war with Jarāsandha and the Pāṇḍavas who helped the latter. This last episode is not in the original Indian work. Mpu Panuluh is also the author of a third poetical work, Ghaṭotkacāśraya.³ It describes the fight between Abhimanyu and Lakṣmaṇa-Kumāra over a lady named Kṣitisundarī, in which Ghaṭotkaca comes to the help of the former. This book has supplied the theme to many Wayang stories in Java and Malay Peninsula.¹

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² Cat. 1, Vol. I, pp. 143-44. For the date cf. T.B.G., Vol. 57, pp. 516-17.

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³ Cat. 1, Vol. I, pp. 149-50. For the date cf. T.B.G., Vol. 57, p. 517. The poem refers in the first stanza to King Jayakṛta, who is probably the same as King Kṛtajaya of Kaḍiri.

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¹ T.B.G., Vol. 25, p. 488.

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Kāmeśvara II (1185 A.D.) maintained the brilliant literary traditions of the Kaḍirian court. The most famous work written under his patronage was Smaradahana.² This work is based on the famous episode of the burning of Smara or the god of Love by Śiva which has been so masterfully dealt with by Kālidāsa in his immortal work Kumāra-sambhavam. While Śiva was engaged in austerities, Smara (also known as Kāma, Madana, etc.) kindled in him the flames of passion. Enraged at this Śiva turned towards him, and a ray of fire proceeding from his body reduced the god of Love to ashes and he became Aṅaṅga or Bodyless. The subject-matter of the work, according to Pamañcangah, has been borrowed from a Śiva-Purāṇa which, according to Van der Tuuk, is the corrupt form of the well-known book Skandapurāṇa. The poem was composed by Dharmaya. It is dedicated to King Kāmeśvara, and probably Kāmeśvara II, though some scholars believe that it was Kāmeśvara I. In any case it belongs to the twelfth century A.D. The name of the king might have suggested his theme to the poet.

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² B.K.I., Vol. 71; T.B.G., Vol. 58, pp. 461-489, 491ff. Krom-Geschiedenis,² p. 298, T.B.G., Vol. 57, p. 517. Berg-Inleiding (pp. 50ff.) and Mid. Jav. Trad. (p. 173). The text has been edited in Bib. Jav. series.

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According to popular tradition, Dharmaya and Tanakung were two sons of Yogīśvara, the author of Rāmāyaṇa. The truth of this tradition may be doubted, but Tanakung was undoubtedly a contemporary of Dharmaya and wrote two poetical works Lubdhaka³ and Vṛtta-sañcaya.⁴ The latter work deals with rules of Sanskrit metre as applied to Old-Javanese, and was composed shortly before the fall of Kaḍiri in 1222 A.D. Lubdhaka, composed after this date,¹ relates the well-known story of the fight between the hosts of Yama (the god of death) and of Śiva over the body of a hunter. The latter spent the night of the Śivarātri festival on a Vilva-tree and threw a leaf of it over a Śivaliṅga lying beneath. He thus secured great merits, and so when after his death the servants of Yama took him away, the hosts of Śiva prevented them and a fight ensued. The work is also known as Śivarātri. Lubdhaka is here used as a proper name of a niṣāda, but it is a common word in Sanskrit meaning ‘hunter.’

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³ For contents cf. Cat. 1, Vol. I, p. 157.

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⁴ Translated by Kern, V.G., Vol. IX, pp. 67ff.

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¹ For the date of these two works cf. T.B.G., Vol. 57, pp. 518-19; Krom-Geschiedenis², pp. 298-9.

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The famous Bhomakāvya² is also attributed to the period of Kāmeśvara II. It describes the defeat of Indra and other gods by Bhoma, or Naraka, son of Pṛthivī, and finally his death in the hands of Kṛṣṇa. A recently discovered work, Naraka-Vijaya, which describes the conquests of Naraka, also belongs to the reign of Kāmeśvara;³ but it is difficult to say whether he is the first or the second king of that name. For the Singhasāri period (13th cent.) we possess two works, the Lubdhaka of Tanakung and Rājapati-Guṇḍala,⁴ a religious treatise. To the same period probably belongs also the Kakawin Kṛṣṇantaka, which draws its materials from the Āśramavāsika-, Musala-, and the Prasthānika-parvas of the great epic. As the name shows, the death of Kṛṣṇa and the destruction of his family form the central theme of the work. It refers at the beginning to Śiva-Buddhamūrti, who may be identified with king Kṛtanagara.⁵

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² B.K.I., Vol. 71, p. 561, where it is referred to the period of Jayabhaya. Kern placed it in the 14th century A.D. For the date adopted cf. T.B.G., Vol. 57, pp. 517-518, and Krom-Geschiedenis², p. 298. The text was edited with a Summary of contents in V.G.B., Vols. 22, 24.

