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Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire (A.D. 1346 – A.D. 1646) v2.c23: Chapter VII. Habitation, Dress and Food

Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire (A.D. 1346 – A.D. 1646) v2.c23

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English

Contents

Chapter VII. Habitation, Dress and Food

Section I Houses

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FROM the accounts of foreign travellers we can gather some information about the food, dress and houses of the people and princes of Vijayanagara. Paes relates the following about the general situation of the royal palace: "This palace of the king is surrounded by a very strong wall like some of the others, and encloses a greater space (*teraa moor cerca*) than all the castle of Lisbon."[²] The same chronicler gives a detailed description of the royal palace, "The palace is on this fashion: it has a gate opening on to the open space of which I have spoken, and over this gate is a tower of some height, made like the others with its verandahs; outside these gates begins the wall which I said encircled the palace. At the gate are many doorkeepers with leather scourges in their hands, and sticks, and they let no one enter but the captains and chief people, and those about whom they receive orders from the Chief of the Guard. Passing this gate you have an open space, and then you have another gate like the first, also with its doorkeepers and guards; and as soon as you enter inside this you have a large open space, and on one side and the other are low verandahs where are seated the captains and chief people in order to witness the feasts, and on the left side of the north of this open space is a great one-storeyed building (terrea); all the rest are like it. This building stands on pillars shaped like elephants and with other figures, and all open in front, and they go up to it by staircases of stone; around it, underneath, is a terrace (corredor) paved with very good flagstones, where stand some of the people looking at the feast."¹

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² Sewell, For Emp., p. 254.

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¹ Sewell, For Emp., p. 263.

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The same Portuguese chronicler tells us why they were allowed to see the interior of the palace. "The king (Kṛiṣhṇa Dēva Rāya), then, being in his new city, as I have said, Christovão de Figueiredo begged him of his kindness that he would permit him to be shown the palace of the city of Bisnaga, forasmuch as there had come with him many Portuguese who had never been in Bisnaga, and they would rejoice to see it, in order to have somewhat to tell of on their return to their own lands, whenever God should take them there. The king at once commanded that they should be shown certain of his residences, for that of his wives no one ever sees. As soon as we had returned to the city of Bisnaga, the governor of that place, who is called Gamdarajo, and is brother of Salvatinica,² showed us the palace.

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² The "Guandaja" of Nuniz, Sewell, ibid., pp. 284, n. (1) 361. I believe this name stands for Sājuva Gōvinda Rāja, who has already figured in these pages. B. A. S.

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"You must know that on entering that gate of which I have spoken, by which the ladies serving the king's wives make their exit when they come to the feast, opposite to it there is another of the same kind. Here they bade us stand still, and they counted us how many we were, and as they counted they admitted us one by one to a small courtyard with a smoothly plastered floor, and with very white walls around it. At the end of this courtyard, opposite this gate by which we entered, is another close to it on the left hand, and another which was closed; the door opposite belongs to the king's residence. At the entrance of this door outside are two images painted like life and drawn in their manner, which are these; the one on the right hand is of the father of this king, and the one on the left is of this king. The father was dark and a gentleman of fine form, stouter than the son is; they stand with all their apparel and such raiment as they wear or used to wear when alive. Afterwards, wishing to pass in at this door, they again counted us, and after they had finished counting us we entered a little house which contained what I shall now relate.

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"As soon as you are inside, on the left hand, are two chambers one above the other, which are in this manner: the lower one is below the level of the ground, with two little steps which are covered with copper gilded, and from there to the top is all lined with gold (I do not say 'gilded' but 'lined' inside), and outside it is dome-shaped. It has a four-sided porch made of cane-work over which is a work of rubies and diamonds and all other kinds of precious stones, and pearls, and above the porch are two pendants of gold; all the precious stone-work is in heart-shapes, and, interweaved between one and another, is a twist of thick seed-pearl work; on the dome are pendants of the same. In this chamber was a bed which had feet similar to the porch, the cross-bars covered with gold, and there was on it a mattress of black satin; it had all round it a railing of pearls a span wide; on it were two cushions and no other covering. Of the chamber above it I shall not say if it held anything because I did not see it, but only the one below on the right side. In this house there is a room with pillars of carved stone; this room is all of ivory, as well the chamber as the walls, from top to bottom, and the pillars of the cross-timbers at the top had roses and flowers of lotuses all of ivory, and all well executed, so that there could not be better,—it is so rich and beautiful that you would hardly find anywhere another such. On this same side is designed in painting all the ways of life of the men who have been here even down to the Portuguese, from which the king's wives can understand the manner in which each one lives in his own country, even to the blind and the beggars. In this house are two thrones covered with gold, and a cot of silver with its curtains."¹

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¹ Sewell, *For. Emp.*, pp. 284-6.

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Then they passed on to a courtyard which will be described in the following pages of this treatise. "Then at the entrance of this building in the middle nave, there is, standing on four pillars, a canopy covered with many figures of dancing-women, besides other small figures which are placed in the stone-work. All this is also gilded, and has some red colour on the under-sides of the leaves which stand out from the sculpture".²

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² Ibid., pp. 286-7.

