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Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champa; Vol. II: Suvarnadvipa) v2.c20.s6: Chapter V

Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East (Vol. I: Champā; Vol. II: Suvarṇadvīpa) v2.c20.s6

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Contents

Chapter V

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In the last chapter of Book I we have described in a broad outline how the religious systems of India—both Brāhmanical and Buddhist—were spread in Malayasia and took deep root in its soil even during the early period of Hindu colonisation. As centuries rolled by, the Indian religions made a more thorough conquest of the land, and it would hardly be an exaggeration to say that so far as faiths, beliefs and religious practices are concerned, the colonies in the Far East were almost a replica of the motherland. Of course, we should not expect that the indigenous faiths and practices vanished altogether. As in India itself, these were partly eliminated by, and partly absorbed into the higher and more developed system, but in some respects the latter also was affected and moulded by the former.

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All these observations are specially applicable to Java, the only colony which furnishes us detailed evidence of the various stages of religious development.

§ 1. The Brahmanical religion in Java

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About the beginning of the eighth century A. D. we find the Paurāṇik form of Brāhmanical religion firmly established in Java. In essence it consisted of the worship of three principal divinities, viz., Brahmā the creator, Viṣṇu, the protector, and Śiva the destroyer, together with their Śaktis or divine spouses and a host of minor gods and goddesses related to them. The beginning of this form of religion can be traced as early as the fourth or fifth century A. D.¹ But the period under review contains more detailed evidence regarding its nature and characteristics. These evidences are derived principally from four sources, *viz.*, (1) Inscriptions, (2) Temples, (3) Images, and (4) Literary sources. These enable us to draw a picture of the religious systems of Java such as existed from the eighth century A. D. down to the last days of Hindu civilisation.

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¹ See above, Bk. I, Chap, X.

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We may begin with the Cangal inscription¹ which records that in the year A.D. 732 king Śri Sañjaya set up a *liṅga* on a hill, for the sake of the peace of his kingdom. The first verse gives the astronomical details of the auspicious hour when the ceremony took place. The author then eulogises Śiva in the most extravagant terms in the next three verses, while the fifth verse is dedicated to Brahmā and the sixth to Viṣṇu. These hymns refer to the familiar attributes of each of these gods. With regard to Śiva mention is made of his three eyes, the matted hair with the sacred Gaṅgā and the moon on his head, the body besmeared with ashes, and the necklace made of serpents. He is possessed of supreme *aiśvarya*, and adored not only by the hermits but also by Indra and other gods. He is the lord of the *bhūtas* (living creatures) and in his infinite mercy maintains the world by means of his eight forms. Brahmā is described as of golden colour, the preceptor (*guru*) of the world, worshipped by hermits and gods, the source of the threefold ends of life *viz.*, *dharma*, *artha*, and *kāma*, and one who has organised society by the rules of the Vedas. Viṣṇu is described as lying with his consort on the body of the serpent king, floating on the vast sea, deeply absorbed in his meditation, and adored by the gods for the sake of deliverance.

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¹ V.G., Vol. VII, p. 115.

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The five verses of the Cangal inscription thus give an admirable summary of the essential conceptions of the Paurāṇik Trinity. It also clearly indicates that the position of supremacy among them was undoubtedly accorded to Śiva. That it was not a mere personal or local factor, but generally true of both Central and Eastern Java clearly follows from a study of the literature, inscriptions and monuments of Java. Thus the records of Airlangga refer to the three principal sects as Śaiva (or Māheśvara), Saugata (i.e. Buddhist), and Ṛṣi or Mahābrāhmaṇa. Goris has analysed the list of religious sects enumerated in ten different texts. All of them mention one or more Śaiva sects, but only four refer to the Vaiṣṇava sect and three to ‘Brāhmaṇa’ or ‘Brāhmāṇa’ (devoted to Brahmā?).

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² Goris, pp. 101-105 Brāhmaṇa may denote the votaries of Brahmā, though sometimes it seems to take the place of Śaiva.

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Again, by far the great majority of temples in Java are dedicated to Śiva, and the largest number of the detached images so far discovered are those of Śiva and the members of his family.

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The same conclusion is borne out by Amaramālā, the earliest literary text bearing upon religion that we have so far come across in Java. In giving the synonyms of differnt gods it begins with those of Śiva and calls him Guru and Īśvara i.e. God par excellence. If we consider the famous Lara-Jongrang group of temples, the last great monument of Central Java, we find only a further illustration of the same truth. In this famous group, which will be described in detail in a subsequent chapter, we find the central and the biggest temple dedicated to Śiva with two smaller ones on its two sides for Brahmā and Viṣṇu, and with a temple of Nandi in its front. All these are unmistakable evidences of the supreme position accorded to Śiva in the Javanese form of Hindu trinity.

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This great god Śiva was regarded not only as the agent of the destruction of the world, but also of its renovation. He had thus both a benevolent and a terrible nature. These two aspects are represented in Javanese iconography by the two human forms of the god known as Mahādeva and Mahākāla or Bhairava.

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The image of Mahādeva¹ has usually one head, though in one instance it has five. He has a third eye on his forehead, his head-dress is adorned with a moon and a skull, and a snake takes the place of the *upavīta* or the sacred thread. He has usually four arms, rarely two, holding fly-whisk (*cāmara*), rosary (*akṣamālā*) a book, lotus, water-pot, and trident (*triśūla*).

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¹ The description of the images that follows is mainly based on Krom-Kunst, Vol. I, Ch. III. and Juynboll's Catalogue Vol. V, and is intended to give the reader only a general idea. In enumerating the attributes I have given a list of those that are usually found, though not necessarily in one and the same image.

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The image of Bhairava or Mahākāla has a terrible expression of face, protruding eyes and teeth, and wild hair, while the sacred thread is replaced by either snakes or a garland of skulls. He has two or four arms holding mace (*gadā*), sword (*khaḍga*), noose, snake, and a dagger (or knife), along with the usual attributes of Śiva, such as trident, rosary, and fly-whisk. A variety of the image of this god, which is perhaps called *Cakracakra* in the attached inscription, deserves particular mention. Here the god sits on the body of a jackal or of a dog, and not only is his seat surrounded by skulls, but the same form the ornaments of his head, ear, neck and arms. A string of human heads forms his sacred thread, and a number of bells forms a belt round his belly. In his four arms are found a trident, a drum (*ḍamaru*), a dagger, and a bowl made of an iverted human skull.

