Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

The Early History of the Deccan (Parts I–XI) v2.c16.s2: Painting

The Early History of the Deccan (Parts I–XI) v2.c16.s2

Language
English

Painting

v2.c16.s2.1

IT is difficult to state precisely when painting as an art began in the Deccan, but the specimens of wall painting which exist on the left wall of the *chaitya*-cave X at Ajanta show a fairly well-developed craftsmanship. This *chaitya*, according to two contemporary Brāhmī inscriptions, was cut in the rock about the end of the second century B.C.¹ The paintings on the left wall of cave IX, which is also a *chaitya*, are similar in style to those of cave X and may be at the most fifty to a hundred years later than their prototypes in the latter cave. They represent aboriginal people with long hair, which is tied with ribbons in the form of crests of serpents' hoods on the crowns of their heads. They have scanty clothing but elaborate jewellery, the latter comprising large ear-rings and metal necklaces of various designs. The features of the women and of some of the men resemble those of the Marāṭhas of the present day, with oval faces, short noses, fairly thick lips, and medium stature. These paintings apparently represent contemporary people, a hybrid race, i.e. a mixture of the aboriginal Dravidians (or the pre-Dravidians) and the Scythians, who seem to have entered the Deccan in the early centuries of the first millennium B.C., if not earlier. Men wear narrow loin-cloths to cover their bodies; women have a similar garment for the lower part of the body, but they also wear a brassière (*choli*) and have a scarf (*oṛhṇī*) to cover the head in the present Indian style.

v2.c16.s2.2

¹ Prof. Lüders is very definite in his opinion and he states that the painted inscription on the left wall belongs to the middle of the second century B.C., while the inscription carved on the façade is still earlier. *Ajanta*, iii, 1, and appendix, pp. 86–87.

v2.c16.s2.3

The colours used in the paintings of caves IX and X are red ochre, yellow ochre, terre-verte, lamp black, and white of lime, which have been used pure or mixed to produce the desired effect in the scheme. For the lower lip and the corners of the eye the artist has used a kind of bright vermilion, apparently made from red ochre. The drawing is firm and accurate and shows due regard to the three dimensions. But there are no light or dark colour washes to accentuate any particular detail, or to show the body in the round, such as one notices in the wall-paintings of caves I and II, which belong to a later period, the fifth century A.D. The grouping shows a balanced judgement, and there is both life and movement in the figures drawn.

v2.c16.s2.4

Let us describe the scene painted on the left wall of cave X: first there are some soldiers armed with spears, maces, bows and arrows, swords, and sickle-like scimitars. They are clad in short-sleeved shirts or jackets, and one of them has an elaborate head-gear which is in the form of a turban at the top with flaps for the protection of the ears, and also a band which passes below the chin, and is apparently meant to keep the helmet firmly fixed to the head. The soldiers belong to the bodyguard of a rājā who with a group of ladies is seen immediately in front of them. The rājā is shown in front of a tree which is bedecked with flags. The tree evidently represents the Bodhi-tree under which the Buddha received his ‘enlightenment’. In early Buddhist sculpture and painting the Buddha is not represented in human form, for according to the Hīnayāna doctrine it was considered sacrilege so to present him. The rājā has come to fulfil some vow connected with the boy who is standing close to the tree. He is reciting a prayer and all the ladies of the party are taking part in the ritual. The head of one lady is decorated with three peacock’s feathers (Plate XLII b).

v2.c16.s2.5

On the other side of the tree, towards the right, is a large party of musicians and dancers, comprising fifteen artistes, all of whom are female. Women are reported to have joined the Buddhist saṅghārāmas as nuns during Gautama’s lifetime, or shortly afterwards; but the presence of a well-developed orchestra, such as is shown in this painting, in the second century B.C., indicates that the organization of female dancers and musicians attached to religious shrines existed in the Deccan earlier than the advent of the Buddhist faith. Two of the party in this painting are blowing trumpets and the rest are clapping or dancing. Clapping is still used in India and in other Oriental countries to mark time, or to produce the high pitch effect in music. Among the dancers the one nearest the sacred tree has raised and curved her arm in a peculiar style as if to give the body a whirl like the eddying motion of water, or the writhing of a serpent. The poses and steps of the other two dancers are typically Indian and may be noticed in the dancing of the present day (Plate XLIII a).

v2.c16.s2.6

The drawing of this subject shows a well-developed art, both in conception and execution, and it must have taken many centuries to reach that stage. There is a close resemblance in the representation of the human figures, in regard to their dress, ornaments, and ethnical features, between this painting and the sculptures at Koṇḍāṇe and Kārle, which are contemporary with it and belong to the second century B.C., or about that date.¹

v2.c16.s2.7

¹ The dancing figures carved at Kārle and Koṇḍāṇe have already been described in the section on sculpture, supra, pp. 744-5.

v2.c16.s2.8

On the right wall of cave X is painted the Shaḍ-Danta Jātaka, or the story of the Six-Tusked Elephant, with an inscription which palaeographically cannot be earlier than the third century A.D. If the inscription is connected with the painting, it appears that the latter is some four centuries later than its prototype on the right wall of this cave, which has already been described. The people represented in this painting are also non-Āryans, like those of the former, but the artist’s delight in the scenic beauty, or his close study of animal life, or his skill in expressing feelings of pathos with a religious effect, or his love of ornamentation in minor detail, are qualities which show that the art of painting had made much progress, both intellectually and technically, during the period of 400 years which intervened between the paintings of the left and the right walls.

