The Geography of the Puranas c12: Chapter XI Bharatavarsa: Janapadas, Towns and Routes (Geographical Analysis)

The Geography of the Purāṇas c12

Language: English

c12.s1 5. Kuśa (or Kumud) Dwīpa — 1 part
c12.s2 6. Varāha Dwīpa — 11 parts

Chapter XI Bharatavarsa: Janapadas, Towns and Routes (Geographical Analysis)

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IF we study the Purāṇic lists of people, or janapadas discussed above, in relation to the physiographic features of the country we realise that

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1. The people named in the lists may be grouped as follows:

(a) Those living in the plains, i. e. the Indo-Gangetic plain and the eastern and western coastal plains with adjoining valleys. These correspond to the central, north-western, western and eastern regions of Bhāratavarṣa.

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(b) The people of Peninsular India or the Deccan Plateau, which corresponds to the southern region of Bhāratavarṣa.

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(c) The people of the Himālayan Mts and the Vindhyan, Aravalli and Chhota-Nagpur hills regions. These correspond to the ‘Vindhyan’ and ‘mountainous’ regions of Bhāratavarṣa.

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2. In all the regions mentioned above the rivers play a very significant part. As mentioned earlier, the rivers are either zones of assimilation or segregation. In (a) above, the rivers are usually wide and of considerable volume and wherever they had broad flood-plains, they formed the boundaries between janapadas or people living on either side. The following are a few examples:

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3. There is a sub-division of this class where the population occupied one bank of a major river, the territorial limits on the other being defined roughly by a desert, forest or the steep slope of a mountain or hill-range. Such cases are exemplified in the following list:

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4. On the other hand, minor (i.e., narrow, shallow or non-perennial) rivers on the plains and all rivers on the plateaus, hilly or mountainous regions were the zones of attraction where each stream or river is represented in the Purāṇic list by one or more people who inhabited both of its banks along its course. Such cases are so numerous, that as a rule, many population groups can be associated with a single river, e.g.:

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5. There are quite a few names of people which were associated with the names of places, i. e., of towns and cities or regions, to which they gave their name or vice versa:

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Another classification of peoples mentioned in the Puranas could be based on their political status and on the stage of civilisation or social advancement. Thus people can be divided into:

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(a) Those who belonged to a fairly well-developed society and formed independent kingdoms or republics. The territory of these people gave shape to the political map of India and the adjacent lands.

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(b) Those who were considered minor population groups and formed in many cases part of the bigger units mentioned in (a) above.

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The following Puranic janapadas belong to class (a) above:

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(i) In Madhya Desa: Matsya, Kasi, Kosala, Kuru, Pancala, Salva, Surasenas.

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(ii) In Aparanta and Udicya Desa (or north-western region): Vahlika, Gandhara, Sindhu, Sauvira, Madra, Kaikeya.

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(iii) In Pracya Desa: Vijji-Videha, Magadha, Anga and Vanga, Suhma.

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(iv) In Daksina Desa: Pandya, Kerala, Maharashtra, Kalinga, Asmaka, Andhra.

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(v) Aparanta or Western country: Saurastra.

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(vi) Vindhyan Region: Utkala, Dasarna, Tripura, Vidisa, Avanti.

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To class (c) above belonged the people who dwelt in the hills (Himalayan and Peninsular), Kulutas (Kulu valley), Khasas, Arbudas, etc., or those who lived in forests, e.g., Mekalas, Nisadhas, Hansmargas, Tamasas, etc.

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The rest of the janapadas may be placed in category (b) above.

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Towns and cities. The Purāṇas do not give a complete list of important cities and towns of Bhārata as such. There are, however, scattered references to capital or major cities or centres of religious importance in some of the Purāṇas. But a composite picture of urban centres or human agglomerations of Ancient India can be obtained with the help of contemporary Sanskrit, Buddhist (Sanskrit and Pali) and Jain literature. The accounts of foreign writers and travellers (particularly the Chinese) are quite helpful in finding and locating them. Cunningham, Law, Sircar and other writers have mentioned many, if not all the important centres of Ancient India. It is with the help of their works that the accompanying map of 'Cities and Towns of Ancient India' has been prepared. It gives the most probable sites of cities and towns mentioned in various works. It is not claimed that the map is complete. Many centres had to be left out on account of ambiguity regarding their name or site. It will, however, be helpful in visualising the pattern of population concentration in Ancient India, and also in locating the ancient routes depicted on the next map (Ancient Routes).