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To these forms of Śiva correspond two different forms of his Śakti. The Śakti of Mahādeva is Devī, Mahādevī, Pārvatī, or Umā, the daughter of Himālaya. In her four arms she holds lotus, fly-whisk, rosary, flower, snake, trident or palm-leaf manuscript. A particular form of this goddess is Durgā or Mahiṣāsuramarddinī. She has six, eight, ten or twelve arms, holding various weapons, and is represented as killing the demon who assumed the form of a buffalo.

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The Śakti of Mahākāla or Bhairava is Mahākālī or Bhairavī. She is represented as sitting on a dead body, and human skulls form her sacred thread and ornaments of head and neck. In her two arms she holds a trident and a small dish for keeping the blood of the victims. Sometimes she is depicted as a terrible figure with protruding eyes and teeth and a dreadful face, holding fast in her arms the body of the human victim.

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The well-known figure of Ardhanārī, combining in one body those of Śiva and Durgā, is also found in Java. The right half of the body is that of Śiva, while the left half is that of Durgā, both being indicated by proper attributes.

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The image of Gaṇeśa, the son of Śiva and Pārvatī, is very common in Java, and follows in general the Indian prototype. He has the head of an elephant, and ornaments made of human skulls. He has usually four arms and his sacred thread is formed by a snake. As in India, Gaṇeśa was regarded as the god of wisdom, and one who removes all obstacles and difficulties. It is evidently this last aspect which accounts for the presence of Gaṇeśa-figures in large numbers, and even in solitary places on hills or rivers where men were apprehensive of great dangers.¹

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¹ Cf. B.K.I. Vol, 86 (1930) pp. 308-310.

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The war-god Kārtikeya, another son of Śiva, is also well-known in Java. He is generally represented in an ordinary human form riding on a peacock. But sometimes he has six heads and twelve arms, holding various weapons.

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Lastly, it may be mentioned, that Śiva was also worshipped in the form of Liṅga (phallus), although, as Stutterheim has tried to demonstrate, the Liṅga form was connected with ancestor worship in Java, and might have been prevalent in Java before the Hindu immigration.²

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² Ibid, pp. 311-12. For Liṅga worship in general, cf. T.B.G. Vol. 64 (1920), pp. 227 ff.

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Viṣṇu, the second member of the trinity, never attained in Java a position or importance equal to that of his rival Śiva, though under some dynasties he enjoyed very high honour and rank. He is usually represented with four arms having the well-known attributes, conch-shell (*śaṅkha*), wheel (*cakra*), mace (*gadā*), and lotus (*padma*), though occasionally the number of arms is only two. His Śakti, Śrī or Lakṣmī, is usually represented with four arms holding lotus, corn of ear, fly-whisk and rosary. Viṣṇu's rider (*vāhana*) Garuḍa is also represented in Java, generally with human form, though occasionally the beak, claws and wings of a bird are added. Viṣṇu is often depicted in *ananta-śayana* posture, such as has been described in the Cangal inscription noted above, and most of his *avatāras* or incarnations, specially Kṛṣṇa, Rāma, Matsya, Varāha, and Narasiṃha, are represented by images. Sometimes there are two female figures on the two sides of the image of Viṣṇu, which are usually known as Lakṣmī and Satiavana in Bali. The last is probably to be restored as Satyabhāmā. In that case the image may be regarded as that of Kṛṣṇa with Satyabhāmā and Rukmiṇī on two sides.¹

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¹ B.K.I. 1908, pp. 412-420.

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The devotees of Viṣṇu were undoubtedly less in number than those of Śiva and Buddha, and Vaiṣṇavism ranked in importance next only to Śaivism and Buddhism. This appears quite clearly from the comparatively smaller number of the images of that god found in Java. The religious literature of Java also supports this view, as it contains less traces of that religion than of the other two. Even the Mahābhārata, where Kṛṣṇa, the avatāra of Viṣṇu, plays such a leading part, is strongly Śaivite in character.²

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² Ibid.

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The images of Brahmā, the remaining member of the trinity, are comparatively few in number. He is easily recognised by his four heads facing the four directions. He has four arms holding rosary, fly-whisk, lotus and water-pot. His rider (*vāhana*) haṃsa (swan) is sometimes depicted in its normal form, but sometimes also as a human being with the head of a swan above, indicating his true nature. Sarasvatī, the Śakti of Brahmā, is represented with two or four arms, riding on a peacock. The Tengger hill to the east of Singhasāri is referred to as the sacred hill of Brahmā in an inscription dated 1405 A.D.¹

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¹ Brandes—Not. Bat Gen, 1899, pp. 64-69.

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The image of Trimūrti *i.e.* of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva combined together, is also found in Java. It has three heads, all of the same appearance, though in rare cases the central head is indicated to be that of Śiva by the skull and the moon. The image has four arms holding rosary, fly-whisk, lotus, book and the water-pot.

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Another image, which is very popular in Java, is usually styled Bhaṭāra-Guru. It is a two-armed standing figure of an aged pot-bellied man with moustache and peaked beard, and holding in his hands, trident, water-pot, rosary and fly-whisk. This image is usually regarded as a representation of Śiva Mahāyogin (the great ascetic), and his universal popularity is explained by supposing that an originally Indonesian divinity was merged in him. Mr. Poerbatjaraka has, however, shown by a comparison with Indian figures that the image represents the sage Agastya. The extreme veneration for, and the popularity of the worship of Agastya in Java are reflected in the inscriptions, and Poerbatjaraka’s, view seems eminently reasonable.²

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² Poerbatjaraka—Agastya, specially Chapter VI.

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In addition to the principal gods and goddesses described above, we come across the images of various minor gods in Java to which a brief reference may be made. Of the eight dikpālas *i.e.* minor gods guarding different directions,³ we meet with the familiar images of Yama (the god of death), Varuṇa (Water-god), Indra (the king of gods), Agni (the fire god), Nairṛta, and Kuvera (the god of wealth). The first three have distinctive attributes, *viz.*, mace, noose and thunderbolt, while Agni is known by his rider, the ram. The representation of Kuvera also follows exactly the lines adopted in Hindu and Buddhist pantheons of India,—a pot-bellied man, seated on a low cushion, with small bags of money scattered around, and holding a lemon in the right hand and an ichneumon in the left. Kuvera's wife Hāritī is also known in Java. There are also images of Sūrya (sun-god) holding a lotus and seated in a chariot drawn by seven horses, and Candra (moon-god) holding a flag and carried in a chariot drawn by four or ten horses. Kāma (god of love) is represented as seated on Makara with a bow and arrow in his hand.