v2.c16.s2.9

The artist has painted all the incidents mentioned in the Shaḍ-Danta Jātaka, but he has changed their order. He begins with the wild life of elephants in an impenetrable forest with marshy soil infested by crocodiles and pythons (Plate XLIII b), and terminates with palace scenes, crowded with human figures and a royal procession to a place of worship comprising a stūpa and a vihāra (Plate XLIV). In the middle he has delineated the bath of the royal elephant in the lotus-lake, and his favourite resort under a colossal banyan tree (Plate XLV). This arrangement has a certain significance from the point of view of the artist, who for an impressive demonstration of his skill has kept the scenes relating to animal life and to the beauty of natural scenery almost separate from those depicting human feelings, wherein the gloom of sorrow and suffering is illumined by the light of faith and devotion.

v2.c16.s2.10

Among the scenes of animal life in a forest the artist has painted with great effect a fight between an alligator and an elephant, the elephant having thrown his rival on its back and placed one of his forelegs on its belly, and being in the act of exerting further pressure with his trunk in order to crush the alligator. Close by a huge python has caught one of the legs of an elephant, who seems to be in great agony and has raised his trunk as if to shriek and call to his companions of the herd for help. A delightful scene is the bath of a herd of elephants in a lotus-lake, where they are shown raising and curving their trunks in a variety of characteristic styles as they revel in the comforting luxury of the water.

v2.c16.s2.11

For dramatic effect the most impressive is the court-scene wherein the rānī faints at the sight of the tusks, for the Shaḍ-Danta elephant in a previous incarnation had been her beloved husband and in a fit of revenge she had sent hunters to bring the tusks of the elephant, since according to her fancy he was more devoted to his other wife than to herself. The rājā of Benares, who is her husband in the present incarnation, is seated next to her, and is supporting her by placing one of his hands behind her back and holding her right shoulder with the other. A maid in attendance is fanning her, another has brought water to pour on her head, or to sprinkle on her face, a third nearest to the rānī is offering her a drink, and a fourth at the right side of the scene has placed her hand on her mouth in characteristic Indian style to subdue her feelings of grief. The maid holding the umbrella is looking towards the tusks, which have struck the entire court with consternation. A woman who is squatting on the floor is massaging the soles of the rānī’s feet in order to revive her. Apart from the general effect of pathos which pervades the entire scene, the grouping of the figures, the graceful poses, the beautiful coiffures and ornaments of the ladies, and the scanty but artistic dress of the various persons in the picture all illustrate the lively imagination and refined taste of the painter, as well as his highly developed technical skill and his power of portraying a subject in any manner he may desire according to the dictates of his fancy.

v2.c16.s2.12

The subject on the right wall of cave X marks an important stage in the history of the painting of the Deccan, because this form of the art, as regards both the representation of racial types in human figures, and the technique and material of the painting itself, is essentially indigenous and is not dominated by any alien influences, even from as near as Northern India. About the close of the third century A.D. the Āndhras, the then rulers of the country, were overthrown and succeeded by the Vākāṭakas, who hailed from the territory north of the Deccan and had matrimonial relations with the Guptas. During their administration of some two hundred years Buddhism flourished in the Deccan, but in dogma as well as ritual it was much influenced by the co-existing Brāhmanic faith throughout this period.

v2.c16.s2.13

The prevalence of the Mahāyāna doctrine in the Deccan from the beginning of the fourth century A.D. (it was evolved nearly a century earlier in North India) was largely due to this impact of the religious beliefs and culture of the north on those obtaining to the south of the Narmadā up to the end of the third century A.D. As a result of this blending of cultures and religious ideals the art of painting made rapid progress intellectually, although its technique remained indigenous, for there was apparently no school of painting in Āryan India from whose practice it could have benefited.

v2.c16.s2.14

On the wall and pillars of cave X at Ajanta there are some paintings which on the ground of palaeographic evidence or technical development may be assigned to the fourth century A.D., such as the Śyama Jātaka delineated to the left of the Shaḍ-Danta Jātaka on the right wall, or some representations of the Buddha on the pillars of the side aisles. But to be absolutely sure of this date it would be best to compare it with some of the typical paintings of caves I, II, XVI, and XVII, which all belong to the fifth century A.D., because there are both painted and rock-cut inscriptions in these caves in which occur the names of some Vākāṭaka kings who ruled during the last quarter of the fifth century A.D.¹

v2.c16.s2.15

¹ ‘Vākāṭaka Inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta,’ *Hyderabad Archaeological Series*, No. 14, pp. 2-10; J.B.B.R.A.S., vii (1862), 56 ff.; ‘Cave Temples of Western India,’ *A.S.I.*, 1882, pp. 69 ff., and the *Archaeological Survey of Western India*, iv (1883), 124 ff.

v2.c16.s2.16

With regard to the time-sequence of these four caves it may be observed that in the matter of technique caves I and XVI appear to be almost contemporary, cave XVII immediately following them, and cave II coming last in the group. In cave I the stories of the ‘renunciation’ of the Buddha predominate, in cave XVI the stories of his birth and childhood and some legends connected with the monastic life are delineated, whilst cave XVII contains mainly the stories of the Buddha’s previous incarnations in different forms, as a generous prince or a benevolent animal—elephant, monkey, deer, goose, fish, or serpent. Cave II contains some stories of the Buddha as Prince Siddhārtha, and also some tales of his previous incarnations as the sagacious Brāhman, Vidhurapaṇḍita, or the hermit Kṣāntivādi.