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"Descending from this building, we passed on the left side of the courtyard, and we entered a corridor which runs the whole length of it, in which we saw some things. On entering the corridor was a cot suspended in the air by silver chains; the cot had feet made of bars of gold, so well made that they could not be better, and the cross-bars of the cot were covered with gold. In front of this cot was a chamber where was another cot suspended in the air by chains of gold; this cot had feet of gold with much setting of precious stones, and the cross-bars were covered with gold. Above this chamber was another, smaller, and with nothing in it save only that it was gilt and painted. Passing this chamber, along the same corridor in front was a chamber which this king commanded to be made; on the outside were figures of women with bows and arrows like amazons. They had begun to paint this chamber, and they told us that it had to be finer than the others, and that it was to be all plated with gold, as well the ground below as all the rest. Passing this corridor and mounting up into another which is higher, we saw at one end three caldrons of gold, so large that in each one they could cook half a cow, and with them were others, very large ones, of silver, and also little pots of gold and some large ones. Thence we went up by a little staircase, and entered by a little door into a building which is in this manner".¹ This was the royal dancing hall which will be described at length in the chapter on games and amusements. The concluding lines of Paes are significant: "They did not show us more than this (dancing hall). The residence of the women no one may see except the eunuchs, of whom I have already told you. From here we returned by the way we had entered to the second gate, and there they again counted us."²

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¹ Sewell, For. Emp. pp. 287-8.

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² Ibid., p. 289.

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Pietro della Valle in A. D. 1623, gives us a picture of the provincial palace at Ikkēri. "In this manner we rode to the Palace, which stands in a Fort, or Citadel, of good largeness, incompass'd with a great Ditch and certain ill built bastions. At the entrance we found two very strong, but narrow, Bulwarks. Within the Citadel are many Houses, and I believe there are shops also in several streets; for we pass'd through two Gates, at both of which stood Guards, and all the distance between them was an inhabited street. We went through these two Gates on Horse-back, which, I believe, was a privilege, for few did so besides our selves, namely such onely as entred where the King was; the rest either remaining on Horse-back at the first Gate, or alighting at the Entrance of the second. A third Gate also we enter'd, but on Foot, and came into a kind of Court, about which were sitting in Porches many prime Courtiers and other persons of quality. Then we came to a fourth Gate, guarded with Souldiers, into which onely we Franchi, or Christians, and some few others of the Country, were suffer'd to enter; and we presently found the King (Veṅkaṭappa Nāyaka), who was seated in a kind of Porch on the opposite side of a small Court, upon a Pavement somewhat rais'd from the Earth, cover'd with a Canopy like a square Tent, but made of boards, and gilded. The Floor was cover'd with a piece of Tapestry something old, and the King sat, after the manner of the East, upon a little Quilt on the out-side of the Tent, leaning upon one of the pillars which up-held it on the right hand, having at his back two great Cushions of fine white Silk. Before him lay his Sword, adorn'd with Silver, and a little on one side, almost in the middle of the Tent, was a small, eight-corner'd, Stand, painted and gilded, either to write upon, or else to hold some thing or other of his. On the right hand and behind the King, stood divers Courtiers, one of whom continually wav'd a piece of fine white linen, as if to drive away the flies from the King. Besides the King there was but one person sitting, and he the principal Favourite of the Court, call'd Pulapaaia, and he sat at a good distance from him, on the right hand, near the wall."¹

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¹ Pietro della Valle, *Travels*, II, pp. 250-2.

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As regards the houses of the nobles there are but meagre notices in the foreign accounts. In the course of his description of the manner in which the king of Vijayanagara started on his compaigns, Barbosa makes, as we saw in an earlier connection "a ridiculous statement" to the following effect: "When the time is fulfilled he issues a proclamation (ordering that the whole city shall be at once set on fire, saving the palaces, fortresses and temples, and those of certain lords which are not thatched...)"² But we may reject this last assertion on the strength of his own evidence and that of Paes. Barbosa in another passage says: "In the city as well there are palaces after the same fashion (i.e., "with many enclosed courts and great houses very well built", and with "wide open spaces, with water tanks in great numbers, in which there is reared abundance of fish"), wherein dwell the great Lords and Governoursthereof."¹ Paes writes about the "houses of captains and other rich and honourable men," with many "figures and decorations pleasing to look at."²

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² Barbosa, Dames, I, p. 225; Stanley, p. 97. Dames explains why this is "a ridiculous statement", ibid., n. (1)., The nobles had elaborate houses in Gingee. Heras, I. A., LIV., p. 43. See *supra* Volume I, p 144.

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¹ Barbosa, Dames, I, p. 202 ; Stanley, p. 85.

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² Sewell, For. Emp., p. 254.

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The houses of the ordinary people seem to have been of course modest in their appearance. The few details we have about them in the inscriptions are supplemented by the remarks of foreign travellers. Hindu tradition has always associated a house with a garden around it.³ In southern India there is good reason to believe that people lived in early times in houses built of bricks and burnt tiles.⁴ From an inscription dated A. D. 1372 we can make out that houses in Karṇāṭaka,—and we may as well presume, also in the Tamil land,—were built according to standard rules. The record narrates, as we have already seen, the activities of the Pañchāḷas, and speaks of the "Five foundations, . . . domes, pinnacles, crests and the sixteen signs of the original house, the signs of the sacrificial hall, the sign of the pit for consecrated fire, the sign of slopes, etc., according to standard rules, for these and all other signs."⁵

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³ Bāṇa, Harshacharita, p. 67. For some notices of houses in the Buddist times, see Acharya, Dicty. of Hind. Arch, p. 11.

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⁴ S. I. I., II, P. III, p. 360.

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⁵ E. C., IV, Gu. 34, p. 42, op. cit.

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That the people were not unacquainted with house-sites is evident from two records dated Śaka 1343 (A. D. 1421-2) and Śaka 1348, Parābhava (A. D. 1426-7) respectively. The former which belongs to the reign of Vira Bhūpati Oḍēyar, informs us that a gift of a house-site was made to a private individual.⁶ The latter contains the information that in the reign of Kumāra Dēva Rāya (II), eight house-sites in Jayaṅgoṇḍachōḷamaṇḍalam, being declared lost to the stānattār of Māḍanpākkam, and that fresh sites were given to them in the street of the Kaikkōḷar of the same town.⁷

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⁶ 653 of 1902.