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³ Probably all of them were represented in the Śiva temple at Lara-Jongrang cf. Bk. VI. Ch. I, section 7.

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It is unnecessary to go further into iconographic details. In short, almost all the gods of Hindu pantheon are represented in Java, and the following observation of Crawfurd,¹ made more than a century ago, can hardly be regarded as an exaggeration. "Genuine Hindu images, in brass and stone, exist throughout Java in such variety, that I imagine there is hardly a personage of the Hindu mythology, of whom it is usual to make representations, that there is not a statue of".

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¹ History of the Indian Archipelago Vol. II, p. 207.

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No account of Javanese Hinduism can be regarded as complete without a reference to some of the rituals and ceremonies and philosophical concepts which formed an essential part of the religious life of the people. Our knowledge in this respect is derived not only from the old Javanese texts but also from modern practices in the island of Bali where Hinduism is still a living religion.

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Dr. Goris has given a detailed account of the rites, ceremonies and mantras used in connection with Sūrya-sevana or the worship of Sun². It may be noted at the outset that the Sun was identified with Śiva (perhaps also with Viṣṇu) and the Sūrya-sevana really means the worship of Śiva in the form of the Sun. The order of the different ceremonies is not absolutely certain, but the arrangement suggested by Goris may be followed.

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² Goris, pp. 12-53. cf. also Lévi—Texts.

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1. The first ceremony is the *Talabhedana* and *Karaśodhana*, i.e., the purification of the hand and the individual fingers with appropriate *mantras*. One of these *mantras*, which is frequently repeated, and is based on Hindu scriptures, runs as follows.

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ओं अं हृदयाय नमः, ओं अर्काय शिरसे नमः, ओं भूर्भुवः स्वरे ज्वालिनि शिखायै नमः, ओं क्रूं कवचाय नमः, ओं रः फट् अस्त्राय नमः।

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2. Then follows *prāṇāyāma* or control of breath with appropriate *mantras*, including the Gāyatrī.

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3. The first consecration of water beginning with the *mantras* :

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ओं परमशिवगङ्गाय नमः
ओं ह्रीं ह्रीं वौषट् परमशिवास्त्राय नमः।

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There are also a hymn to the goddess Ganges, and what is called Sapta-tīrtha-*mantra*, or an invocation to the rivers Gaṅgā, Sarasvatī, Sindhu, Vipāśā, Kauśikī, Yamunā and Saraju.

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4. Then follow a variety of *mantras*, to be uttered with appropriate *mudrās* and *āsanas*. The *Caturaiśvarya mantra* is an invocation to Dharma, Jñāna, Vairāgya, and Aiśvarya, each of which is represented as *Siṅgharūpa* (form of a lion), and white, red, yellow or black in colour. The *Naraśakti mantra* is a salutation to Dīptā, Sūkṣmā, Jayā, Bhadrā, Vimalā, Vibhūti, Amoghā, Vidyutā, and Sarvatomukhī. The *tritattva mantra* is similarly a salutation to Śiva-tattva, Vidyā-tattva, and ātma-tattva. The *Kūṭa mantra* runs as follows.

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ओं ह्रां ह्रीं सः परमशिवादित्याय नमः। or according to a variant reading ओं ह्रां ह्रीं सः शिवसूर्यपरन्तेजस्वरूपाय नमः।

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This is interesting as showing the identity of Śiva and Sūrya and thereby explaining the inner significance of the Sūrya-worship. The concluding *mantra* is a salutation to sarva-deva, sapta-ṛṣi, sapta-pitṛ, and the Bhūtas. There are other *mantras* consisting of salutations to vowels and consonants (*Om am ām namaḥ,......om kaṃ, khaṃ, gaṃ namaḥ etc.*)

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5. Then follows the consecration of *ganthā* (i.e. *ghaṇṭā* or bell) with appropriate *mantras* beginning as follows :—

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ओङ्कारम् सदाशिवस्तम् जगन्नाथहितंकरम् ।
अभिवादवदनीयं गन्ठाश्च प्रकाश्यते ॥ etc.

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Then follows the invocation to Śiva to forgive the sins of the worshipper. It contains some beautiful stanzas which are recited even to-day all over India :

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पापोऽहं पापकर्माहं पापात्मा पापसम्भवः ।
त्राहि मां सर्वपापेभ्यः केनचिद् मम रक्षतु ॥
ॐ मन्त्रहीनं क्रियाहीनं भक्तिहीनं महेश्वरः ।
यत् पूजितं मया देव परिपूर्णम् ततस्तुमे ॥

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6. A second consecration of water with a variety of *mantras* follows. In addition to recitation of mystic syllables it includes invocation to the Trinity and the sacred rivers. A specimen of each is quoted below :

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1. ॐ ॐ परमशिवशक्त्यात्मने नमः ।

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ॐ ॐ सदाशिव निष्कलात्मने नमः ।
ॐ ॐ सदारुद्र अन्तात्मने नमः ।
ॐ ॐ महादेव निरात्मने नमः ।
ॐ सं ईश्वर परमात्मने नमः ।
ॐ उं विष्णु अन्तरात्मने नमः ।
ॐ ॐ ब्रह्म आत्मने नमः ।

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2. ॐ गङ्गा सिन्धु सरस्वती सुयमुना ।

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गोदावरी नर्मदा कावेरी सरयू ।
महेन्द्रतनयचर्मण्वती वेणुकाम् ।
भद्रवती महासरनदी ।
खातञ्च य गण्डकी ( गण्डकी ? ) ।
पुण्य पूर्ण जले समुद्र सहित कुर्वन्ति मे मङ्गलम् ।

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7. Then comes invocation to (1) *Gandha* (perfume) (2) *Akṣata* (corn) (3) *Puṣpa* (flower) (4) *Dhūpa* (incense) (5) *Dīpa* (lamp) and (6) *Patanganan* (sandalwood) ?

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To this are sometimes added *mantras* about Udakāñjali and Pādyārghya.