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A study of the above map (of 'Ancient Towns and Cities') brings out the following facts:

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(i) Practically all capital cities were located on major rivers and occupied a site on their high banks or levees. This was natural since the period the river carried the maximum amount of water. Strategically such sites had the advantage of protection by the river on at least one and sometimes three sides. The following table gives a list of the major or capital cities and their association with rivers:

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(ii) Another class of cities or towns besides the riparian settlements mentioned above, which played an important part in the population pattern of Bhārata were the coastal towns which were the *entrepôts* of trade and developed into ports at some time or the other in Indian history. These were:

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*On the Eastern Coast*

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Rumpala Gangetic Delta Tāmraliptī Dantapara Kāvirippūmbattanam Kolkai (?)

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*On the Western Coast* Puram Tiru Vanjikkala Candaura Surparaka *On the Western Coast* Bharukaccha Vallabhi (?) Dvarvati

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It is to be noted that the importance of the coastal towns waxed and waned during the course of Indian history. The western coastal towns (of Gujarat) played an important part in the earliest period, when the trade and commerce by the Persians, Phoenicians and contemporary Indians was at its zenith. The eastern coast settlements developed trade and commerce during a later period when communication with the Malaya peninsula, the East Indies and China was established and Greater India included the eastern seaboard of the Bay of Bengal. In the next period, i.e., in the pre-medieval and medieval period the western coastal settlements, particularly those of Kerala, developed into big ports.

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(iii) The other cities or towns which are not particularly associated with rivers, lakes or sea, are those whose location is based on (a) strategy (b) religious sanctity or (c) routes.

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A glance at the map of India would show that there were three areas which favoured urban development more than elsewhere in the country. These were:

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(a) The piedmont belt of the upper Indus basin;

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(b) The Gangetic basin as a whole, leaving out the Sunderbans;

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(d) The south-eastern coastal plain;

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(e) The plateau region near the headwaters of the Krsna and the Godavari;

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(f) The coastal plain adjoining the Gulf of Cambay;

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(g) The Malva plateau.

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Incidentally, all these regions fall outside the negative areas shown on the map.

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Routes. The above statement is directly linked with the route pattern of ancient India. The route map (see Fig. 17) clearly brings out the following facts:

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(a) The trunk route from Puskalavati to Saravasti followed the piedmont belt of the Himalayas. It apparently tried to adhere as closely as possi [Figure: — TRADE ROUTES ● CAPITAL CITIES ○ OTHER IMPORTANT CITIES
* RELIGIOUS CENTRES /// ABOVE 600 METRES ::: 300 - 600 METRES [ ] BELOW 300 METRES]

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BHĀRATAVARṢA ANCIENT TRADE ROUTES

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UDAYANAPURA PUSKARAVATI TAKSASILA SAGALA JALANDHARA RORUKA INDRAPRASTHA GOVISANA AHICCHATRA MATHURA KAMPILYA SRAVASTI KAPILAVASTU KANYAKUBJA SAKETA KUSINARA VAISALI VINDHYAVALLIKA KAUSAMBI SARNATH PATALIPUTRA KASI RAJAGRAHA JETUTTARA VIDISA VATODAKA BHOJAPURI UJJAINI MANDHATA MAHESMATIPURA BHARUKACCHA TAMLIPT NAWADWIPA NAVA-DWIPA BASTAGAMA BHOJAKATA NANDVARDHANA CANDANPURI VATSAGULMA SURPARA PRATISTHANA CHANDA GAVUTAPURAM RATNAGIRI CAUDUAK BHUVANESVARA KOLLAGIRI AMARAVATI BADAMI VIJAYAVATI BHASKARAKSETRA JAYANTPURA VALLUPURU CANDAPURA PARIVIPURI TAKKOLAM KANCIPURA VARIKAMADU CIDAMBARAM KAVITIPATTANAM TANJA KUMBHAKONAM TIRUVANJIKALAM CIRAPALLI KARPUR MADURAI TIRUNELVELI PURAM KANYAKUMARI

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MILES 50 0 50 100 150 200 MILES

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BHĀRATAVARṢA

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URBAN AND RELIGIOUS CENTRES

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MILES 50 0 50 100 150 200 MILES

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Map of ancient India showing various cities and religious centres, with a legend indicating elevation and types of locations.