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⁷ 319 of 1911.

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We can only assume that the size of the houses in Vijayanagara must have remained much the same as it was in the thirteenth century. In about A. D. 1297, the Brahmans (of Bogguvaḷḷi in Tarikere tāluka ?) made a settlement as to the size of the houses in the first and second rows, and of the gardens. It ran thus: *mahājanaṅgaḷu māḍida grāma samaya manē-prathama-nivēśanakke hannoṇḍu kayi dvitīya-nivēśanakke hattu kayi tōṇṭa-vṛttige kamba eṇṭu kaḷani-vṛttige henneraḍu-kayya agala nālvattu kayya agala ī-mariyādeyalu māḍida dhruva*¹.

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¹ *E. C.*, VI., Tk. 89, p. 123, text, p. 476.

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A record dated A. D. 1328 contains some additional details as regards the size of the houses. We are told in this inscription that there were some houses which measured six cubits in width and twenty cubits in length, others which were twelve cubits wide and twenty cubits long, and others still twelve cubits wide and thirty cubits long.²

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² *E. C.*, IV, Yl. 39, p. 31, op. cit.

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A copper-plate grant dated A. D. 1336, of doubtful authenticity, ascribed to the times of Bukka Rāya, gives us some idea of the cost of building a house. On the reverse of this grant we are told that Rāmaṇa Gauḍa, who along with five others had received certain villages from the king as a gift, borrowed 300 *nāṇanka varāha* from Rāma Reḍḍi for the construction of houses in the newly acquired plot.³ From a record dated A. D. 1393 we learn that houses had upper storeys (*māḷige*)⁴ They may have had their houses whitewashed in the manner Sāḷuva Gōparasa-ayyaṇ did the spires he had caused to be built for the temple of the god Raghunāyaka of Yajñavāṭika in Koṇḍavīḍu in Śaka 1442 (A. D. 1520-1)⁵

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³ S. R. Aiyangar, *Cat. of C. P.*, in the *Mad. Mus.*, No. 1, p. 42. The Śaka year given is 1001! The plate evidently cannot be relied upon for historical purposes.

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⁴ *E. C.*, X, Kl. 150, p. 53.

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⁵ *Ep. Ind.*, VI, p. 232. For house-building ceremony, see *Grihya Sūtras* (Śaṅkhāyana), Part I, 3 Adhyaya, Kaṇḍa 2, p. 92 *seq*.

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The remarks of foreign travellers on the habitation of the people are more numerous than those given in the inscriptions. We have had an occasion of citing the testimony of ‘Abdur Razzāq who speaks highly of the houses of Bidrūr, which were like palaces.¹ According to Barbosa, "The other houses of the people are thatched, but none the less are very well built and arranged according to occupations, in long streets with many open spaces."² Paes as usual has some interesting observations to make on this subject. While describing the first range of fortifications, he says "... and inside very beautiful rows of buildings made after their manner with flat roofs."³ Then, again, while dealing with Nāgalāpura: "In this city the king made a temple with many images. It is a thing very well made, and it has some wells very well made after their fashion; its houses are not built with stories like ours, but are of only one floor, with flat roofs and towers, different from ours, for theirs go from storey to storey. They have pillars, and are all open, with verandahs inside and out, where they can easily put people if they desire, so that they seem like houses belonging to a king. These palaces have an enclosing wall which surrounds them all, and inside are many rows of houses."⁴ Further, we have the following by the same chronicler: "... and (we) entered some beautiful houses made in the way I have already told you—for their houses are single-storeyed houses with flat roofs on top, although on top there may be other houses; the plan is good, and they are like terraces."⁵ Finally, while describing the population of the capital, he says: "Of the city of Bisnaga they say that there are more than a hundred thousand dwelling-houses in it, all one-storeyed and flat-roofed, to each of which there is a low surrounding wall...."⁶

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¹ Elliot, *Hist. of. India*, IV, p. 104 Supra, Volume I., pp. 74—5.

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² *Barbosa*, Dames, I, p. 202; Stanley, p. 85; Sewell, *For. Emp.* p. 129.

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³ Sewell, ibid., p. 244.

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⁴ *Ibid.*, p. 246.

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⁵ *Ibid.*, p. 286.

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⁶ *Ibid.*, p. 290.

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Caesar Frederick in A.D. 1567 remarked thus: "The houses stand walled with the earth, and plaine, all saving the three Palaces of the three tyrant Brethren, and the Pagodes which are Idoll houses: these are made with Lime and fine Marble."⁷

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⁷ Caesar Frederick, *Purchas, Pilgrims*, X, p. 97.

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Linschoten in A. D. 1583, while describing the " Canariins and Corumbiins ", says : " They dwell in little straw Houses, the doores whereof are so low, that men must creepe in and out, their household stuffe is a Mat upon the ground to sleepe upon, and a Pit or hole in the ground to beat their Rice in, with a Pot or two to seeth it in, and so they live and gaine so much, as it is a wonder."¹

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¹ Linschoten, Purchas, Pilgrims X., p. 262.