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8. The Mṛtyuñjaya (also called Dīrghāyu or Sapta-Vṛddhi)

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The following *mantra* selected from a large number will indicate the objects which the worshipper had in view.

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ॐ आयुर्वृद्धि यशोवृद्धि वृद्धि प्रज्ञा सुखश्रिया ।
धर्मसन्तानवृद्धिस्तु सन्तु ते समवङ्क्षयः ॥
यावत् मेरौ स्थित देव यावद् गङ्गा महीतले ।
चन्द्ररेखा गगणे यावत् तावत् भुवि जयो भवेः ॥

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In connection with this we have a Trimūrti *mantra* or invocation to trinity from which it appears that all the three gods have three eyes, but Brahmā has four faces, Viṣṇu three faces and four arms, while Īśvara has five faces and ten arms.

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9. The next process is called *ma-bhasma*, where the priest besmears his body with sandal-paste and utters various *mantras* such as :

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(a) ॐ इदं भस्म पुरं गृह्य सर्वपापविनाशनम् ।
सर्वरोगप्रशमनं सर्वकलुषनाशनं नमः स्वाहा ॥
(b) ॐ भूर्भुवः स्वः ।

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After this the priest consecrates his headgear (*śiroveṣṭa*) and sacerdotal thread (*yajñopavīta*) with appropriate *mantras*. One of these *mantras* "Bhargo Devasya Dhīmahi" is a part of the famous Gāyatrī. Another *mantra* is a fragment of a Vedic hymn which can be easily restored as follows :—

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ॐ ( शिव सूत्र' ) यज्ञोपवीतं परमं पवित्र' ।
प्रजाप ( तयैत् सहजं पुरीस्तात् ) ।
आयुष्यं ( अग्रं प्रतिमुञ्च शुभं ) ।
( यज्ञोपवीतं ) बलमस्तु तेजः ॥

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This *mantra* is found in Kāṭhaka Āraṇyaka, Brahmopaniṣad and the Gṛhya Sūtras (Baudhāyana, Vaikhānasa and Pāraskara).

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Thus while the *mantras* used in Java and Bali are mostly taken from Paurāṇik and Tāntrik texts, the presence of the two last mentioned *mantras* perhaps indicates acquaintance with later Vedic literature.

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10. The priest then silently performs *japa* and *dhyāna* with the help of his rosary containing 108 beads. By this process the soul is carried from abdominal cavity to the end of the top-knot (dvādaśāṅgula) of the hair, and Śiva takes its place in the body. Then several *mantras* are uttered including invocations to Śiva, Viṣṇu and Sūrya.

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11. After a short while new *mantras* are uttered, whereupon Śiva leaves the body and the soul comes back to its proper place. Then follows an invocation to Sūrya under ten different names. Immediately after this, the priest takes off his headgear, indicating that as he has again become an ordinary human being, he should no longer retain the symbol of Śiva. He then wipes off his face with his moist hand, puts a flower in his Śikhā (top-knot), places the remaining flowers in the water-pot and puts off the rosary. This finishes the ceremony.

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Some unpublished Javanese texts give an account of the ceremonials connected with the worship of Viṣṇu. We may quote as specimens, a few *mantras* addressed to (A) Viṣṇu, (B) his avatāra (incarnation) Narasimha, and (C) his vāhana (rider) Garuḍa.¹ These *mantras*, written in Sanskrit, are always accompanied by Old-Javanese version which explains and comments on them and sometimes adds new elements.

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¹ Cf. Juynboll's article in B.K.I. 1908, pp. 412-20.

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(A) (1) The Viṣṇu-stava describes the features and attributes of the great god.

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ॐ ॐ नमो विष्णु विमुखं विनयनचतुर्भुजं कणवर्णं स्फटिकाङ्गः सर्वभूषणनीलनं चक्रहस्त महातीक्ष्ण आत्मरक्ष इम्पस्थानः अमृतजीवनी देव सर्वशत्रु विनाशन्म् फट् स्वाहा। [ इम्प = liver. ]

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The idea that the god lives in different parts of the body is very common in these mantras.

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(2) The Viṣṇu-pañjara *mantra* refers to different Avatāras and surnames of Viṣṇu as protecting (*a*) different parts of the body, and (*b*) different directions.

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(a) पादौ रक्षन्तु गोविन्दौ जंघाभ्यञ्च विविक्रमः ।
ऊर्व्वन्तं केशवौ रक्षत् पृष्ठे रक्षत्तु वामनः ॥
वाह्वौ वासुदेवश्च नरसिंहः हृदिस्थितः ।
कण्ठे रक्षत्तु वराहः ऋष्याथ मुखमण्डलम् ॥
नेत्रे नारायणी रक्षत् ललाटे गरुडध्वजः ।
कपालि वैनतेयश्च केशवी शिरः संस्थितः ॥

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(b) पूर्व्वस्यां पुण्डरीकाक्ष अग्नेये श्रीधरस्तथा ।
पुरुषोत्तमो वरुण्यां वायव्यां पीतवाससः ॥
गदाधरश्च कौवीर्यां ऐशान्यां शङ्खमिष्यतेत् ।
पातालं कूर्मं रक्षत्तु आकाशश्च सुदर्शनः ॥
विष्णुपञ्जरं विष्णोहम् विचरामि महीतले ।
राजद्वारे पते गोरे संग्रामे रिपुसंकटे ॥
डाकिनीभूतप्रेतेषु भयो नास्ति कदाचन ।
अपुत्रो लभते पुत्रः धनहीनो धनं लभेत् ।
मुच्यते सर्व्वरोगेषु विष्णुलौकं स गच्छति ॥

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(B) Narasimha-dhyāna. It begins with ओं नरसिंहाय सर्व्वशत्रुविनाशाय पट् । Then follows a long list of epithets of the god, as holders of different weapons, each ending with the adjective *Sarva-śatru-vināśāya*. These weapons are *Khadga* (sword), *Śaṅkha* (conch-shell), *Sudarśana Cakra* (discus), *Gadā* (Mace), *Cāpa* (bow), *Śara* (arrow), *Taṅka* (chisel) and *Ardha-Candra* (half-moon).

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The *Narasimhāyudha-mantra*, whose aim and effect is to kill the enemy contains a description of the god.

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सप्तहाटकेकेशश्च ज्वलत्प्राभकलोचनः ।
वज्राधिकनखस्पर्शं दिव्यसिंह नमीस्तुते ॥

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(C) Gāruḍeya mantra.