v2.c16.s2.17

The ideals of art represented in the paintings of the above-mentioned four caves are characterized by a divine majesty and serenity on the one hand, and by human emotion and feelings of affection on the other. In the subject ‘Mother and Child before the Buddha’ one receives an impression of the sublimity of the Great Being from his colossal size as well as from his calm and dignified expression, but the motive which has brought him to beg at his own door is intensely human, and this human feeling, in a more lively manner, is conveyed to us by the love-light in the eyes of Yaśodharā, his wife, and by the astonished looks of Rāhula, his son (Plate XLVI). The figure of the Buddha must originally have measured some 10 ft., while that of his wife is somewhere near 5 ft., the difference in size denoting that the former is superhuman, whilst the latter is but a mere human being. There is not a large variety of colours in the painting, but the few which have been used show refined taste. The Buddha is dressed in an orange robe, his own complexion being brown with a golden effect. The hair, which is shown curled conventionally, is jet black. The background is of a dark colour, originally being dark green, or dark red, but its darkness makes a happy contrast with the orange colour of the robe and the golden brown of the face. The figure, owing to the dark background, appears almost in relief. This dullness of the background, however, has been relieved by flowers of bright colours which are being showered from heaven over the head of the Master. A cherub supports a canopy over his head. The Buddha himself holds a begging-bowl in his right hand, which he has stretched out towards Yaśodharā. She has pushed the child lovingly in front of her to be blessed by the Great Being, and herself seems to be overpowered by feelings of reverence as she contemplates the exalted position of her beloved husband. The painting admirably represents spiritual greatness combined with human emotion such as is expressed in the following words of the legend: ‘O Siddhārtha, that night Rāhula was born, you renounced the kingdom and went silently away. Now you have a more glorious kingdom instead.’

v2.c16.s2.18

In the portraits of the Mother and Child there is actually very little colour, but the line work is so perfect and the ornaments are so tastefully adjusted that the result is a masterly specimen of the delineation of feminine grace imbued with tender feelings of love.

v2.c16.s2.19

In cave I, the subject painted in the back corridor to the left of the antechamber again represents the Buddha as Prince Siddhārtha,¹ but in this case the scheme is more subtle and varied than in the painting of cave XVII described above, both in regard to its intellectual and to its artistic qualities (Plate XLVII). The prince is shown here on the eve of his ‘renunciation’; he is determined but still in the midst of his royal attendants and is also accompanied by his wife, whose portrait here suggests the grace of a mother rather than that of a young girl-wife.

v2.c16.s2.20

¹ He is also identified with the Bodhisattva Padmapāṇi, because in Buddhist temples, on either

v2.c16.s2.21

The figure of Prince Siddhārtha does not possess the perfect anatomical symmetry of a Greek Apollo, yet it has a physical beauty all its own, shown in the broad chest, the well-developed shoulders and arms, and the handsomely set neck and head. The chief attraction of the figure is, however, its religious expression, which has made it perhaps unique among specimens of contemporary art in India and abroad. The half-closed meditative eyes, with the eyebrows slightly stretched upwards in the broad forehead, and the lips closed as if in a divine silence, indicate a majestic indifference to the charms of worldly life on the one hand and a spiritual tranquillity on the other. The high lights on the forehead, nose, and chin heighten the effect of serenity. The dress of the prince is scanty, but the garment covering the lower part of his body is of a rich material, probably of silk, with check patterns worked out in different colours. His princely dignity is asserted by the rich crown set with jewels, the necklet of pearls, the large ear-rings, the wristlets and arm-bands, and above all by a rope of pearls in which the strings have been tastefully intertwined and which is hung round the shoulders and the waist. The long black hair, which is spread in locks behind the shoulders, by the contrast of colour has made the head stand out in relief; and to produce a similar effect the artist has placed dark green dots, close to one another, behind the golden crown, so that a sort of perspective is obtained. Further, to delineate the body in the round the painter has darkened the outline of the drawing, and has also used washes of a deeper colour along the outline in contrast to the colour used for the main part of the body.

v2.c16.s2.22

The features of the prince are Āryan, refined and elegant, but the lady who stands close to him and is probably his wife Yaśodharā has a swarthy complexion. The idea of the painter in making this difference in the complexions of Siddhārtha and Yaśodharā was apparently that Buddhism in its teaching made no distinction of colour and that the fair complexion was therefore as attractive as the dark one. Variety of racial types is further indicated in the figures of the guard and the maid in attendance, the former apparently being an Abyssinian and the latter a Persian. The maid seems to be a lady of distinction, for she is clad in a long, full-sleeved coat of blue silk or velvet, and has a crown on her head. The guard is also dressed in a long coat with tight sleeves, and has an ornamental band round his head, above which his

v2.c16.s2.23

side of the entrance to the shrine, the figures of the Bodhisattvas Padmapāṇi and Vajrapāṇi are generally carved or painted. The Bodhisattva in this cave holds a lotus-flower (padma) in his right hand.

v2.c16.s2.24

curly hair is visible. The nose and lips of the guard are thick. Yaśodharā herself is shown wearing a tight bodice (*choli*) of a transparent, gossamer-like material, and it may be interesting to note that while the royal personages, male and female, are so scantily dressed with regard to the upper parts of their bodies, the guards or maids in attendance are generally fully clothed. This economy in the draping of the royal personages is amply compensated by the profusion of the jewellery worn by them, which, however, shows good taste in regard to design, whilst the wealth of the wearers is suggested by the size and quality of the gems.