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Pietro della Valle noticed in A. D. 1623 a universal custom which escaped the attention of the previous travellers. " When we arriv'd at this Town (which he calls Tumbrē) we found the pavements of the Cottages were varnish'd over with Cow-dung mix'd with water; a custom of the Gentiles in the places where they are wont to eat, as I have formerly observ'd. I took it for a superstitious Rite of Religion; but I since better understand that it is us'd only for elegancy and ornament, because not using, or not knowing how to make, such strong and lasting pavements like ours, theirs, being made sleightly of Earth and so easily spoyl'd, therefore when they are minded to have them plain, smooth and firm, they smear the same over with Cow-dung temper'd with water, in case it be not liquid (for if it be there needs no water), and plaining it either with their hands, or some other instrument, and so make it smooth, bright, strong and of a fine green colour, the Cows whose dung they use never eating anything but Grass; and it hath one convenience, that this polishing is presently made, is soon dry and endures walking, or anything else, to be done upon it; and the Houses wherein we lodg'd we found were preparing thus at our coming, and presently dry enough for our use. Indeed this is a pretty Curiosity, and I intend to cause tryal to be made of it in Italy, and the rather because they say for certain that the Houses whose pavements are thus stercorated, are good against the Plague, which is no despicable advantage. Onely it hath this evil, that its handsomeness and politeness lasteth not, but requires frequent renovation, and he that would have it handsome must renew it every eight, or ten days; yet, being a thing easie to be done and of so little charge, it matters not for a little trouble which every poor person knows how to dispatch. The *Portugals* use it in their Houses at *Goa* and other places of *India*; and in brief, 'tis certain that it is no superstitious custom, but onely for neatness and ornament; and therefore 'tis no wonder that the *Gentiles* use it often and perhaps every day, in places where they eat, which above all the rest are to be very neat".¹

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¹ Pietro della Valle, *Travels* II, pp. 230-1.

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The above rather lengthy digression into the use of cow-dung is not altogether valueless, since it is a feature of the Hindu houses which deserves special mention because of its universality. Pietro della Valle has some more remarks to make on the houses inside the palace at Ikkēri. "Some say there are others within, belonging to the Citadel, or Fort, where the Palace is; for *Ikkeri* is of good largeness, but the Houses stand thinly and are ill built, especially without the third inclosure; and most of the situation is taken by great and long streets, some of them shadow'd with high and very goodly trees growing in Lakes of Water . . ."²

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² *Ibid*, p. 245. For some assumptions as regards houses in Vijayanagara, see Longhurst, *Hampi Ruins*, p. 111; for remarks on rural habitation in southern India, see Hayavadana Rao, *Q. J. M. S.* XIV, p. 318 *seq*.

Section 2. Dress and Ornaments

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Kṛṣṇa Dēva Rāya remarks thus about dress and ornaments: "Take a gem that is flawless and wear it always. On all the days of the week a king should wear the dress and ornaments made of gems befitting his own greatness and the occasions."³ 'Abdur Razzāq describes the dress of the monarch when he sat in the audience-hall ready to receive foreign ambassadors. "The king (Dēva Rāya II) was seated in great state in the forty-pillared hall, and a great crowd of Brahmans and others stood on the right and left of him. He was clothed in a robe of *zaitūn* (olive coloured?)⁴ satin, and he had round his neck a collar composed of pure pearls of regal excellence, the value of which a jeweller would find it difficult to calculate."¹ Evidently the maxim of Kṛṣṇa Dēva Rāya had already found favour with his predecessors.

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³ *Amuktamālyada*, v, 283, *J. I. H.*, IV, P. III, p. 76.

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⁴ Elliot, *Hist of India*, IV, p. 113, n. (2).

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¹ Elliot, Hist. of Ind, IV. p. 113; Sewell, For. Emp., p. 92.

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Foreign travellers were interested also in the garments worn by the monarch. Varthema says: "The king wears a cap of gold brocade two spans long, and when he goes to war he wears a quilted dress of cotton, and over it he puts another garment full of golden piastres, and having all around it jewels of various kinds."² Paes gives many details about the personality of the great ruler Kṛṣṇa Dēva Rāya,³ and also about the dress he wore when he received foreign ambassadors. "The king was clothed in certain white cloths embroidered with many roses in gold, and a pateca of diamonds on his neck of very great value, and on his head he had a cap of brocade in fashion like a Galician helmet, covered with a piece of fine stuff all of fine silk, and he was barefooted..."⁴

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² Varthema, Jones, p. 129; Temple, p. 53; Sewell, ibid., p. 118.

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³ Sewell, ibid., pp. 246-7.

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⁴ Ibid., pp. 251-2. Cf. the description of Harshavardhana given by Bāṇa, Harshacharita, p. 61.

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There was one new feature, therefore, in the dress of the monarch which did not exist in the days of Deva Raya II, and this was the high cap worn "like a Galician helmet". Paes in his description of the twenty women-porters already cited elsewhere, tells us that they also wore high caps called 'collaes' (kullāyi), "and on these caps they wear flowers made of large pearls".⁵ Nuniz confirms him in this detail of the high caps worn by the kings. "The King never puts on any garment more than once, and when he takes it off he at once delivers it to certain officers who have charge of this duty, and they render an account; and these garments are never given to any one. This is considered to show great state. His cloths are silk cloths (pachois) of very fine material and worked with gold, which are worth each one ten pardaos; and they wear at times bajuris of the same sort, which are like shirts with a skirt; and on the head they wear caps of brocade which they call *culaes*, and one of these is worth some twenty cruzados. When he lifts it from his head he never again puts it on."¹ Duarte Barbosa and Caesar Frederick, as we shall presently narrate, also speak of these high caps which, according to them, were worn by the common people. From the statues of Kṛṣṇa Dēva Rāya the Great and of the Nāyakas of Madura found in the temples of the south, it is evident that these high caps were the rule of the day from Kṛṣṇa Dēva Rāya's times.²

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⁵ Sewell, ibid., p. 273 and n. (1).

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¹ Sewell, *For. Emp.*, p. 383.

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² For an account of the statues in the Pudumaṇṭapam, read Heras, *Q. J. M. S.* XV, p. 211; *Aravidu*, p. 303; Gangolly, *South Indian Bronzes* Pl. LXXXIV, p. 60; Veṅkaṭēśvara-Viśvanātha, *Ep. Ind.*, XIII, p. 124.