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महाभैरवरूपश्च सुदांष्ट्ररक्तालोचनः ।
महानासी महाग्रीवो वायुवेगसमाश्रितः ।
ज्ञानः काञ्चनवर्णश्च नाभिदेशावलङ्कृतिः ॥
कण्ठदेशेऽर्कसन्निभः ऊर्ध्वाभिन्नजनाकृतिः ॥

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( read मूर्द्धा )

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महापीतं भवेद् वर्णं जान्वन्तं पादमूलकं ।
महाश्वेतं भवेद् वर्णं नाभ्यन्तं उरूमूलकं ।
महारक्तं भवेद् वर्णं हृन्मूलान्तलुलन्तकं ।
महाकृष्णं भवेद् वर्णं वदनादिशिरान्तकं ॥

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It is added in Old-Javanese, that this *mantra* is to be uttered before meals in order to get rid of the fear of poison, this evidently alluding to the enmity between Garuḍa and the snakes. It should be added here that the mythology of Garuḍa was very popular in Java and Bali and plays a prominent part in the art and literature of the Far East. The Garuḍa myth forms the subject-matter of many sculptures in Java and paintings in Bali. ¹

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¹ Cf. "De Geschiedenis Van Garuḍa" by Juynboll—Gedenkschrift, 1926, pp. 156-170.

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We have referred to these ceremonies and *mantras* in some detail, not only to indicate the important part they played in religious life, but also to demonstrate the extent and thorough-going nature of the influence which Hinduism had exercised in these far-off colonies. The fact that these *mantras* and ceremonies are prevalent in Bali even to-day would prove the complete mastery of ritualistic Hinduism which was once the conspicuous feature of the religious life of Malayasia.

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But although the rituals formed the chief feature of Hindu religion in Java as in India, the knowledge of philosophical concepts was not altogether lacking².

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² For details cf. Goris pp. 54-69.

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Not to speak of the later Tāntrik philosophy and the ideas associated with it, we have clear reference in Javanese texts to such philosophical concepts as praṇava, pradhāna-puruṣa-saṃyoga (of Sāṃkhya), prāṇayāma (of Yoga), tri-śakti, tri-puruṣa, daśa-bāyu, pañca-mahābhūta, pañca-tanmātra, etc. It is obviously impossible to go deep into these matters and we therefore refrain from discussing these any further.

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Of far greater interest, at least for our present purpose, is to give some details about the religious myths, legends and stories which may be regarded as constituting an important part of the popular form of religion. These may be easily gathered from a study of the extensive religious literature of Java. Unfortunately this vast store is yet mostly unexplored and we can do no better than take as our basis a typical text like Tantu Panggelaran which is known to us in a critical and scholarly edition.¹

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¹ De Tantu Panggelaran uitgegeven, vertaald en toegelicht door Th. Pigeaud (Hague, 1924)

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It is an Old-Javanese work dealing with religion, and was probably composed towards the end of the Hindu-Javanese period. It gives us a picture of the religious condition of Java, which conforms in the main to what we have said above. As this work may be taken as a representative specimen of its class we may refer to its contents at some length, in order to elucidate the religious conceptions in Java, at least in its ultimate phase.

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The Tantu is a work of the nature of Purāṇa and contains theology, cosmogony, mythological stories etc. The late Prof. Kern remarked that, to judge from the names of gods, goddesses and other divine beings, one would imagine himself to be in the world of Indian gods, but what is told of them differs in many respects from Indian versions. How this difference arose it is difficult to say. It may be due either to a misunderstanding of the Indian texts, or to the growth of local legends in Java, or perhaps partly to both. We should also not exclude the possibility of there being originally other versions in Indian texts, now lost, from which the Javanese author drew his inspiration. Of course, as is quite natural, the author transfers the scene of the most important events to Java. Thus he begins by saying that originally Mount Mahāmeru and Mount Mandara were in Jambudvīpa, but then the Lord Jagatpramāṇa with his spouse Parameśvarī went to Java and began to practise *yoga* in a place called Dihyang (Dieng). Under his orders Brahmā and Viṣṇu created mankind—men being created by the former and women by the latter—in a spot marked by Mount Pavinihan. Then the great Guru Lord Jagannātha (also called Lord Mahākāraṇa) directed the various gods to minister to the different needs of men, both material and spiritual. These gods are Brahmā, Viśvakarmā, Īśvara, Viṣṇu, Mahādeva, and Ciptagupta who dwelt in different parts of Java and performed the specific duties assigned to them. After doing their part they went back to heaven, leaving their children to continue their work. Specific mention is made of Viṣṇu and his spouse Śrī. They had five sons who took to various crafts and became progenitors of different classes of men.

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But there was one difficulty. Java was subject to frequent quaking, and in vain did the gods create mountains to stop it. Then the Lord Mahākāraṇa one day called together the gods, the ṛṣis (Nārada, Kapila, Ketu, Tumburu, Sapaka and Viśvakarmā), the Surāṅganās, the four Lokapālas (Indra, Yama, Varuṇa, and Kuvera), Vidyādharas and Gandharvas and asked them to go to Jambudvīpa and bring the Mandara mountain (also called Mahāmeru) to Java. They came to India and broke off the upper half of the mountain, the lower portion remaining *in situ*. Then Brahmā assumed the shape of a tortoise, on which the mountain was placed, and Viṣṇu became a snake, with which it was towed, admidst thunder and storm, by the gods, ṛṣis etc. The latter were tired by their efforts and felt thirsty. They drank water, which contained the poison Kālakuṭa, and were all killed. Then Lord Parameśvara drank off the poison, and thereby his throat became black and he was called nīlakaṇṭha. He converted the poisonous water into amṛta (tattvāmṛta), and as soon as it was sprinkled over the dead bodies of the gods, etc, they were restored to life. Then the Lord asked the daityas, dānavas, and rākṣasas to help the gods and the Mount Mandara was brought safely to Java. As it bore the traces of gods, this Mandara, the Mahāmeru (great mountain), also came to be called Kailāsa mountain.

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At first the mountain was fixed in the western corner of Java. But as the western half of Java subsided and the eastern half rose higher up, the Mandara was removed to the east. But the lower portion of the mountain remained in the west and a few pieces fell on the ground in course of transplantation. These became the hills known as Katong, Wilis, Kampud, Kawi, Arjjuna, and Kumukus. As the Mandara was thus damaged in one end it remained unstable till it was fixed up on the Brahmā mountain. Henceforth the island of Java ceased to quake and became stable. Therefore the Mahāmeru was named Niṣadha.