v2.c16.s2.25

The figure of the prince bears marks of both worldly state and religious distinction, and his expression of calm tranquillity is that of one unaffected by joy or sorrow; but the faces of Yaśodharā and of the Persian maid and the Abyssinian guard clearly reflect their depression, Yaśodharā being grieved by the idea of approaching separation from her beloved husband, and the maid and the guard at the thought of losing their royal master through his renouncement of the world. The artist has, however, planned to mitigate the general impression of sadness by showing the denizens of forest and hills in a happy mood, resulting from their delight that the prince has taken the right step in relinquishing secular honours and riches and has not been deceived by their attractions. Monkeys are frolicking about on the ledges of conventional hills; a pair of peafowls, which are to be seen a little higher, have raised their heads towards the sky and their open beaks suggest that they are crying out in joy; even a tiger has come out of his den to join the group of exultant beasts and birds. Kinnaras, whose bodies are half human being and half bird, and who are mythologically the musicians of heaven, are playing on harps and other musical instruments to express their rejoicing. A happy human pair have chosen a secluded corner for sipping wine and for amorous dalliance. The religious theme of the subject has combined all these different elements so judiciously that each has a significance in the entire scheme and none appears to be superfluous. The artist has also shown a highly refined taste in the choice of colours: the red of the conventional hills contrasts well with the green of the various trees, plants, and bushes growing on them, and the splashes of blue and the gleam of pearls brighten the darker tints of the human faces and forms. The painting in both its artistic and religious significance has perhaps the same importance in the history of art as the paintings of Michelangelo on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in Rome, or the Last Supper of Leonardo da Vinci at Milan, although the latter frescoes were executed some 900 years after their prototype at Ajanta.

v2.c16.s2.26

The artists of Ajanta have painted woman in a variety of delightful poses, but her moral dignity is always maintained. She appears as a princess, a maidservant, a peasant, a nun, or even a dancing-girl, but in none of these roles has the painter made her mean or pitiful; on the contrary he has always presented her as worthy of being admired and adored. As Indian ladies are in the habit of sitting on the ground, some of the poses may appear somewhat unusual to a European connoisseur who is not familiar with ways of life in India. For example, the pose of the lady delineated on the left wall of the front corridor in cave I may strike a European as rather uncomfortable, the legs being bent in an extraordinary manner (Plate XLVIII *a*).¹ The balance exhibited in the drawing of the head and the other parts of the body is, however, so perfect that it displays not only the suppleness of her limbs but also a happy grace of mind and manner, particularly evident in the dignity of the way in which she regards the male figure (the Bodhisattva) seated by her.

v2.c16.s2.27

¹ *Ajanta*, i, pl. x *c*.

v2.c16.s2.28

Another delightful representation of woman in cave I is the subject, styled the Black Princess, painted in the back corridor, to the right of the ante-chamber (Plate XLVIII *b*).² The contour of the body is here most graceful and the features are highly refined, whilst the delineation of the eyes is extremely realistic, the hazel-brown of the irises and the faint touches of red in the corners giving a most life-like effect. The treatment of the hair at the temples and the nape of the neck shows not only rich imagination but also marvellous brushwork. The jewellery further exhibits exquisite taste, the pearl tiara with a fine sapphire ornament in the middle being especially pleasing. For grace of poise, elegance of decorative features, and restful expression there are few paintings in the contemporary art of the world which can be regarded as on an equal footing with this masterpiece of the art of Ajanta in the fifth century A.D.

v2.c16.s2.29

² Ibid., pl. xxxiii.

v2.c16.s2.30

Artists during this period not only possessed consummate skill in delineating both human and animal figures in a vivid style, but their decorative genius in adorning ceilings, pedestals of columns, and door- and window-frames created patterns and motifs of kaleidoscopic variety, each exhibiting extraordinary powers of conception and a highly developed technique. The panel in the ceiling of cave I (Plate XLIX *a*) representing two freakish animals sporting with one another,³ or the parrot in the ceiling of the same cave perched on a lotus-stalk, or the *arhat* shown flying in the ceiling of cave II (Plate XLIX *b*), or the panel of fabulous animals in the hall of cave XVII (Plate L *a*), or the delightful pairs of merry-makers on the door-frame of the latter cave (Plate L *b*), as well as hundreds of other subjects similar to these, show the versatility of the artist's mind, his love of beauty, and his joyous outlook upon life.

v2.c16.s2.31

³ Ibid., pl. xxxix *b*.

v2.c16.s2.32

A sensitive feeling for whimsical motifs is a distinguishing feature of the art of Ajanta in the fifth century A.D., and this tendency has often given a new complexion to otherwise more sombre religious stories. For instance, in the Viśvantara Jātaka, painted on the left wall of cave XVII, the ugly features of the avaricious Brāhman, Jūjaka, his goat-like beard, broken teeth, bald head, and cringing attitude at once evoke a smile (Plate LI *a*)

v2.c16.s2.33

and make one forget the inner cruel nature of this Brāhman as shown in the story by his inhuman treatment of the young children of Viśvantara, who had given them to him as an act of charity.¹ Similarly, the grotesque features of the monsters of Māra’s army, who Satan-like wanted to turn the Buddha aside from the attainment of enlightenment, change the serious religious effect of the scene and add to it an incongruously comic element. For example, who will not be diverted by the red monster with a large head and small body, who is glaring fiercely and opening his mouth with his little fingers as if to frighten the Buddha? A white owl is perched on the head of this monster: in India the owl is considered to be the harbinger of ill fortune.

v2.c16.s2.34

¹ For the full story see *Jātaka* (English Translation), vi. 246-305, Cambridge edition.