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³ Krom-Geschiedenis², p. 299. O. V., 1921, p. 70.

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⁴ See next chapter.

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⁵ Cat. 1, Vol. I, p. 155. B.K.I., Series VI, Vol. VI, pp. 213-230. For the date cf. T.B.G., Vol. 57, p. 519.

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In the fourteenth century, during the flourishing period of Majapahit we get a unique poem, the Nāgara-Kṛtāgama¹ written by Prapañca in A.D. 1365. Unlike the usual poems based on the Indian epics, it takes as its theme the life and times of Hayam Wuruk, the famous king of Majapahit, and supplies us most interesting information about the king, his capital city, his court, and his vast empire.

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¹ Edited, with translation and notes, by Kern, V.G., Vols. VII-VIII. Republished with notes by Krom in 1919. For critical notes on the work by Poerbatjaraka, cf. B.K.I., Vol. 80, pp. 219-286.

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Prapañca names as his contemporaries, Kṛtayaśa, Brahmayaśa and several other authors. We possess two poetical works of another contemporary of Prapañca, *viz.* the Buddhist Mpu Tantular. Arjuna Vijaya², composed by him about 1378 A.D., describes an episode from the Uttarakāṇḍa of Rāmāyaṇa, *viz.*: the defeat of Rāvaṇa by Arjuna (*i.e.* Sahasravāhu or Kārtavīrya). It forms the basis of the New-Javanese poem Arjuna Sasrabāhu published by Winter (1853). Another work of the same author, Sutasoma or Puruṣādaśanta,³ describes the fight between Sutasoma and the *rākṣasa* King Puruṣāda. It incidentally shows the very close relationship existing between Śaivism and Buddhism, so much so that the two might almost be regarded as identical.

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² B.K.I., Vol. 71, p. 561.

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³ B.K.I., Vol. 71, pp. 501-562. Cf. Kern ‘Over de vermenging van Sivaisme en Buddhisme op Java’. (V.G. Vol. IV., p. 149).

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The class of poetical works we have hitherto described is called Kakawin from Kavi meaning Kāvya. They are all written in Old-Javanese language and their subject-matter is derived mostly from Indian Epics and Purāṇas. In addition to the works mentioned above, there are many other Kakawins, which, however, cannot be dated even approximately. We give below a very brief account of some of them :—

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1. Indravijaya⁴—story of Vṛtra's conquest and death, followed by that of Nahuṣa who secured the position of Indra for a short period.

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⁴ Cat., I, Vol. I, p, 137.

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2. Pārthayajña¹—It describes Arjuna's asceticism by means of which he obtained weapons from Śiva.

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¹ Ibid., p. 140.

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3. Vighnotsava,² written by a Buddhist, describes the exploits of a Yakṣa king named Vighnotsava and particularly his fight with the rākṣasa king Suprasena.

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² Ibid., p. 147.

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4. Bratasraya³ is a later development of the same theme.

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³ Ibid., p. 148.

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5. Hariśraya.⁴ It describes how the gods, threatened by Malyavān, king of Laṅkā, seek, at first the help of Śiva, and then of Viṣṇu, who kills Malyavān and restores to life, by amṛta or nectar, the gods who perished in the fight.

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⁴ Ibid., p. 151

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6. Harivijaya.⁵—It describes the churning of the ocean by gods by means of Mandara mountain.

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⁵ Ibid., p. 152.

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7. Kālayavanāntaka.⁶—It describes, after the story given in Viṣṇupurāṇa, how Kālayavana invaded Dvārakā to avenge the death of Kaṁsa, and was ultimately reduced to ashes by Mucukunda, with whom the fugitive Kṛṣṇa had taken shelter. It also describes how Arjuna carried away Subhadrā when the Andhakas and Vṛṣṇis were celebrating a feast on Raivataka.

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⁶ Ibid., p. 154.

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8. Rāmavijaya.⁷—Its theme is the defeat of Sahasravāhu Arjuna by Paraśurāma, son of Jamadagani and Reṇukā.

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⁷ Ibid., p. 159.

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9. Ratnavijaya.⁸—It describes the fight between Sunda and Upasunda over Tilottamā.

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⁸ Ibid., p 160.

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10. Pārthavijaya.⁹—It is based on an episode from Bhāratayuddha, viz., the death of Iravan, son of Arjuna and Ulupuy, and of Nila.

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⁹ Cat. 1, Vol. II, p. 493.

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11. An unnamed and incomplete Kakawin¹⁰ gives the story of Udayana and Vāsavadattā in a modified form. Śatasenya of the lineage of the Pāṇḍavas had two sons, Udayana and Yugandarāyana. The abduction of Angaravati, princess of Avanti, by Udayana forms the plot of the Kakawin.

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¹⁰ Ibid., pp. 496-497.