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| ◉ | CAPITAL CITIES |
| ⦿ | OTHER IMPORTANT CITIES |
| ⊚ | RELIGIOUS CENTRES |

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| ▨ | ABOVE 600 METRES |
| ▧ | 300 - 600 |
| □ | BELOW - 300 |

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ble (avoiding the Terai and flooded terrain) to the Himalayan foothills and crossed the mighty Himalayan rivers before they gained volume and developed extensive flood-plains. The other important route was from Indraprastha to Tāmralipti which kept to the south of the Gaṅgā and was the forerunner of the famous Grand Trunk Road which took shape later.

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Three routes connected the Indo-Gangetic plain with the south. In fact the first two, i.e., the Indraprastha-Ujjaini and Kosambi-Vidiśa routes provided access to Central and Western India while the third which ran parallel to the East Coast from Tāmralipti reached the southernmost tip of the peninsula, branching into valley routes of the Godāvari, the Kṛṣṇa and the Kāveri. This was the Great South Road in the real sense of the term. The cross-routes from Śarāvasti and Vaiśāli to Kāśi and Rajagṛh directly completed the networks of the routes in ancient India.

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CHAPTER XII Bharatavarsa: Adjacent Islands and Peninsulas

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AS mentioned earlier, Chapter 48 of the Vāyu Purāṇa¹ entitled 'The description of lands adjacent to Jambū Dwīpa' is of special significance in the context of the geographical limits of Bhāratavarṣa. We proceed to examine its contents. It says that:

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To the south of Bhāratavarṣa there is an ocean (Mahāsāgara) which is more than 10,000 yojanas in extent (1).

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There is a big mountain chain (Mahā-kul-Parvata) named Vidyutvan which runs thrice for 3,000 yojanas. It abounds in flowers and fruits and contains innumerable peaks and ranges (2, 3).

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There flow thousands of rivers of fine and tasty water. It has also tanks and wells containing fresh water (4).

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In the extensive intervening valleys and broad plains there live various groups of men and women in large numbers (5, 6).

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There are numerous towns in the midst of the mountains. These towns, walled and having only one gate, are linked with one another and lie along single routes (7).

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The indigenous population consists of people who grow long beards and whiskers, radiant like a blue cloud and who live for eighty years (8).

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They are food-gatherers and live like monkeys on fruits and roots of plants. They are uncultured and are devoid of clean ways of living (9).

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They are short-statured people (10).

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The idea conveyed by the above paragraphs is that of a very extensive mountainous region near the Southern Ocean containing at least three long and high parallel ranges.² The region is fairly well-watered and populated. On the mountains live indigenous people, uncultured, bearded, and scattered on the rugged and forested terrain. In the plains and valleys live different groups or races of people who possess towns and cities. This is indicative of an agricultural and settled population.

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The only region or land which answers to this description is Burmā. The Arakan Yoma runs by and parallel to the coast for 'three thousand yojanas' into the Southern Ocean. This range combined with the Pegu Yoma and Shan mountains gives it the phenomenal breadth emphasised in the Purāṇic description. The Kachins, the Arakanese, the Talaings, the Karens and the Chins are the various population types referred to by the Purāṇas. The Vidyutvan Mt. is obviously the Arakan Yoma (including the interior parallel ranges).

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Beyond this region, says the Purāṇa:

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There are all around that dwīpa, islands of as many as 20, 30, 50, 60, 80, 100 and even 1,000 yojanas (11). They are extensive islands full of different types of creatures and, besides them, there are clusters of thousands of small islands (12).