v2.c16.s2.35

Some critics have complained of the lack of perspective in the paintings of Ajanta. This may be true to a certain extent of the earlier frescoes, but in the fifth century A.D. the painter understood how to convey the idea of depth or distance in his work. In the *Abhisheka* scene, painted in the back corridor of cave I, the drawing of the pillared hall shows that the artist was by then familiar with perspective since he has admirably conveyed the idea of distance in the drawing of the pillars. Similarly, on the right wall of cave XVI, in the birth-scene of the Buddha, wherein Māyā is shown lying on a couch in a circular pavilion, the drawing of the pavilion is perfect (Plate LI *b*), and it is apparent that one who did not possess a sense of perspective could not have drawn a circular object so accurately. But it is not for such petty distinctions that the art of Ajanta of the fifth century A.D. is to be admired. The skill of the painter should on the other hand be appreciated in the charming sweeps of the brush line, comprising subtle curves and undulations; in the lovely contrasts of colours, whether bright or dark, all suggesting a refined taste; in the large variety of poses showing the keen observation of the artist and his delight in the manifold phases of life; in the vivid expressions of the human figures, and in the exquisite decorative work, such as is to be seen in the lovely coiffures of the ladies, or the beautiful designs of their jewellery and dress; or in the fascinating representations of flowers, birds, and animals, real or mythological. The grouping of figures may appear bewildering to one unacquainted with Indian life, but each figure or design has its own significance in the telling of the story, and if any one of them were omitted the story would lose its zest.

v2.c16.s2.36

In the sixth century A.D. the Vākāṭakas were succeeded by the Chālukyas as rulers of the Deccan. The Chālukyas professed the Brāhmanic faith, but in the beginning they were not only tolerant to the votaries of the Buddhist religion but emulated them in the styles of their rock-hewn architecture and painting. The temples carved by them in the living rock at their capital Vātāpi, modern Bādāmi, exist to this day, and although they contain Śaivite and Vaiṣṇavite sculpture, yet their architectural style is in imitation of that of a Buddhist *vihāra*, and one of these cave-temples, cave No. 3, bears traces of painting which are analogous in style to those of Ajanta (Plate LII *a*). But a strict observer cannot help remarking that the paintings of Bādāmi, though not much later in date than those of caves I and XVII of Ajanta, show a distinct falling off in the standard; the elegance of the features, the vividness of expression, and the freshness of the colours have all appreciably deteriorated, and artistic fancy and creative effort are replaced by insipid conventionality and soulless imitation. The sixth-century paintings of Ajanta itself, as shown on the pillars, ceilings, and friezes of caves IX and X, comprise floral designs of a stereotyped pattern, or the representations of the Buddha in the teaching attitude, seated on a throne and attended by two *chauri*-bearers, one on each side. The latter figures convey religious dignity to a certain extent, yet by frequent repetition they become monotonous, and further, such themes betray a lack of freedom and narrowness of vision in artistic effort. The apparent reason why the artists abandoned the wider field of the *jātakas* which allowed full opportunity for the display of their powerful imaginations and superior technical skill, was that the ruling class and their officials professed a different religion and had therefore no interest in themes which reflected the glory of Buddhism; while such subjects as gods or kings seated on richly bedecked thrones and accompanied by princely attendants suited the idea of the majesty and grandeur of their own faith. Representations of this class are found in great abundance both in Buddhist and Hindu art from the latter part of the sixth century A.D. onwards, and notable imitations of them may be seen in the murals of Padmanābhapuram in Travancore State, which belong to the eighteenth century or even later.

v2.c16.s2.37

In cave XXVI, which is supposed to be one of the latest caves at Ajanta, there are inscriptions which palaeographically cannot be assigned to a later period than the sixth century A.D., and it appears that for political reasons the monasteries and the temples of Ajanta lost their religious importance about this period although Buddhism survived at Ellora for another century, i.e. down to the close of the seventh century A.D., or even somewhat later. In the ceilings of the Buddhist temples and monasteries of Ellora there are traces of painting, but the designs are of a set type, representing floral and creeper patterns, geometric devices, including the key-pattern in several forms, jewellery designs, and wood-work motifs, all of which can be seen in their original forms on the ceilings of the earlier temples at Ajanta. The colours at Ellora are dull and insipid, perhaps owing to deterioration caused by weather conditions, since the caves of Ellora are more exposed to the sun and the rains of the monsoon than are those of their rivals at Ajanta.

v2.c16.s2.38

In the ceiling of the porch of the great Brāhmanic temple, Kailāsa, there are some layers of painting which may be contemporaneous with the original cutting of the temple, about the middle of the eighth century A.D., or a little later. In one of them a Brāhmanic deity is represented in the act of adoration (Plate LII *b*). He is riding on a *śārdula*, a mythical monster with the head, mane and paws of a lion, and the horns of a bull or a buffalo. The head of this god bears a striking resemblance, both in conception and treatment, to the heads of the Bodhisattvas in the earlier paintings at Ajanta, but the other figures of this painting have been shown in such ugly attitudes that the beauty of feature and the religious expression conveyed in the delineation of the heads have lost their effect owing to the uncouthness of the poses. The treatment of the limbs further exhibits a disproportionate attenuation; and the conventional forms of clouds, though copied from Ajanta, add in this subject to the general crudeness of the scheme. The colours also do not show a refined taste and the deterioration of the artistic sense is felt in every feature of the painting.