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This somewhat extensive quotation would give the reader a fair idea of the Javanese adaptation of the Hindu mythology. Nobody can fail to trace the source of the above story in the Paurāṇik tale of Samudra-manthana, and in the remaining part of the story we have the well-known episodes of (1) the amṛta being taken by the Rākṣasas, (2) the stealing of amṛta by Viṣṇu in the disguise of a beautiful woman, and (3) the enmity of Rāhu towards the sun and the moon, etc. But if the source is beyond doubt, the local adaptation is equally clear. The main object of the whole episode has been cleverly altered to suit the peculiar conditions of Java, and details of the story have been deliberately invented to associate the gods with the different localities of Java.

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Apart from local colouring we may note some peculiarities in the Javanese story. In the first place, Śiva or Mahādeva is distinguished from Īśvara, so that with Brahmā and Viṣṇu there are four chief gods instead of three.¹ But in other places reference is made to three gods.² Thus we are told that as soon as the Mandara mountain was firmly fixed up in Java, the Lord Parameśvara granted three riders (Vāhanas) to the three gods, white Bull to Lord Īśvara, white swan to Lord Brahmā, and the Garuḍadhvaja to Lord Viṣṇu.³ The splitting up of Īśvara and Mahādeva (or Śiva) into two gods, and the name Garuḍahvaja for Garuḍa may be regarded as due to misunderstanding on the part of the Javanese authors.

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¹ Ibid, p. 131, 139.

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² Ibid, p. 157.

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³ Ibid, p. 137.

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It is also worthy of note that in addition to the Hindu Trinity, there is throughout a conception of a supreme god⁴ called variously Jagatpramāṇa, Jagannātha, Mahākāraṇa, Parameśvara etc., or simply Guru. But indications are not wanting that here, again, there is a confusion of thought; for this great god is also represented as the husband of Umā,⁵ thereby betraying his identity with the Indian God Śiva. This great god is named Lord Guru (Bhaṭāra Guru) who had from Umā two children, Kāmadeva, the most beautiful of gods, and a girl called Smarī, and later on two more sons called Gaṇa and Kumāra. Kāmadeva being enamoured of Smarī, Rati, born out of her body, became his wife, another instance of the confusion of ideas.

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⁴ Ibid, p. 157.

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⁵ Ibid, p 140.

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On the whole the perusal of a text like Tantu Panggelaran enables us to realise how the theology, mythology, religious concepts, and the philosophy of Paurāṇik Hinduism made a thorough conquest of Java. The same view is strengthened by a study of the other religious texts, of which a short account is given in the appendix to this chapter.

§ 2. Buddhism

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We now turn to the other great religious sect, *viz.* Buddhism. We have seen above that the Hinayāna form of Buddhism was prevalent all over Malayasia towards the close of the seventh century A.D.¹ But the next century saw a great change at least in Java and Sumatra. The Hinayāna form was practically ousted by Mahāyāna which had a triumphal career in Sumatra and Java during the period of the Śailendra supremacy.

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¹ Cf. Bk. I. Ch. X.

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In Java it led to the erection of the famous Barabuḍur and several other magnificent temples which will be described in detail in a subsequent chapter. The predominance of Mahāyāna was not, however, limited only to a particular period and locality. Its monuments are also found in Eastern Java. The religion has left a prominent trace in caṇḍi Jago and many small temples which are scattered all over the island. It may be presumed, therefore, that Buddhism, particularly its Mahāyāna form, became a very popular religion in Java among the masses. The same thing may also be said of Sumatra. On the whole it may be safely presumed that as in the old days, Suvarṇadvīpa continued to be a strong centre of Buddhism. The international character of Buddhism gave Suvarṇadvīpa a status and importance, and brought it into intimate contact with India and the other Buddhist countries. It has already been stated above that the Śailendra kings were in close touch with the political powers of India and that the Buddhist preachers from Bengal exerted influence on Javanese Buddhism. It is also on record that eminent Buddhist scholars like Atīśa Dīpaṅkara² of Bengal (eleventh century A.D.) and Dharmapāla³ of Kāñcī, who was a Professor at Nālandā in the seventh century A.D., went to Suvarṇadvīpa as it formed an important seat of Buddhist learning. The study of Buddhist literature in Java is proved not only by the discovery of important Buddhist texts but also by the sculptures of Barabuḍur and other religious monuments which presuppose a wide range of knowledge in its various branches.

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² Sarat Chandra Das—Indian Pandits in the land of snow, p. 50.

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³ Kern—Manual of Buddhism, p. 130.

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The international character of Buddhism perhaps explains the absence of any material modification of its principal tenets and belief. This is best illustrated by a study of the Buddhist iconography in Java. Here the entire hierarchy of the Mahāyānist gods makes its appearance. The Ādi-Buddha and Prajñā-Pāramitā, the Dhyāni Buddhas and Mānuṣi Buddhas, the Bodhisattvas and the Tārās, all make their appearance almost in identical forms and names, and we also meet with the familiar postures called Mudrā in the delineation of these images. A more detailed reference to these will be found in the chapter dealing with Art. Here it will suffice to state that in addition to the image of Gautama Buddha, those of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara were most popular in Java and Sumatra, though Maitreya and Mañjuśrī were also great favourites. The images of Tārās were also very familiar. Slight discrepancies are sometimes noticeable in the Javanese representation of these divinities. Thus, in India, Śyāmā-Tārā is represented with the right hand in vara-mudrā, and a lotus (utpala) in the left, while Javanese image with these attributes is expressly named as Māmak(h)i. Śyāmā-Tārā is, on the other hand, represented in Java in the dharma-cakra-mudrā, holding a lotus without stem. Again, Locanā, Śakti of Akṣobhya, is in Java represented as the Śakti of Vairocana. But with these minor modifications the entire Mahāyānist Pantheon seems to be well-represented in Java.

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The later phases of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India are also met with in Java. We may note in particular four of them, viz. (1) The adoption of Hindu gods in the Buddhist pantheon, (2) introduction of minor and miscellaneous divinities, some of a terrible appearance, (3) the development of Tāntrik mode of worship, and (4) the gradual rapprochement between Mahāyāna and Brāhmanical religion.