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In addition to the Kakawins, based on epic themes, there are some, like Dharmaśūnya¹ and Dharmasavita,² of didactic or philosophical nature, and others like Lambang Salukat,³ of an erotic character. We have, besides, a lexicon, Caṇḍakiraṇa⁴ and two Kakawins Vṛttasañcaya⁵ and Vṛttāyaṇa,⁶ dealing with metre.

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¹ Cat. 1, Vol. I, p. 163.

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² Ibid., p. 162.

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³ Ibid, p. 176.

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⁴ Ibid., p. 170.

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⁵ See pp. 69-70 above.

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⁶ Cat. 1, Vol. II, p. 491.

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Special reference may be made to the Kakawin work, called in Java ‘Nītiśāstra-kawin, but now known in Bali as Nītisāra.⁷ The work may be referred to the closing years of the Majapahit period. It consists of a number of detached ślokas containing wise sayings, maxims, moral precepts, religious doctrines, etc., such as we find in Sanskrit works called Nītisāra, Pañcatantra, Cāṇakya-śataka, etc. in India. In many cases the Javanese verses may be easily traced to the Indian original. For example we have close translations of the following well-known couplets

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⁷ The work has been recently edited by Dr. Poerbatjaraka (Bibliotheca Javanica, No. 4).

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1. Duradhītā viṣaṃ vidyā ajīrṇe bhojanaṃ viṣam |
Viṣaṃ goṣṭhī daridrasya vṛddhasya taruṇī viṣam ||
2. Artha gṛhe nivarttante śmaśāne caiva bāndhavāḥ |
Sukṛtaṃ duṣkṛtaṃ cāpi gacchantamanugacchati ||
3. Asaṃtuṣṭā dvijā naṣṭāḥ saṃtuṣṭāścaiva pārthivāḥ |
Salajjā gaṇikā naṣṭā nirlajjāśca kulastriyaḥ ||

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The work was very popular and has been rendered in many modern versions. It formed an important subject of study in Javanese schools until the introduction of western learning.

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The Kakawins form the first of the three grand divisions of the Old-Javanese literature. The second division comprises doctrinal texts, like Sūrya Sevana, Gāruḍeya mantra, etc. which will be discussed in connection with religion.⁸ We now turn to the third, the prose works, which may be subdivided, according to its contents, into four classes. Two of these, dealing with law and religion, have been discussed separately in connection with these topics, and the third comprises prose works based on Indian Epics and Purāṇas.

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⁸ See next chapter.

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The Mahābhārata series begins with the Old-Javanese translations of the different Parvas of the Mahābhārata to which reference has already been made above. Another work of the same series is Koravāśrama,¹ a late work, in which a great deal of modification of the epic is noticeable. After the defeat and death of the Kauravas they are again brought to life by Vyāsa, and on Bhīṣma’s advice, they practise asceticism in order to take their revenge on the Pāṇḍavas. Within this frame-work a large number of Purāṇic legends and Tāntrik doctrines have been included.

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¹ Tantu, pp. 329-338. J.G.I.S., Vol. III, pp. 67ff.

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To this class also belongs Sāra-Samuccaya² (different from the law-book of the same name) an Old-Javanese translation of a large number of moral precepts chiefly drawn from Anuśāsanaparvan of the Mahābhārata. It is interspersed with quotations of Sanskrit verses from the epics and other Indian books such as Pañcatantra. The translations are fairly accurate and the author shows an intimate acquaintance with Sanskrit literature. The work is probably ascribed to Vararuci who is said in the beginning to have brought together the essence (Sāra) of the eighteen Parvas of the epics.

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² B.K.I., Vol. 71, p. 505, B.K.I., Series VI, Vol. VIII, pp. 393-398. Tantu, pp. 303-4.

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Navaruci,³ a very popular work in Bali, describes the exploits of Bhīma. He kills two Nāgas and Indrabāhu, saves Droṇa from the wrath of Bhagavān Avaruci, practises asceticism in spite of the temptation offered by the Vidyādharis, and joins in time his brothers to save Indraprastha which the Dānavas had planned to burn with Śivāgni. The work is also called Tattvajñāna and ascribed to Mpu Śivamūrtti. There are New- and Middle-Javanese redactions of this work (Navaruci-Kidung, Bimasuci). There is also a Kakawin Devaruci¹ dealing with the same theme.

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³ Cat. I, Vol. II, p. 292. The text has been edited with a Dutch translation by M. Prijohoetomo (Batavia, 1934) who refers it to a date between 1500 and 1619 A.D.

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¹ Cat. 1, Vol. I, p. 165.