v2.c16.s2.39

In a circular band on the ceiling of the above-mentioned porch, another design may be noticed in which Yama and his consort are shown riding on a buffalo. There are two attendants in front of the buffalo, and some other figures behind the animal. The treatment of the hair, particularly the coiffures of the women, is in the Ajanta style, but the angular curves of the elbows and knees and the ghastly stare of the eyes show that the artist has lost his skill in giving proper shape to the limbs and appropriate expression to the faces. As the paintings of Kailāsa have been found in several layers, one above the other, it appears that the paintings of the temple were executed at different periods, and the picture representing Yama should doubtless because of its debased style be assigned to the ninth or tenth century A.D.

v2.c16.s2.40

In the porch of the Kailāsa are some more paintings executed on the architraves below the ceiling. Their date can be fixed with greater certainty, for they contain inscriptions mentioning the Paramāras of Malwa, who wielded much authority during the twelfth century A.D.¹ The paintings of the architraves represent battle-scenes which both in spirit and technique appear to be allied to the North Indian (Rājput) paintings, and their connexion with Ajanta seems to be somewhat remote (Plate LIII a). The drawing of the elephant in these subjects suggests rapid movement, but the figures of the horses have become rather conventional owing to the artist's freakish fancy in painting them all in a rearing attitude.

v2.c16.s2.41

¹ For a description of these paintings see the author's paper, *The Fresco Paintings of Ellora* (p. 9), read before the XVIIth International Oriental Congress, held at Oxford, 1928, also the *Annual Report of the Archaeological Department of Hyderabad*, 1933-4, pl. i.

v2.c16.s2.42

At Ellora the ceilings of the Indra Sabhā group of Jaina temples are also adorned with painting, and the representations of the apsarasas as shown therein are more akin to their prototypes at Ajanta than to their parallels in the Brāhmanic cave at Kailāsa described above. Owing to the heat of fires kindled for domestic as well as religious purposes, and the blackening effect of smoke, the original colours of these paintings have suffered much, but in places where they are in a comparatively better state of preservation the colours show the fondness of the artist for the use of vermilion (Plate LIII b).

v2.c16.s2.43

The figures of the *apsarasas* with dark brown or swarthy complexions floating in the midst of the scarlet clouds of the evening appear with considerable perspective effect, and the grace of their limbs and the charm of their jewellery and dress, however scanty, are also admirably represented. Jaina artists were good copyists, and as the spirit of their religion has much in common with that of the Buddhist faith, the figures of the *apsarasas* in the ceilings of the Indra Sabhā suggest almost the same beauty of pose, grace of movement, and love of decorative detail as one notices in the figures of the *apsarasas* painted in the monasteries of Ajanta. The art of Ellora is, however, purely imitative and does not show any creative power. In the chapter on sculpture it has already been stated that the Jaina group of Ellora caves was hewn during the ninth century A.D.¹ and the painting of the ceilings of the Indra Sabhā appears to belong to the same period.

v2.c16.s2.44

¹ Supra, p. 757.

v2.c16.s2.45

In concluding this brief survey of the painting of the Deccan it should be observed that the art of the country in the best period of its history is essentially Buddhist, both in spirit and in its outlook upon life. It must have originated, as has been stated above (p. 763), many centuries earlier than the advent of the Buddhist missionaries,² but the humane teaching of this faith and the doctrine of unity binding the different aspects of nature into a common organism, inculcated in the sacred Buddhist literature, inspired the artist with visions embracing every phenomenon of the physical and the spiritual worlds. The majestic elephant, the beautiful swan, or the care-free deer with their nimble movements, the mischievous monkey, or even the venomous serpent, are all alike, as members of the family of life, capable of showing forth the divine qualities of sympathy and mercy. In the artist's themes they are represented with all their natural characteristics, proving a close study of their instincts and physical features. The rājās and rānis play the religious role, but are pictured with all the desires and inclinations, and in all the adventures, of their normal life, including hunting expeditions, love episodes, the life of exiles in the forest, battle-scenes, and the gay life of the court.

v2.c16.s2.46

² In the Raichur District, since A.D. 1914, three Aśokan edicts have been discovered, one at Maski and the remaining two at Kopbal, both places being situated in the ancient gold area of the Deccan. For further information regarding these edicts see Monographs Nos. 1 and 10 of the Hyderabad Archaeological Series.

v2.c16.s2.47

The domestic life of the ordinary people is also fully represented, and the artist has shown the same zest in delineating their bamboo huts and earthen utensils as he has in depicting the gorgeous pavilions of royalty with all their paraphernalia. The beauty of trees and natural scenery made a special appeal to his imagination, because the Buddha had attained enlightenment sitting under a banyan tree, while several other stately trees are associated with him in his previous incarnations, or in his next life as Maitreya. The painter has therefore delineated them in a variety of styles, in their spring grandeur, and also in autumnal beauty with red and pale brown leaves.

v2.c16.s2.48

Human emotion is the salient feature of the art of Ajanta; but the religious element has given it on the whole a solemn tone and there is no air of wantonness in the entire panorama of Ajanta paintings. There are lovely women daintily arrayed and shown in delightful poses but the environment is instinct with the tears of things, and the dread solemnities of life are ever felt as present in the background. The subtle pattern of life has been executed with sympathy and love, with all its dark shades of pain and sorrow, anguish and disappointment, and its bright colours of joy and ecstasy, glory and success, controlled by a divine law, but responsive to the longings and needs of man through the power of religious faith and devotion.