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The origin of these caps is given by Barros. While describing an action under the command of Don Menezes, Barros relates that that leader ordered twenty men of his troops to jump into the water and to swim, while he himself at the head of a piece of artillery charged like a furious lion. Don Menezes then called the Moors to retire, whereupon they retired, and charging upon those who were standing with their artillery, he captured it. At this time, "he discerned a great troop of people that was coming towards where he stood, among whom he saw a hat of high peak which covered the head of a horseman and thereby he knew him to be a noble person. This kind of costume comes to India from the China country and as only noblemen can wear it,—as it is a sign of nobility we may call it *quira sol*, the form and use of which it resembles—usually it is six to eight palms in diameter; its stalk (or peak) is little more than fifteen. There are men so skilful in holding it that although the master goes at a gallop on his horse, the sun does not touch him in any part of the body and these they call in India *buiyes*;³ and to see in the court of the prince the lord who accompanied him covered with those hats with high peaks gives them great majesty, because they are handsome to the sight and of much dignity".⁴

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³ The *Bōyees*.

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⁴ Barros, *Este genero de sombrero es trage venido a la India de la Region Chino*, Libro Nonodela, p. 98 (1628 ed.).

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There are a few notices of the dress of the nobles of some parts of the Empire. Varthema in the characteristic manner of foreigners ignorant of the climatic conditions and habits of the people, writes thus about the ruler of Honnāvūru : " Travelling thence for two days, we went to another place called Onor, the king of which is a pagan, and is subject to the King of Narsinga. This King is a good fellow, and has seven or eight ships, which are always cruising about. He is a great friend of the king of Portugal. As to his dress, he goes quite naked, with the exception of a cloth about his middle."¹ Barbosa speaks of the "rich litters borne by their servants, with many led horses and mounted men", in connection with the nobles summoned to the royal presence on a charge of misdemeanour.²

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¹ Varthema, Jones, pp. 121-2; Temple, pp. 49-50.

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² Barbosa, Dames; I., p. 209; Stanley, p. 89; Sewell, For. Emp. p. 130.

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Nicholas Pimenta observed the following about the Nāyaka of Gingee in A. D. 1599 : " We found him lying on a silken Carpet leaning on two Cushions, in a long silken Garment, a great Chaine hanging from his necke, distinguished with many Pearles and Gemmes, all over his brest, his long haire tyed with a knot on the crowne, adorned with Pearles ; some Princes and Brachmanes attended him."³

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³ Pimenta, Purchas, Pilgrims, X., p. 208. Cf. Bāṇa, Harshacharita, p. 121.

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Pietro della Valle thus describes the appearance of Sadāśiva Nāyaka, the nephew of Veṅkaṭapa Nāyaka. "I saw passing along the street a Nephew of Venktapā Naieka, his Sister's son, a handsome youth and fair for that Country; he was one of those who aspire to the succession of this State, and was now returning from the fields without the Town, whither he uses to go every morning. He is called Sedāsiva Naieka, and was attended with a great number of Souldiers, both Horse and Foot, marching before him and behind, with many Cavaliers and Captains of quality, himself riding alone with great gravity. He had before him Drums, Cornets and every sort of their barbarous instruments. Moreover both in the Front and in the rear of the Cavalcade were (I know not whether for magnificence, or for guard) several Elephants carrying their guides upon their backs, and amongst them was also his Palanchino".¹

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¹ Pietro della Valle, Travels, II., pp. 262-3.

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The same traveller describes the dress of the great personages who accompanied the Bednur ambassador. "Vitulā Sinay and some other personages, who came with them to accompany the Ambassador, were all cloth'd with white garments of very fine Silk, and other rich Silken surcoats upon the same, to honour the solemnity; and upon these they had such colour'd clothes as in Persia they call Scial (Shāl, Shawl), and use for girdles, but the Indians wear them across the shoulders, cover'd with a piece of very fine white Silk, so that the colour underneath appears; or else white Silk alone.

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"As soon as we came out of doors Musē Bai presented to the Ambassador one of the colour'd Skarfs inclos'd in white Silk to wear about his Neck; and the Ambassador gave him a piece of, I know not what, Cloth, and in the meantime a public Dancing-Woman, whom they had hir'd, danc'd in the presence of us all."²

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² Ibid., pp. 248-9.

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The statues of the Nāyakas at Tanjore referred to above, disclose the upper garments worn by the nobles extending from the waist to the ankles, a rich belt, beautiful garlands obviously of golden flowers interlaced with precious stones, and the poniard worn sometimes on the right and sometimes on the left side.³

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³ Heras, Q. J. M. S., XV., pp. 209-10. Cf. The dress of the chieftans given by Bāṇa, Harshacharita, pp. 202-3.

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We now have to ascertain the dress of the common people. 'Abdur Razzāq tells us the following: "All the inhabitants of the country, whether high or low, even down to the artificers of the bazar, wear jewels and gilt ornaments in their ears and around their necks, arms, wrists and fingers."⁴

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⁴ Elliot, Hist. of India, IV., p. 109; Major India, p. 26.