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Of the other epic, we have the prose translation of Uttarakāṇḍa² in Old-Javanese. It is interspersed with Sanskrit verses and its last two chapters are named Rāmaprasthānikam and Svarggārohaṇam, agreeing in all these respects with the Javanese version of Mahābhārata. Like the Old-Javanese Rāmāyaṇa, it shows divergences from the original Sanskrit text. As already mentioned before, the Kakawins Hariśraya and Arjunavijaya derive their plots from this work. The banishment of Sītā is described as in Rāmāyaṇa. Among other episodes may be mentioned the killing of Vṛtra by Indra.

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² Cat. 1, Vol. II. pp. 178-179.

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Of the Purāṇa class of works Brahmāṇḍa-Purāṇa³ is undoubtedly the most important. It closely follows the model of Indian Purāṇa, though Javanese touches occur here and there. Even the preamble of the Purāṇa is reproduced;—while Adhisimakṛṣṇa was the ruler of the earth, Romaharṣaṇa, a pupil of Vyāsa, came to Naimiṣa forest, and recited the Purāṇa. The composition of the Purāṇa is, of course, ascribed to Vyāsa.

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³ V.B.G., Vol. 22, pp. 11-12, 43-50; B.K.I., Vol. 71, p. 563; Tantu, pp. 310-319; Cat. 1, Vol. II, pp. 166-167; B.K.I., Series VI, Vol. VII, pp. 272ff. Recently edited in the Bibliotheca Javanica Series; Acta Orientalia, XI, pp. 219ff.

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As regards the contents, we have first the story of the creation. Brahmā created the aṇḍabhuvaṇa. He also created the four Ṛṣis, nine Devarṣis, and Parameśvara who is known under different forms. He also created devas, asuras, pitṛs and mānuṣas, i.e. gods, demons, manes and men, and the four castes originated from his mouth, arms, thigh and feet. Then he created Śatarūpā and Svāyambhuva Manu.

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After describing their descendants, in right Purāṇic style, the text describes the division of Jambudvīpa among the nine sons of Agnīndra and the creation of the Veda in different Yugas. In Kaliyuga, Vyāsa taught the four Vedas to his disciples, Jemini, Polaha, Vaiśampāyana and Sumantu, and Itihāsapurāṇa to his fifth disciple Romaharṣaṇa. Then follows an account of the disciples of these and further divisions of the Vedic literature, and incidentally the story of a dispute between Yājñavalkya and Śakalya in the court of Janaka, king of Mithilā. The text then gives a list of Vedic scholars, including women, Brahmarṣis, devarṣis, and rājarṣis, and the number of ṛks and yajus. It then describes the duration of the fourteen Manus, extent of a day and night of Brahmā, and the Mahāpralaya (great destruction).

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The death of Vena and the origin of Pṛthu, the description of the seven seas and the seven dvīpas, varṣas, mountain-ranges, *etc.*, the divisions of Bhāratavarṣa, its rivers and mountains, *etc.*, are all given in detail in the style of the Purāṇas.

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The contents of the work as well as the number of Sanskrit verses and passages occurring therein leave no doubt that it was based upon the Sanskrit original.

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The existence of numerous manuscripts of Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa and the veneration with which it is regarded in Bali even to-day, prove the extreme popularity of the work. Why of all the Indian Purāṇas, this one obtained a special celebrity in Java, it is difficult to say.

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It may be mentioned here that there is also a poetical version of the Old-Javanese Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa. This Kakawin begins with the story of Vena and contains other legends such as those of Pṛthu¹. The recently discovered Pṛtuvijaya Kakawin, composed by Aṣṭaguṇa, is very similar to Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa Kakawin².

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¹ Cat. 1, Vol. I, p. 139.

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² Krom-Geschiedenis², p. 299.

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Another work of the same class is Agastyaparva,¹ where Agastya describes to his son Dṛḍdasyu the creation of the world in right Purāṇic style. In the Mahāpralaya everything was destroyed, except Sadāśiva, who created anew the four elements, sky, air, earth and fire, and an egg from which arose Brahmā and Viṣṇu. Brahmā then created Prajāpatis, the ten Brahmarṣis (Dakṣa, Marici, Ruci, Nilalohita, Bhṛgu, Atri, Anggira, Pulaha, Kratu, and Vaśiṣṭha), Manus, and the Pitṛs, of whom a detailed account is given. It mentions in this connection that the 27 nakṣatras are all daughters of Dakṣa and Asiktiki.

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¹ Tantu, pp. 319-326; Cat. I, Vol. II, pp. 170-172. Poerbatjaraka-Agastya pp. 39ff. The text has recently been edited by Dr. J. Gonda in B.K.I., Vol. 85, pp. 329-415 and critically discussed in Vol. 92, pp. 331-458. The work is usually referred to as Anggastyaparva.

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It then discusses the sins for which men go to hell and the meritorious acts which lead them to heaven. After dwelling in heaven or hell for an appropriate period, men are reborn in this world, in higher or lower rank, and even as plants and animals, according to their work. Only by tapas can a man avoid this re-birth. In this connection is given an interesting list of karmas or works in life and their consequences in the next birth.