v2.c16.s2.49

The standards of beauty of the human body do not of course coincide with those of Europe in the classical period, but the drawing of the Ajanta figures is not less effective than that of their European prototypes in regard to feminine grace of form and charm of pose, or masculine vigour and strength, activity and effort. In vividness of expression generally, and in religious feeling in particular, the paintings of Ajanta far excel their contemporaneous rivals in Europe. Such technical details as ‘cast shadows’ are rarely to be seen at Ajanta, but in the ceiling of cave II the cherubs, plump, rosy gaṇas, at the four corners, have their necks below the chin painted in vermilion of a dark shade which contrasts with the fair complexion of their faces to give rounded effect.¹

v2.c16.s2.50

¹ See Ajanta, ii, pl. xxx.

v2.c16.s2.51

The high level of intellectual and technical development in the art of painting attained near the end of the fifth century began to lose its excellence about the middle of the sixth century A.D., when Ajanta gave place to Vātāpi, with a new dynasty professing a different faith. At Ellora in the work of another dynasty, the Rāṣṭrakūṭas, an after-glow of the art of Ajanta may be seen, but it had lost its splendour and was soon to fade. An aftermath is also to be noticed in the ceilings of the Indra Sabhā and Jagannātha Sabhā at Ellora, and that was perhaps its last phase in the Deccan.

v2.c16.s2.52

‘The glories of this art shone forth in far distant lands, in the rugged mountains of Afghanistan, in the lonely deserts of Central Asia, in the age-worn cultural climes of China and in the sea-girt lands of Ceylon, Java and Japan, but in the Deccan, the province of its own birth, its light grew dim by the eighth century A.D.,’² and we see the last flickering of it in the frescoes of Aurangabad and Ellora.³

v2.c16.s2.53

² The wall-paintings of Bāgh in the Gwalior State and of Sittannavāsal in the Pudukottai State show the influence of the art of Ajanta in Malwa and Southern India. The paintings of Bāgh, being earlier (fifth or sixth century A.D.), exhibit the art in a more vigorous form than do the murals of Sittannavāsal, which have been assigned by experts to the seventh century A.D.

v2.c16.s2.54

³ G. Yazdani, Indian Art of the Buddhist Period, Oxford University Press, 1937, p. 14.

v2.c16.s2.55

TERRACOTTAS

v2.c16.s2.56

THE potter's craft, like that of the goldsmith, seems to have been intimately connected with the art of sculpture in ancient times. Potter and sculptor apparently had common religious ideals, and often executed identical or similar forms and artistic motifs through different mediums, the sculptor's being stone or metal or wood, and the potter's clay, which was baked and finally finished with slips in different shades.

v2.c16.s2.57

In the excavations carried out at ancient religious sites in the Deccan terracotta figurines have been found in great abundance, notably at Kondāpur, a village some forty-three miles west-north-west of Hyderabad. It was apparently one of the thirty walled towns to which Pliny has referred in his work, because coins and other relics showing a well-developed culture have been discovered there in very large numbers. The number of terracotta figurines alone amounts to several hundred. These statuettes represent Bodhisattvas, *yakshas*, *yakshinis*, and other religious or semi-religious beings (Plate LIV *a-d*). Animals are also represented, and they include the bull, the horse, and the ram among tame animals, and the lion among wild ones (Plate LV *a-c*). The figure of a parrot has also been found. Among other articles discovered are pieces of pottery with ornamental designs. They are very slender in manufacture with artistic shapes and fine polish. Some pieces on examination show that they were made of kaolin, while others are of fine reddish clays. The ware was coated with slips of varying thickness, the colours of the slips being cream or light pink. The designs worked out on the ware are very pleasing; besides ornamental motifs, there are several religious symbols, one of them being a half-opened lotus shown at the left hand in the third row on Plate LVI. Another represents the sacred wheel, to be seen in the fourth row, second from the right, and another the fully opened lotus blossom which occurs so frequently on the sculpture of Amarāvatī, with which the antiquities of Kondāpur seem to be contemporary.

v2.c16.s2.58

The figurines representing deities or religious personages are made of kaolin, and show fine modelling and delightful lines. As the features of these deities are non-Āryan, with thick short noses, thick lips, and round or oval faces, the potter had apparently people of his own stock in mind when he moulded the figures of the gods. The hair and head-gear are more conventional than realistic. In Plate LIV *a* the hair of the figure representing a Bodhisattva is shown in traditional stiff coils, a fashion which had become an essential feature of the hair of the Buddha in Northern India from about the second century A.D., and which reached the Deccan in that period or perhaps a century later. The other head in the same Plate (LIV*b*), representing another Bodhisattva or a *yaksha*, has a very elaborate head-gear; but the salient feature of this statuette is the look of innocence and serenity so admirably expressed by the face. In Plate LIV *c-d* two different personages are represented whose head-gear is of different types; the expressions of their faces speak of inward serenity. One of them has a smile on his lips. Another figure has his hair dressed straight down to his ears and neck and finally curled up in a roll. This style of dressing the hair is more prominent in the two heads reproduced in the lower half of Plate LVII. The broad, prominent noses as well as the style of dressing the hair are reminiscent in these two figures of the representations of dandified fools and drunkards sometimes found in European art, as in the illuminated margins of medieval manuscripts, the stone carvings of gargoyles in cathedrals and churches, or the later didactic paintings of Hogarth. There is even a possibility that the craftsmen of the Deccan copied such features from contemporary Roman classical models, because at Kondāpur several baked clay ornaments on which the figures of Roman coins are impressed have been found; and there is literary evidence also to prove that a large trade was carried on between the Deccan and Mediterranean countries through the ancient port of Barygaza (modern Bharoch) on the western coast of India.¹

v2.c16.s2.59

¹ Pliny, xii, 84. Strabo reports that 120 ships sailed from Myos-hormos for India, when Gallus was prefect in Egypt (25 B.C.).