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In a general description of the dress of the people, applicable, on the whole, to the inhabitants of the south as well as the north, Nicolo dei Conti says: "They have no beards, but very long hair. Some tie their hair at the back of their head with a silken cord, and let it flow over their shoulders, and in this way go to war. They have barbers like ourselves. The men resemble Europeans in stature and the duration of their lives. They sleep upon silken mattresses, on beds ornamented with gold. The style of dress is different in different regions. Wool is very little used. There is great abundance of flax and silk, and of these they make their garments. Almost all, both men and women, wear a linen cloth bound round the body, so as to cover the front of the person, and descending as low as the knees, and over this a garment of linen or silk, which, with the men, descends to just below the knees, and with the women to the ankles. They cannot wear more clothing on account of the great heat, and for the same reason they only wear sandals, with purple and golden ties, as we see in ancient statues. In some places the women have shoes made of thin leather, ornamented with gold and silk. By way of ornament they wear rings of gold on their arms and on their hands; also around their necks and legs, of the weight of three pounds, and studded with gems ... The manner of adorning the head is various, but for the most part the head is covered with a cloth embroidered with gold, the hair being bound up with a silken cord. In some places they twist up the hair upon the top of their head, like a pyramid, sticking a golden bodkin in the centre, from which golden threads, with pieces of cloth of various colours interwoven with gold, hang suspended over the hair. Some wear false hair, of a black colour, for that is the colour that is held in highest estimation. Some cover the head with the leaves of trees painted, but none paint their faces, with the exception of those who dwell near Cathay."¹

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¹ Major India, pp. 22-3.

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Such of the features as are applicable to the inhabitants of the south, given in the above passage, may be compared with those given by the eye-witnesses in the Vijayanagara Empire, who speak of the various parts of the country. Varthema in A. D. 1502 summarily describes the people of Maṅgaḷūr : "The inhabitants are pagans and Moors. Their mode of living, their customs, and their dress, are like those above described."¹ He is here referring to his own observations made in connection with the people of Honnāvūru, which we have seen. While describing the citizens of the capital, he says : "They live like pagans. Their dress is this : the men of condition wear a short shirt, and on their head a cloth of gold and silk in the Moorish fashion, but nothing on their feet. The common people go quite naked with the exception of a piece of cloth about their middle."² According to the same traveller, "Their (i.e, of the people of Paleachet or Pulicat) laws, manner of living, dress, and customs, are the same as at Calicut, and they are a warlike people, ..."³

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¹ Varthema, Jones, p. 122; Temple, p. 50.

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² Ibid., Jones, p. 129; Temple, p. 53.

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³ Ibid, Jones, p. 195; Temple, p. 74. In regard to Calicut, see ibid Jones, p. 143; Temple p. 58.

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Barbosa says the following about the dress of the people: "The natives of this land are Heathen like himself (i.e., the king); they are tawny men, nearly white. Their hair is long, straight and black. The men are of good height with 'physnomies' like our own: the women go very trimly clad; the men wear certain clothes as a girdle below, wound very tightly in many folds, and short white shirts of cotton or silk or coarse brocade, which are gathered between the thighs but open in front: on their heads they carry small turbans, and some wear silk or brocade caps, they wear their rough shoes on their feet (without stockings). They wear also other large garments thrown over their shoulders like capes, and are accompanied by pages walking behind them with their swords in their hands. The substances with which they are always anointed are these: white sanders-wood, aloes, camphor, musk, and saffron, all ground fine and kneaded with rose water. With these they anoint themselves after bathing, and so they are always very highly scented. They wear many rings set with precious stones and many earrings set with fine pearls in their ears. As well as the page armed with a sword, whom, as I have said, they take with them, they take also another who holds an umbrella (lit. a shade-hat with a handle) to shade them and to keep off the rain, and of these some are made of finely worked silk with many golden tassels, and many precious stones and seed-pearls. They are so made as to open and shut, and many cost three to four hundred cruzados."¹

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¹ Barbosa, Dames, I., pp. 205-7. Dames gives a valuable note on these umbrellas, p. 206, n (1). See also Stanley, pp. 87-8.

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Paes remarks thus: ".... the majority of the people, or almost all, go about the country barefooted. The shoes have pointed ends, in the ancient manner, and there are other shoes that have nothing but soles, but on the top are some straps which help to keep them on the feet. They are made like those which of old the Romans were wont to wear, as you will find on figures in some papers or antiquities which come from Italy."²

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² Sewell, For. Emp., p. 252. We may observe here Mr. Moreland's comments (India at the Death of Akbar, p. 276) on the same subject. He says that "the tradition of nakedness in the south extends to the feet", and tries to prove his case by quoting a part of the statement of Paes given above, thus—"John of Montecorvino reported that shoe-makers were as little required as tailors. Nikitin said, as we have seen, that the people of the Deccan went barefooted. Paes says the same thing of 'the majority of the people, or almost all', in Vijayanagar." But it would have been better if the other statements relating to shoes, given by Paes, had also been cited, since the testimony of Paes, specially when taken in conjunction with that of Nicolo and Barbosa, proves that shoes were common in the south. B.A.S.

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That shoes were common in the south is also proved by the reference to the tax levied on shoe-makers, found in inscriptions. We are told in a record dated A. D. 1375 that shoe-makers were taxed.³

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³ E. C., X., Ct. 94, p. 262.

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Caesar Frederick relates the following about the articles used in Vijayanagara. "The Merchandize that went every yeere from Goa to Bezeneger were Arabian Horses, Velvets, Damaskes, and Sattens, Armesine of Portugall, and pieces of China, Saffron and Scarlets: and from Bezeneger they had in Turkie for their commodities, Jewels, and Pagodies which be Ducates of gold: The apparel that they use in Bezeneger is Velvet, Satten, Damaske, Scarlet, or white Bumbast cloth, according to the estate of the person, with long Hats on their heads, called Colae, made of Velvet, Satten, Damaske, or Scarlet, girding themselves in stead of girdles with some fine white Bumbast cloth: they have breeches after the order of the Turkes: they weare on their feet plaine high things called of them Aspergh, and at their eares they have hanging great plentie of Gold."1 Linschoten, while describing the Canariins and Corumbiins, says: "They weare onely a tuske of haire on the top of their Heads, which they suffer to grow long: the rest of their haire is cut short......"2

Section 3. Food

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As is well known to students of Hindu polity, Manu and other lawgivers have laid down specific rules in connection with lawful and forbidden food.³ We shall not enter into the question whether the princes and peoples of Vijayanagara made any endeavour to conform their customs in this respect to the classical regulations. But we shall merely describe the various kinds of food in Vijayanagara, mainly, as in other instances, with the aid of foreign travellers and Hindu writers. It may not be out of place to remark here that the observations we made in connection with the country in general may be recalled, especially in view of the fact that the nature of the food which was common in Vijayanagara was the result of the physical environments, habits and customs of the people.