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As in India, Hindu gods like Brahmā, Śiva, Gaṇeśa and Indra were adopted in the Buddhist pantheon, but they were relegated to an inferior and sometimes even to a degraded position. In the earlier period they were represented as attendants of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, but in later times their images, even those of Śiva and Pārvatī, are represented as being trodden under foot by the Buddhist gods. The change seems to be due to the introduction of a class of minor gods in Mahāyānism. These are regarded as protectors of the devotees or defenders of the faith, though they occupied a rank distinctly inferior to the aristocratic family of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and Tārās referred to above. As prominent examples of these may be mentioned Trailokyavijaya, Hevajra, Bhr̥kuṭi, Heruka, Māricī, Hayagrīva and Kuvera. The last-mentioned one, although originally a Hindu god, was taken over into the minor Buddhist pantheon and thus escaped the fate which overtook his superior gods. Some of these minor gods are of either monstrous or terrible appearance, like their Indian prototype, but in one case at least, that of Māricī, the Javanese form presents a benign human figure in *vara-mudrā* attitude, in striking contrast to her Indian prototype, with a hideous pig-face, standing in a menacing attitude on a chariot drawn by seven pigs.

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The image of Trailokyavijaya¹ found in Java aptly illustrates the point noted above. It stands on the prostrate bodies of Śiva and Gaurī and has four (or five) heads, eight hands and a necklace composed of the images of Amitābha. It is represented in *vajra-huṁkāra-mudrā*, and holds in his hands a variety of weapons, such as sword, thunderbolt (*vajra*), discus, elephant-goad, noose, bow, and arrow.

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¹ See Pl. XLVI.

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Among the minor gods of monstrous and terrible appearance mention may be made of Hayagrīva and Heruka. Hayagrīva, as the name indicates, has the head of a horse (sometimes placed above three ordinary human heads), wild hair adorned with human skulls, and *uparīta* made of a double line of snakes. He holds in his hands various attributes, such as mace, sword, bow, and arrow.

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The image of Heruka is very rare, even in India, only three being known up to date. As such it is interesting to note a recent discovery of this image in the Bairo Bahal Temple (No. II) in Sunatra¹. The image corresponds to the *sādhanā* and to its Indian proto-type. The god is represented in a dancing attitude with a devilish smile (or grin) in his face. His hairs rise up like flames and he wears a garland made of human skulls (and probably joined together by entrails as the *sādhanā* says). He holds the thunderbolt in his right hand and a human skull serving as a wine-bowl in his left. On his left shoulder lies a *khaṭvāṅga* (a club or mace) and to its upper end is fastened a flapping banner with small bells.

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¹ See Pl. LXVIII, Fig. 2. O.V. 1930, p. 139 pl. 40-42.

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The evolution of these monstrous and terrible gods in the Buddhist pantheon unerringly indicates its later degraded form known generally as Tāntrism, which comes into prominence simultaneously both in Hinduism and Buddhism. The object of Tāntrism, to take the most favourable view, was to obtain, by supernatural or magical practices, the highest spiritual power or bliss even in this life without having to undergo a series of births as original Buddhism contemplated. But both the objects and the means were not unoften extremely degraded. Instead of the attainment of spiritual power not a few strove only for the acquisition of material advantages. As to the depraved and revolting nature of the means we may mention the Pañcatattva or Pañcamakāra which enjoins upon the devotees the free enjoyment of *madya* (wine), *māṃsa* (meat), *matsya* (fish), *mudrā* (various postures), and *maithuna* (sexual intercourse), and also of the *cakra*, *i.e.* secret sitting in a circle of men and women practising mysterious and obscene rites. It is unnecessary to go into details about the development of this aspect of Tantrayāna or Tantra-cult for which adequate information is available in the many standard treatises. The following passage from Kern's *Manual of Buddhism* admirably sums up the general view of the subject.

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"The development of Tāntrism is a feature that Buddhism and Hinduism in their later phases have in common. The object of Hindu Tāntrism is the acquisition of wealth, mundane enjoyments, rewards for moral actions, deliverance, by worshipping Durgā, the Śakti of Śiva—Prajñā in the terminology of the Mahāyāna—through means of spells, muttered prayers, Samādhi, offerings &c. Similarly the Buddhist Tantras purpose to teach the adepts how by a supernatural way to acquire desired objects, either of a material nature, as the elixir of longevity, invulnerability, invisibility, alchymy; or of a more spiritual character, as the power of evoking a Buddha or a Bodhisattva to solve a doubt, or the power of achieving in this life the union with some divinity."

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The Tantrayāna, even in its most debased form, Kālacakra-tantra, prevailed in Java and Sumatra, as we have already seen above² in connection with the history of king Kṛtanagara. About a certain text of this sect the late Dr. R. L. Mitra observed as follows:

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² Cf. Part I, p. 304.

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"The professed object is devotion of the highest kind, but in working it out, theories are indulged in and practices enjoined which are at once the most revolting and horrible that human depravity could think of. The work is reckoned to be the sacred scripture of millions of intelligent beings³."

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³ Nepalese Buddhist Literature, p. 261.

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It is not perhaps difficult to explain the rise of Tāntrism in Java. The Tibetan historian Tāranātha informs us that the Pāla period witnessed a great development of the cult. As we have seen above, the Śailendra kings were in close touch with the Pāla kings of Bengal, and learned Buddhist priests from Bengal exerted great influence over the religion of Sumatra and Java. It is, therefore, perhaps not unreasonable to assume that Tāntrism, like Mahāyānism, flowed from Bengal to Malayasia. This view is further strengthened by the date of the Buddhist Tāntrik text Sang hyang Kamahāyānikan. This work, which deals with the theory and practice of Tantra, and to which more detailed reference will be made later on, was probably composed in the Śailendra period and revised in the reign of Siṇḍok by Saṁbharasūryāvaraṇa.¹ To the same author is also ascribed the Javanese Subhūti-tantra² which formed the most favourite subject of study of king Kṛtanagara. Thus Tāntrism, which flourished later in Eastern Java, had already its beginning in the tenth century A. D. while the Pālas were yet ruling in Bengal.

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¹ p. 133.

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¹ Goris, p. 156. Krom—Geschiedenis², p. 219.

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² Krom—op. cit., pp. 219-220.