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The thirteen daughters of Dakṣa, married to Kaśyapa, twelve children of Kaśyapa and Aditi, two sons of Kaśyapa and Diti (Hiraṇyakaśipu and Hiraṇyakṣa), their descendants, as well as those of Bhṛgu and other Brahmarṣis are described in detail on the model of the Purāṇas. In this connection we are told that Ilā, the wife of Pulastya, was the daughter of Tṛṇavindu, a disciple of Agastya, who is now practising tapas in ‘Yavadvipa-maṇḍala’.

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The very detailed knowledge of Indian mythology and the occurrence of Sanskrit verses leave no doubt that the work was based upon an Indian text.

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The Ādipurāṇa² begins with an account of King Biṣmanagara of Praṣṭanagara, who was very learned and knew the Aṣṭādaśadharma, *i.e.* the eighteen duties, *viz.*, regulations about food and marriage, duties towards parents, friends, servants and the diseased, rules of games, trade, service, worship of gods, *etc.*

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² Tantu, pp. 304-310; Cat. I, Vol. II, p. 172.

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The king and the queen, directed by a divine command, go in a boat to meet Bhagavan Mūrtthitthasana on the island of Gavangan, and the latter instructs the royal pair. Within this framework is described the cosmogony, mythology, *etc.* after the model of an Indian Purāṇa but widely differing from it in details. The creation, for example, is described as follows :

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Avarunting had eyes in different parts of his body and from them originated Mayanispṛha or Pañcamūrtti, earth, air, sky the gods, and the tribhuvanāṇḍa. Then he lost his eyes and created Lord Sarḍḍa. From the latter sprang Vindup(a)vana who married Trinayanā. These had the book Kalimahosaḍḍa and created the world, the gods, elements, sciences, *etc.*

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Lord Tūryyanta sūkṣma, the son of Vindupavana, had three heads, which, when cut off, gave rise to three other beings who became the originator of Brāhmaṇa, Vaiśya, and Śūdra, and the lord himself, after the loss of his heads, originated the Kṣatriyas. His son Rāma married Mṛtyujiva and had 3 children, and then follows a long list of their descendants, persons not known from other sources.

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Even well-known episodes, like the acquisition of Amṛta by the gods, are described in a different way.

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The book is evidently of a very late date and has no connection with any known Sanskrit original, far less with Sanskrit Ādipurāṇa.

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The Bhuvanapurāṇa¹ :—It begins by describing how Vasiṣṭha was instructed by Parameśvara on the Kailāsa mountain about the four *āśramas* and *varṇas* (*i.e.* orders and castes). It contains many Purāṇic myths and legends. The Sanskrit verses quoted in it are very corrupt.

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¹ Cat. 1, Vol. II, p. 174.

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Tattva Savang-suvung².—It is a work on cosmogony. The creator named Sang hyang Taya practised Yoga, and Brahmā and Viṣṇu were born respectively out of his right and left eyes. Then, on his command, Brahmā created the first man Kaki Manuh and Viṣṇu, the first woman, Nini Manuh. Then the sun, moon, stars, earth, fire, etc. were created.

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² Ibid., p. 281.

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The fourth category of Old-Javanese prose literature comprises texts of secular character, dealing with a variety of subjects. A few specimens are described below :—

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A. historical.—The Calon Arang¹ may be cited as a good specimen. The text, known in several versions, describes how the widow Calon Arang of Girah was angry that nobody asked her daughter in marriage. Being favoured by Durgā, she used her witchcraft to spread diseases among the subjects of Airlangga, king of Daha, and even burnt his troops. Thereupon King Airlangga took counsels with wise men such as Tanakung Kaṇva and Mona-guṇa. Then he went to the learned Bharādah who lived with his daughter Medhavati in the monastery named Viśyamuka. Bharādah succeeded in killing Calon Arang and then the king went with his two sons Jayabhaya and Jayasabha to Girah.

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¹ Ibid., pp. 299-300; The text is edited with a translation by Poerbatjaraka in B.K.I., Vol. 82 (1926).

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Airlangga wanted to appoint Jayasabha as king of Bali, but was dissuaded by Paṇḍita Kuturan. It was then decided to make Jayabhaya, king of Jaṅgala or Koripan, and Jayasabha king of Kaḍiri or Daha. The latter, however, marched against his elder brother. A messenger sent by the latter told Jayasabha, by way of warning, a story of the Mahābhārata (Ādiparva), how two brothers, Supratika and Vibhāvasu, were, on account of mutual enmity, transformed into an elephant and tortoise, and devoured by Garuḍa at the command of Kaśyapa. Bharādah, however, reconciled the two brothers and revived the dead soldiers. The book enumerates the subject states of Daha as follows :—

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Malayu, Palembang, Jambi, Singhapura, Patani, Pahang, Siyam, Cempa, Cina, Koci, Kling, Tatar, Pego, Kuṭavaringin, Bangka, Suṇḍa, Madhura, Makasar, Seran, Goran, Vaṇḍan, Moloko, Dompo, Bhima, Timur, Sasak, Sambawa, Kangean.