v2.c16.s2.60

The head of a Bodhisattva in Plate LVII *a* is modelled like many other Deccanese sculptures of the fifth century A.D., but the thick nose of Dravidian type shows it to be of earlier origin, some time in the third. The repose and internal calm of this figure are marvellous. The bulky *yaksha* (Plate LVIII *a-b*) represented with elaborate head-gear may be Kuvera, who was a popular god among the Buddhists during the early centuries of the Christian era. The style of the ornamentation of the head-gear resembles to some extent that of the decoration of the head-dresses of Saka or Parthian donors of cave-temples in Western India, whose statues may be seen at Kondāne and other Buddhist religious sites (Plate XXIII).²

v2.c16.s2.61

² See also J. Burgess, 'Buddist Cave Temples', A.S.W.I., 1883, p. 9.

v2.c16.s2.62

The terracottas representing animal figures show neat workmanship and a definite trend towards realism. The head of the ram (Plate LV *b*) is a good example of the latter tendency, although the rolls of wool around the animal's neck have made the presentation somewhat conventional. The mane of the lion (Plate LV*a*) has somewhat the same stereotyped effect. The figure of the lion in general is rather dumpy, as are also the representations of the horse and the bull. The short, thick horns of the bull, its muzzle, and neck ornaments resemble very closely those of the bulls (*nandis*) of the Śaivite temples of Telingāna of the tenth to thirteenth centuries, and it appears that the traditions regarding the above features established by the potters of the early centuries of the Christian era were followed by the sculptors of the Deccan for over a millennium afterwards.

v2.c16.s2.63

At Kondāpur terracotta figurines of a primitive type have also been found; they represent Hāritī and the mother goddess, Earth (Plate LVIII *c-d*), the latter having been found in very large numbers. Their workmanship is somewhat crude, and they are made of red earth, being solid in form in contrast to the kaolin figurines described above, which are hollow and were made in moulds.

v2.c16.s2.64

In the excavations which have been carried out by the Archaeological Department of Hyderabad at Paiṭhan and Maski a considerable number of terracotta figurines has been discovered, but they do not exhibit that fine craftsmanship which is to be noticed in the Kondāpur statuettes. The elaborate style of dressing and decorating the hair, as shown in these terracottas at Maski and Paiṭhan, closely resembles the style of some of the early sculptures of the Buddhist *vihāras*, notably that of the head-dress of the figure carved at Bhājā.

v2.c16.s2.65

The poorness of material, the insignificant size, and the frail nature of the terracottas are obvious defects because of which they can hardly be considered as definitely works of art, but none can deny the skill of the craftsmen in giving the figurines such vivid expressions, or in shaping them with such realistic effect.

v2.c16.s2.66

THE ART OF DANCING AS REPRESENTED IN THE SCULPTURE AND PAINTING OF THE DECCAN

v2.c16.s2.67

REFERENCES have already been made to certain dancing scenes in the sections of this chapter on Sculpture and Painting.¹ Similar references may also have been made by other contributors to this volume who deal with the cultural and literary activities of the Deccan in the early period. The object of the present note is to familiarize the student with certain phases of dancing as it was actually practised, and as it is shown in the sculpture or painting of the Deccan. The history of Indian dancing based on literature or tradition is, however, not to be found in this essay, and the student must look for it in standard books on the subject.²

v2.c16.s2.68

¹ Supra, pp. 744-5, 759.

v2.c16.s2.69

² Like Bharata's *Natya Śāstra*.

v2.c16.s2.70

The sculptures of the *chaitya*-caves at Koṇḍāṇe and Kārle belong to roughly the same period, that is the first or second century B.C.; and these sculptures are also contemporary with, or slightly later than, the painting on the left wall of the *chaitya*-cave (No. 10) at Ajanta, which on palaeographic grounds has been assigned to the early part of the second century B.C.³ As the dancing steps and attitudes of the performers in the latter painting are not so clear there as in the sculptures at Koṇḍāṇe and Kārle, it will be advantageous to the student if the steps and poses shown at the latter sites are studied first.

v2.c16.s2.71

³ Supra, p. 762.

v2.c16.s2.72

At Koṇḍāṇe the art, as represented in Plates IV-V, is of a primitive type, comprising only leaping and whirling such as is to be seen in the dances of primitive tribes in India and its borderlands to this day. The four episodes carved at Koṇḍāṇe however exhibit a considerably developed art in which reciprocity and balance are admirably maintained, both in the graceful movements of the limbs of the performers and in the attractive display of their emotional gestures. In subject (*a*) there are three artistes, the man being in the middle, with two women, one on each side of him. The swing and movement suggested by the bodies of the male dancer and the woman on his left are in happy consonance with their hints of amorous dalliance; the man stretches out his arm to caress the chin of the woman with his hand, while she has coquettishly lowered hers to finger the fringe of his girdle. The other arm of this woman is gracefully moulded with the hand on the hip. The bent knees of both figures suggest movement, as if they are dancing—perhaps taking alternate steps forward and backward like a swinging pendulum. The third artiste in this panel, to the left of the male figure, is also dancing but seems to be executing a figure of her own. She is, however, evidently a part of the group of three since she has her hand on the bow-string of the male dancer. She may have been taking short steps forward and backward, or moving in a semi-circle while keeping her hold on the bow-string and thus her connexion with the other two in the dance.

First 72 of 99 passages. Read on

Linked texts (11)