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¹ Caesar Frederick, Purchas, *Pilgrims*, X., p. 99.

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² Linschoten, Purchas, *Pilgrims*, X., p. 263. Cf. The above remarks on the dress of the people with those given by Watters, *Ywan Chwang*, I., pp. 148-9, 340. Heras has a few remarks to make on the subject. *I.A.*, LIV., p. 43. See also Satyanatha, *Nayaks*, p. 327. For some observations on the modern dress of the Tottigans and other people, see Nelson *Mad. Country*, P. II., pp. 18-20, 83; Francis, *Bellary Gaz.*, pp. 58-9; Hemingway, *Tanjore Gaz.* I., pp. 63-4.

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³ Manu, V, p. 169 *seq.*; Gautama, XVII; p. 265 *seq.*; *Vishnu*, LXVIII, p. 217 *seq.*; *Vasistha*, XIV, p. 69 *seq.* For rules regarding eating, Baudhayana, II., 3, 6, p. 241 *seq.*

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In the stately reception which was at first accorded to the Persian ambassador, as already remarked in connection with the foreign relations of Vijayanagara, provision was made for a daily supply of two sheep, four couple of fowls, five maunds of rice, one maund of butter, one maund of sugar and two varāha in gold.¹ According to Paes, whose notices of the nature of the country also have been cited,—" These dominions are very well cultivated and very fertile, and are provided with quantities of cattle, such as cows, buffaloes, and sheep; also of birds, both those belonging to the hills and those reared at home, and this in greater abundance than in our tracts. The land has plenty of rice and Indian corn, grains, beans, and other kind of crops which are not sown in our parts; also an infinity of cotton. Of the grains there is a great quantity, because, besides being used as food for men, it is also used for horses, since there is no other kind of barley; and this country has also much wheat and that good."²

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¹ Elliot, History of India, IV, p. 113, op. cit.

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² Sewell, For. Emp., p. 237. As regards trees, the following may be added to the remarks we have made in Volume I. Chapter II. An inscription dated A. D. 1415 describes a great number of trees in the Karṇāṭaka. E. C., VIII., P. II., Sb. 329, pp. 154-5. Pietro della Valle describes the trees at Ikkēri. Travels, II., pp. 224, 234.

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One particular feature of the houses, which we may be permitted to mention again, is that relating to the gardens and plantations. Paes in the above passage tells us that " behind cities and towns and villages they have plantations of mangoes and jack-fruit trees, and tamarinds and other very large trees, which form resting places where merchants halt with their merchandise."³ This is, however, partially true, since, as already explained, a plantation, or a tōṭa, as it is more popularly known is an indispensable adjunct to a Hindu house.⁴ Paes himself admits this while describing Nāgalāpura: "... and the said city stands in a plain, and round it the inhabitants make their gardens as the ground suits, each one being separate."¹

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³ Sewell, ibid., p. 237.

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⁴ E. C., IV., Ng. 106, p. 141, where a tōṭa is mentioned.

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¹ Sewell, *For. Emp.*, p. 246. Sōmanātha describes gardens. *Vyāsayogi-charitam*, p. 29.

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Another special feature of the daily life of the people, which we may also be allowed to repeat, is that in connection with the weekly fairs called *sante*. Paes relates the following: "On every Friday you have a fair there, with many pigs and fowls and dried fish from the sea, and other things the produce of the country, of which I do not know the name; and in like manner a fair is held every day in different parts of the city."² Nuniz has some additional remarks to make on the condition of markets: "Everything has to be sold alive so that each one may know what he buys—this at least so far as concerns game—and there are fish from the rivers in large quantities. The markets are always overflowing with abundance of fruits, grapes, oranges, limes, pomegranates, jack-fruit, and mangoes, and all very cheap."³ The importance attached to the establishment of a weekly fair, which is evident from the manner in which assignments of land and taxes were made by the people for the officials who were in charge of it, as given in more than one epigraph cited in this treatise, may also be remembered in this connection.

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² Sewell, *Ibid.*, p. 256.

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³ *Ibid.*, p. 375; see ibid., pp. 243, 257, 258, 259 for the observations of Paes already cited. *Supra*, Volume I, Chapter II.

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In addition to fruits and vegetables the people were fond of oil. According to Paes, "The oil which it (the country) produces comes from seeds sown and afterwards reaped, and they obtain it by means of machines which they make."⁴ We are unable to determine the kind of oil which is mentioned here; and it cannot be said that this was the only kind of oil that was in popular use in Vijayanagara. The same traveller speaks of the gingelly oil in connection with the daily habits of Kṛṣṇa Dēva Rāya. "This king is accustomed every day to drink a *quartilho* (three-quarter pint) of oil of gingelly before daylight, and anoints himself all over with the said oil" before he begins his military exercise.¹

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⁴ *Ibid.*, p. 238.

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¹ Sewell, For. Emp., p. 249.