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There are two or three Middle-Javanese poetic versions of this work.¹

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¹ Cat. 1, Vol. I, pp. 248-9.

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Two other works dealing with what may be called the history of the Kakawin literature deserve special mention.

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Prastuti Ning Kakawin² gives a list of Kakawins together with their authors. Another, a Wawatekan,³ adds also the date of composition of the works. The data supplied by these books may be shown in the following tabular form:—

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² Cat. 1, Vol. II, p. 286.

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³ Ibid., p. 287.

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| Name of the Kakawin. | Author. | Date in Śaka era. |
| 1. Rāmāyaṇa ... | Yogiśvara ... | 1016 |
| 2. Sumanasāntaka ... | Mpu Monaguṇa ... | 1020 |
| 3. Arjuna-Vivāha ... | Mpu Kano (pupil of Yogiśvara). | 1022 |
| 4. Pārthayājña ... | Mpu Vijātmaka (or Vidyātmaka). | 1075 |
| 5. Sumavaraṇa ... | Mpu Salukat (son of Yogiśvara). | ...... |
| 6. Pāṇḍavavira ... | Mpu Sḍah (pupil of Mpu Salukat) | ...... |
| 7. Bomāntaka (or Bhomakāvya.) | Mpu Ṛsirangan or ... Mpu Bradah | 1019 |
| 8. Banolakṣaṇa ... | Mpu Ragarunting ... | ...... |
| 9. Smaradahana ... | Mpu Dharmaya ... | 1021 |
| 10. Arjuna Vijaya ... | Mpu Tantular ... | 1031 |
| 11. Kṛṣṇāyaṇa ... | Mpu Triguṇa ... | 1041 |
| 12. Lubdhaka ... | Mpu Tanakung ... | 1050 |
| 13. Ghaṭotkacāśraya ... | Mpu Panulung ... | 1061 |
| 14. Bhārata-yuddha ... | ...... ... | 1079 |
| 15. Usana Bali Kakawin | Nirartha ... | 1141 |

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The books Nos. 1-8 are given in the first text while those with dates are given in the second. It may be added that these data, particularly the dates, cannot be accepted as true without further evidence.¹

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¹ Cat. 1, Vol. II, p. 287. According to Krom the data are absolutely untrustworthy (T.B.G., Vol. 57, p. 511).

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B. *Linguistic.*—The chief lexicons are Adiśvara,² Ekalabya³ Kṛtabasa⁴ and Caṇṭakaparva.⁵ They are written in Indian style giving the synonyms of gods, animals, trees, and other well-known objects and words. The Kṛtabasa, *e.g.*, gives 29 names of Indra, 31, 27, 29, 48, 9 and 8 synonyms, respectively, of Fire-God, Wind-God, Kāma or God of Love, Moon-God, Yama, and Bṛhaspati, and 29, 59, 4, 28 and 48 words signifying respectively king, paṇḍita, food, birds and snakes.

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² Cat. 1. Vol. II, pp. 205-206.

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³ Ibid., pp. 206-207.

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⁴ Ibid., pp. 207-214.

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⁵ Ibid,, pp. 219-222.

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The Sanskrit metre is dealt with in Caṇṭakaparva which differs in many respects from Vṛtta-sañcaya, the famous Kakawin on the subject referred to above. These, together with grammatical works⁶ dealing with Sanskrit conjugation, formation of compounds, *etc.*, show the active pursuit of that language in Java until the very end.

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⁶ Ibid., pp. 215-218.

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C. Medical texts, such as Anda⁷ and Usada.⁸

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⁷ Ibid., pp. 246-247.

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⁸ Ibid., pp. 248-253.

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D. Texts on Erotic like Smaratantra,⁹ Angulipraveśa¹⁰ and Smararaçaṇa.¹¹

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⁹ Ibid., pp. 253-255, 257-258.

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¹⁰ Ibid., pp. 255-256.

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¹¹ Ibid., p. 258.

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E. Miscellaneous texts on calendar,¹² music,¹³ birds,¹⁴ animals,¹⁵ *etc.*

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¹² Ibid., p. 225.

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¹³ Ibid , p. 264.

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¹⁴ Ibid., p. 308.

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¹⁵ Ibid., p. 309.

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After having made a brief survey of the Old-Javanese literature we may next turn to the Middle-Javanese.

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The extent and compass of the Middle-Javanese literature is fairly large. The most important works are those of historical character written both in prose and in poetry.