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Recently the Dutch scholar Moens has dealt in great detail with this last and decadent phase of Buddhism in Sumatra and Java, and we refer the inquisitive readers to his learned article³ for the theological and philosophical aspects of the question. It will suffice here to state that we can trace the influence of Tāntrism in the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D. by the prominent parts played by Tāntrik teachers during the reigns of Airlangga and Jayabhaya.⁴ During the thirteenth century it had two great devotees in kings Kṛtanagara of Java and Ādityavarman of Sumatra. The accounts of these two kings, the images of Bhairava, Heruka and other Tāntrik gods and goddesses as well as the Tāntrik texts give us unmistakable proof of the nature and extent of this degraded form of Buddhism which ultimately proved its ruin.

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³ T.B.G., Vol. LXIV (1924), pp. 521 ff.

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⁴ Cf. the story of Bharāḍa (Bk III. Ch. III). A high official of Jayabhaya with jurisdiction over spiritual matter is called Bhairava-mārgānugamana and ‘yogiśvarādhikāra,’ (Krom—Geschiedenis² p. 295.)

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Reference has already been made ( Bk. III. Ch. IV ) to the religious activities of Kṛtanagara. It is a sad comment on the religious condition of the time that this great king, believed to be an incarnation of Jina, and undoubtedly endowed with power and talents of a high order, could indulge, perhaps in sincere faith, even in such obnoxious practices as pañca-makāra and sādhana-cakra. According to Moens the king was represented after his death by a Bhairava image which is now at Leyden.¹ The image is a terrible and repulsive one, a naked corpulent figure decorated with human skulls all over his body, dancing on a seat made up of or supported by human skulls. It has protruding teeth and bulging eyes, and holds in his four hands a trident, dagger, ḍamaru, and an inverted human skull forming a bowl of wine. Whether this Bhairava image really represented the deified form of the king may be doubted, but it seems almost certain that the image verily personifies the crude and obnoxious religious faith of the time.

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¹ T.B.G., Vol, LXIV, plate facing p. 546.

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Moens has also proved that King Ādityavarman was a great follower of the Bhairava cult. According to his interpretation the Surcasa inscription of 1297 Śaka seems to refer to Kāpālika practices indulged in by King Ādityavarman. The king assumed the title Viśeṣadharaṇī after performing, according to the Bhairava cult, the highest consecration ceremony which included a human sacrifice in the cremation ground. Seated on a corpse, he was drinking the blood of the victim who was being consumed in a blazing fire. Here, again, although this interpretation is not absolutely certain, the inscriptions of Ādityavarman leave no doubt that the king was a follower of Tantrayāna, and indulged in its obnoxious practices. He looked upon himself as an incarnation of Bhairava and his queen as that of Mātaṅginī, one of the ten Mahāvidyās.

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From a study of Tantrayāna we may now pass on to the last phase of Mahāyāna, viz. a syncretism of the different Hindu and Buddhist gods. It is a well-known fact that in its very origin Mahāyānism shows clear influence of both Vaiṣṇavism and Śaivism. That there was growing tendency of rapprochement between the last two sects is indicated by the image of Hari-Hara, *i.e.* the joint representation of Śiva and Viṣṇu, and a clear expression of the identity of the two gods in religious texts. Now, in a similar way, there was an attempt towards a synthesis between Vaiṣṇavism and Buddhism by regarding Buddha as an incarnation of Viṣṇu. With the development of Tantrayāna these identities assumed a more definite form.

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The close association between Śiva and Buddha is a characteristic feature of Javanese religion. The two deities have been identified in such books as Kuñjarakarṇa and Sutasoma. This question has been dealt at length by Kern and Rassers.¹ In modern Balinese theology Buddha is regarded as a younger brother of Śiva, and there is a close rapprochement between the two doctrines. A similar Śiva-Buddha cult existed in Java. Further researches have shown that Śiva, Viṣṇu, and Buddha were all regarded as identical and so were their Śaktis. Here, again, the point is well illustrated by the case of king Kṛtanagara. He called himself Narasimha-mūrti, *i.e.* an image of Viṣṇu in the incarnation of Narasimha (Man-lion). But he was also known as Śiva-Buddha, and was represented after his death by an image of Śiva-Buddha. His father king Viṣṇuvardhana was represented after his death by the images of both Śiva and Buddha, while the cousin of the latter, who shared the royal honours with him, was called Narasimha-mūrti, but was represented by an image of Śiva. These are not instances of faith in different gods, but rather of a belief that these different gods are identical. The evidence thereof is furnished by the growing popularity of the image of Hari-Hara at this period. It may be remembered that Kṛtarājasa, the son-in-law and successor of Kṛtanagara, is represented by a fine image of the god Hari-Hara.

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¹ Kern—V.G. IV (149-177). Rassers—Gedenkschrift, B.K.I. 1926, pp. 222-253.

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The Tāntrik texts definitely identify the three gods in the form of Bhairava. Thus Tārā-tantra says: "He, Janārdana, is the excellent Deva in the form of Buddha, the Kulabhairava". The images of Bhairava which we meet with in Java and Sumatra may, therefore, be regarded as the visible symbol of the Tāntrik syncretism of the gods of different sects. This gradual obliteration of sharp differences between the different sects and a growing conviction of their essential unity, in spite of outward observances, is also very clearly reflected in Javanese religious literature.

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We have already surveyed a few texts regarding Hinduism in Java and may now pass on to those belonging to Buddhism. The earliest and best-known works in this field are Sang hyang Kamahāyānan Mantranaya and Sang hyang Kamahāyānikan, both Mahāyāna texts.¹

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¹ Sang Hyang Kamahāyānikan—Oud-Javaansche Tekst met inleiding, vertaling, aanteekeningen door J. Kats (The Hague, 1910). For the dates and gradual additions to the text, cf. pp. 5-9, and also Goris, pp. 151-156.

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The first work consists of Sanskrit verses with Javanese translation, while the second consists of a somewhat free Javanese version of a Sanskrit original, interspersed with a number of original Sanskrit verses. The latter text is known in several redactions. It was probably composed in the Śailendra period and modified at a subsequent date. During or shortly after Siṇḍok's reign, in the first half of tenth century A.D.,² it was further modified in a manner which has been regarded as a Hinduised or Śaiva version of a Buddhist original. This in itself is of great significance, as marking an important landmark in the religious evolution of Java.

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