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Among vegetable products other than those mentioned above, which were in constant demand, mention must be made of the betel leaf. 'Abdur Razzāq noted the universal custom of eating this leaf. "This betel is a leaf which resembles that of an orange, but it is longer. It is held in great esteem in Hindustān, in the many parts of Arabia, and the Kingdom of Hormūs, and indeed it deserves its reputation. It is eaten in this way : they bruise a piece of areca nut, which they call supāri, and place it in the mouth ; and moistening a leaf of betel or pān together with a grain of quick-lime, they rub one on the other ; roll them up together, and place them in the mouth. Thus they place as many as four leaves together in their mouths, and chew them. Sometimes they mix camphor with it, and from time to time discharge their spittle which becomes red from the use of the betel.

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"This masticatory lightens up the countenance and excites an intoxication like that caused by wine. It relieves hunger, stimulates the organs of digestion, disinfects the breath, and strengthens the teeth. It is impossible to describe, and delicacy forbids me to expatiate on its invigorating and aphrodisiac virtues." The shrewd Persian ambassador, however, displays the inherent bias of a foreigner in the next passage by saying that "It is probably owing to the stimulating properties of this leaf, and to the aid of this plant, that the king of that country is enabled to entertain so large a seraglio" composed of 700 princesses and concubines.²

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² Elliot, Hist. of India, IV, p. 114; Major, India, p. 32.

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Paes also observed the use of betel leaf among the people. While describing the privileges of the dancing-women, he says : "These women (are allowed) even to enter the presence of the wives of the king, and they stay with them and eat betel with them, a thing which no other person may do, no matter what his rank may be.³ This betel is a herb which has a leaf like the leaf of the pepper, or the ivy of the country; they always eat this leaf, and carry it in their mouths with another fruit called areca. This is something like a medlar, but it is very hard, and it is very good for the breath and has many other virtues; it is the best provision for those who do not eat as we do. Some of them eat flesh; they eat all kinds except beef and pork, and yet, nevertheless, they cease not to eat this betel all day."1

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³ Supra, Chapter VI, Section 3.

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Nuniz confirms the evidence of inscriptions which, as we have already related in connection with the officials of the Government, speak of an official who carried the betel-pouch (*haḍapa*), in his description of the high dignitaries around the king. "The page who served the King with betel had fifteen thousand foot and two hundred horse, but he had no elephants."2 Next to millet which, according to Nuniz, as already seen, was "mostc onsumed in the land", came "betel (*betre*), which is a thing that in the greater part of the country they always eat and carry in the mouth".³

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³ Sewell, *ibid*, p. 366.

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Pietro della Valle observes thus about its prevalence at Ikkēri: "At the end of this visit *Vitulā Sinay* caus'd a little Silver basket to be brought full of the leaves of *Betle*, (an herb which the *Indians* are always eating, and to the sight not unlike the leaves of Cedars) and, giving it to the Ambassador, he told him that he should present it to the Captain, the Custom being so in *India* for the person visited to give *Betle*-leaves to the visitant, where-with the visit ends."4 The same traveller in an earlier connection wrote the following, while describing one of the banian trees: "Round about it are fastened Flowers and abundance of a plant, whose leaves resemble a Heart, call'd here *Pan*, but in other places of India, *Betle*. These leaves the Indians use to champ or chaw all day long, either for health's sake or entertainment and delight (as some other Nations for the same reasons, or rather through evil custome, continually take Tobacco). And therewith they mix a little ashes of sea-shells and some small pieces of an Indian nut sufficiently common, which here they call *Foufel*, and in other places *Areca*; a very dry fruit, seeming within like perfect wood; and being of an astringent nature they hold it good to strengthen the Teeth. Which mixture, besides its comforting the stomach, hath also a certain biting taste, wherewith they are delighted; and as they chaw it, it strangely dyes their lips and mouths red, which also they account gallant; but I do not, because it appears not to be natural. They swallow down only the juice after long mastication and spit out the rest. In visits, 'tis the first thing offer'd to the visitants; nor is there any society or pastime without it.' (Here Pietro refers us to some authors who have written on this plant).¹

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¹ Sewell, *For. Emp.*, p. 242.

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² Ibid., p. 327, n. (3). See also p. 230 where Barradas speaks of the rulers of Madura having descended from the "page of the betel." See also Pietro della Valle, *Travels*, II, 255 for the function of the *haḍapa*.

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⁴ Pietro della Valle, *ibid*., II., p. 226, see also *ibid*., n. (4).

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¹ Pietro della Valle, *Travels* I, pp. 36-7. The origin of this word is perhaps to be traced to the Koṅkaṇi *phoppal*, unless there is another derivation which is non-Indian. Grey has failed to trace its origin. *Ibid.*, p. 36, n. (2). B. A. S.

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In the above passage Pietro della Valle in very clear terms points to the use of another plant in India, and this is the pepper plant. Barbosa writes thus: "Likewise much pepper is used here and everywhere throughout the kingdom, which they bring hither from Malabar on asses and pack-cattle."²

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² *Barbosa*, Dames, I, p. 203; Stanley, p. 86.

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To the remarks of Paes about the cheapness of mutton,³ already cited in another connection, we may add his observations on the many but "very unwholesome" fish in the Tuṅgabhadrā,⁴ and those of Nuniz to the following effect: "These Kings of Bisnaga eat all sorts of things, but not the flesh of oxen or cows, which they never kill in all the country of the heathen, because they worship them. They eat mutton, pork, venison, partridges, hares, doves, quail, and all kinds of birds; even sparrows and rats, and cats and lizards, all of which are sold in the market of the city of Bisnaga."¹ Allowance must be made for these exaggerated notices of Nuniz, especially if they are understood to refer to the monarchs of Vijayanagara, in the light of the saner views expressed by the other foreign travellers. Barbosa, for example, gives us a more rational account of the food of the king and the nobles. "These men eat flesh and fish and other meats, saving beef only, which is forbidden by their perverse idolatry."²

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