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The poetical works of the Middle-Javanese literature use new kinds of metre and are known as Kidung.

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Of the prose works the most important is Pararaton¹ which has been so often referred to in the historical portion of this work. It begins with the story of Ken Angrok ( or Arok ) and gives the outline of the political history of Java for nearly three centuries during the Singhasāri and Majapahit periods. The proper title of the book is Pararaton ( Book of Kings ) though it is sometimes referred to as Ken Arok or Ken Angrok. According to the colophon, the work was composed in 1613 A.D.² In spite of legendary character of the first part, the work may be regarded as one of the most important historical works, although some of the dates and events recorded therein have not proved true in the light of modern researches.

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¹ This was originally edited by Brandes, and the edition was revised by Krom (V.B.G., Vol. 62), 1920.

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² Ibid., p. 201.

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The Usana Java³ contains traditions about the history of Bali. It begins by describing how the king of Vilvatikta ( Majapahit ) sent his brother Arya Damar and Gajah Mada to conquer Bali and how Arya Damar killed the Balinese general Pasunggiri. It then describes the establishment of Deva Agung in Gelgel and the division of the island among the chief nobles. The work gives undue prominence to Arya Damar and his family, but almost ignores Gajah Mada, the founder of the royal family of Karang Asem. The Usana Java means really the old history of Java. It is thus a wrong name for this work.⁴

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³ B.K.I., Vol. 71, p. 571; Cat. I, Vol. II, p. 388.

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⁴ Mid. Jav. Trad., p. 13.

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The Usana Bali,⁵ also called Mayāntaka, is another historical work of this kind, but it also gives some account of the popular religion. It was written by Nirartha in the sixteenth century A.D.⁶

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⁵ B.K.I., Vol. 71, p. 571; Cat. I, Vol. II, pp. 385-7.

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⁶ Mid. Jav. Trad., p. 41.

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This book is ‘exclusively intended for the people and not esteemed by the priest. The Usana Java is held in honour by all castes’.¹

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¹ Friederich-Bali, p. 92.

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Besides the two historical works referred to above, there is another, Batur Lelavasan, dealing with the old history of Bali.²

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² Mid. Jav. Trad., p. 12.

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Next we have to deal with a class of historical chronicles known as Pamañcangah.³ We have not only general works of this name but also local chronicles such as Pamañcangah Gelgel, Pamañcangah Badung, etc. Of the work known simply as Pamañcangah we have both a prose and a Kidung version. It describes the establishment of a Javanese colony from Majapahit in Bali and continues its history up to the fall of Gelgel and the rise of Klungkung. The text is followed by three appendices. The first deals with the history of Badung, the second with the history of Ñalyan which lies to the east of Gianjar, and the third relates to the destruction of Gelgel and the foundation of the Kraton of Klungkung. The first appendix is also known separately as Pamañcangah Badung, while the second and third together form a separate work called Pamañcangah Ñalyan.⁴ The Kidung version of the Pamañcangah contains the second and third, but not the first. In addition to these four there are also other Pamañcangahs dealing with local history.

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³ To Berg belongs the credit of giving a correct account of these works (Mid. Jav. Trad., p. 15, which supersedes that given in B.K.I., Vol. 71, p. 571, and Cat. 1, Vol. II, pp. 392-4).

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⁴ Juynboll includes it among Balinese works (Cat. 11, p. 153).

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The book called Tattva Sunda⁵ deals with the story of Hayam Wuruk’s marriage with a Sunda princess which ended in such a terrible tragedy (cf. Bk. III., Ch. VI.).

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⁵ Cat. 1, Vol. II, pp. 388-9.

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The same tragic tale forms the plot of the poetical-historical work called Kidung Sunda.⁶ Among other works of this kind may be mentioned Kidung Rangga Lawe¹ composed in 1543 A.D. The poem is called Pañji Vijayakrama in the manuscripts. The Kidung may be really divided into two parts. The first part gives the history of Vijaya and the foundation of Majapahit, and the second part deals with the revolution of his trusted officer Rangga Lawe. According to Berg the first part may be called Pañji Vijayakrama, and the second part, Rangga Lawe.

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⁶ Cat. 1, Vol. 1, pp. 234-5, 257-8. The text is edited by Berg in B.K.I., Vol. 83 (1927), pp. 1 ff. There are different versions of the Kidung.

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¹ Cat. 1, Vol. I, pp. 255-257 ; Mid. Jav. Trad., p. 10.

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A still more detailed and romantic version of the history of Vijaya is found in Kidung Harṣa-Vijaya.² It partakes of the character of the Pañji romances in a far greater degree, and not only contains elaborate descriptions of feasts, merriments, and love-scenes, but often introduces the hero as Pañji raden Ino. The Pararaton, Kidung Pañji-Vijayakrama, and Kidung Harṣa-Vijaya show the three successive stages in the evolution of a simple historical tale into a romance.³ The revolution and downfall of Sora, which followed that of Rangga Lawe, forms the subject-matter of Kidung Sorandaka.⁴ It differs from Pararaton and adds many more details. It however agrees in the main with Kidung Rangga Lawe and strengthens Berg's view that the latter is not based on Pararaton, as Brandes held, but rests on an altogether different source.⁵

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² Edited by Berg in B.K.I. Vol. 88 (1931) pp. 1-238.

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³ Ibid. pp. 2-3.

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⁴ An account of it is given by Berg in Feestbundel, Vol. 1, pp. 22 ff.

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⁵ Mid. Jav. Trad. pp. 61-63. B.K.I. Vol. 88 (1931), pp. 1-2.

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Of the remaining poetical works, called Kidung, the most important is the Pañji series, *i.e.* those dealing with the romantic adventures of the famous hero Pañji.⁶ The most well-known work of this class is Malat. It is as voluminous as the Rāmāyaṇa, and forms the source of all later Javanese and Malayan works of the Pañji-cycle. Among other Javanese Pañji-works may be mentioned: Mantri Wadak, Menur Wilis, Misa Gagang, Smaravedana, Uṇḍakan Pangrus, Wangbang Wideha, Waseng, Puruṣādaśanta, Ajar Pikatan, Smaravijaya, Ḍangḍang Peṭak and Ḍangḍang Hireng.

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⁶ For a general discussion of the origin and nature of the Pañji works cf. De Pandji-Roman by W. H. Rassers (1922), particularly the learned introduction of the work, and Poerbatjaraka's article in T.B.G., Vol. 58, pp. 461-489. For an account of the individual works cf. Cat. 1, Vol. 1, pp. 182-217.

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The crown prince of Kahuripan, the hero of this cycle of legends, is known by various names. He is represented as a wonderful stranger and a young lover wandering about on horseback in search of his lost beloved, Candra Kiraṇa of Daha. He is an enigmatic and shadowy figure, and his character is full of contradictions. On the one hand he is a sentimental lover, almost on the verge of madness for his long lost beloved, but, on the other, he is fully alive to the charms of other women and only too eager and unscrupulous in gaining them. He changes his name and form, gets involved in endless complications, and plays his rôle sometimes among men in the earth and sometimes among gods in heaven.

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There are good many versions of this story in Javanese and Malayan literature, and quite a large number of texts on this subject. The story is also widely spread all over Indonesia, viz., Java, Sumatra, Bali, Lombok, Borneo, Celebes, and also Malay Peninsula and Indo-China. The Pañji legends also serve as the subject-matter for Wajang Gedog and Topeng Dalang. All these invest the Pañji literature with a special interest, and there has been much speculation about the nature and origin of this cycle of legends.

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At the first glance, one would not be inclined to invest the stories with any historical character, inasmuch as the scene is laid in the kingdom of Medang, Janggala, and Majapahit, three kingdoms which came into existence at long intervals and never flourished side by side. But the scholars like Van der Tuuk, Kern, and Rouffaer were of opinion that in spite of this seeming contradiction a historical character forms the nucleus of this voluminous mass of legends. Recently Poerbatjaraka has gone a step further and tried to demonstrate that the origin of the two chief figures in the story, the crown prince of Janggala and his beloved (or wife) Candra Kiraṇa, princess of Daha, is to be looked for in the historical king Kāmeśvara I of Daha (c. 1115-1130 A.D.) and his Queen Śrī-Kiraṇa-Ratu of Janggala. Of course, we are then to presume that the story-tellers have just reversed the titles, by representing the hero as prince of Janggala and the heroine as princess of Daha.¹

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Whatever we may think of this theory, there can be hardly any doubt that the Pañji-legends represent the purely Javanese literature as opposed to that which is based on or influenced by Indian element. This view has been ably put forward by Rassers in his masterly work on the subject. He is further of opinion that the story originated in Java and then spread from that centre all over Indonesia and Indo-China. Lastly, he has tried to demonstrate that many mythical beliefs formed the groundwork of this cycle of legends.

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Next to the Pañji-cycle may be mentioned the class of folktales and fables known as Tantri. Some of these works are written in poetry, *e.g.*, Tantri Keḍiri² and Tantri Ḍemung,³ but the oldest work, Tantri Kāmandaka,⁴ is written in prose. These works are based on Hitopadeśa and Pañcatantra, but contain many new stories. This class of literary works is found not only in Javanese but also in Balinese, Siamese, and Laotian, showing the great popularity of the work. The preamble is, however, different. Instead of the usual introductory episode of Viṣṇuśarman instructing his royal disciples, the stories are put in the mouth of a queen, the last of a long

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