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This is true, since not only is the Arakan coast dotted with numerous islands, but its continuation towards the south leads one to the Andaman and Nicobar islands which have been noted by the Purāṇics and included in the dwīpa of Vidyutvan according to the above statement.

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The Purāṇa then gives an account of the six ‘different dwīpas’ of Jambū Dwīpa which protrude into the Southern Ocean. They are named as Aṅga Dwīpa, Yama Dwīpa, Malaya Dwīpa, Saṅkha Dwīpa, Kuśa Dwīpa and Varāha Dwīpa. The main features of these dwīpas gleaned from the Purāṇa are summarised below.

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1. Aṅga Dwīpa (15-18)

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(i) It is fairly extensive and contains a number of small states.

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(ii) It is populated by many groups of ‘Malechhas’.

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(iii) Gold, gems and corals (Muṅga) are found in abundance there.

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(iv) It is ‘adorned’ with beautiful rivers, mountains and forests.

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(v) It lies by the ‘Lavan Sea’.

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(vi) There is a mountain named Cakaragiri in this dwīpa, amidst the land of serpents (Nāgadeśa). The two ends of this mountain touch the sea. There are a number of rivers, falls and caves in this mountain range. Various types of creatures live in these caves.

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The pointers (i) caves, (ii) gold and corals, (iii) Malechhas, (iv) serpents and (v) aggregate of small states suggest that Aṅga Dwīpa is the same as the Malaya Peninsula. The natural limestone caves are a prominent feature of the western coast of Malaya, gold is found in the interior districts of the Peninsula in Selangor and corals on its adjoining coast.

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2. Yama Dwīpa (19)

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(i) It contains a mountain named the Dyutiman which gives rise to many rivers.

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(ii) It abounds in gems and produces gold.

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This is all the information which we can gather from the Purāṇa regarding this dwīpa.

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Alberuni in his *India* (p. 157, transl. i. 303) says, "Yama Koti is, according to Yaqub (b. Tariq) and Al Fazari (c. 754-775 A.D.) the country of which the city "Tara" (read as Bara) is in the sea. I have not found the slightest trace of this name (i.e., Tara or Bara) in Indian literature. As "Koti" means "castle" and Yama is the "Angel of Death", the word reminds me of Kangdiz, which according to the Persians, had been built by Kay-Kaus or Jam, in the most remote east, behind the sea...." Reinand has shown that the Indian Yama Koti represents the Persian Jamgard. Alberuni puts it at 190° 51' longitude on the equator, which indicates that Yama Koti is locted somewhere in Sumātrā, Malaya or Jāvā.

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Malaya has been identified by us with the Purāṇic Aṅga Dwīpa; the presence of gold and gems, particularly the former, rules out Jāvā, hence in all probability the Purāṇic Yama Dwīpa represents the island of Sumātrā. This dwīpa, according to the Chinese annals of the Sung dynasty (960-1279), was ruled by the kings of San-fo-tsi, i.e., the Srivijaya kings of Palembang (in Sumātrā) who had the title of Chan-Pei which (according to Ferrand) must be the equivalent (in Chinese pronunciation) of the Arabic Jaba (or Yama).

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3. Malaya Dwīpa (20)

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Its chief characteristics according to the Purāṇa are:

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(i) Presence of gold and precious stones.

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(ii) Sandalwood in abundance.

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(iii) A large number of rivers and mountains including the beautiful Malaya range. It has mines of silver and is covered with flowers and fruits and is considered sacred.

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(iv) The highly respected Āśrama of Agastya is located on the Malaya Mt., which is as pleasant as the heavens. This mountain is popularly known as Mahāmalaya.

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(v) There is another mountain, Mandara, which is famous all over the world. It is the abode of gods and Ṛṣis. This mountain too has an Āśrama of Agastya.

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(vi) Another mountain, Trikūṭ, very high, full of precious metals and numerous caves is also located there. Near this mountain gold and silver are found in profusion. It is inhabited by Rākṣasas.

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(vii) On the eastern side of this dwīpa and on the sea coast is the Gokarna temple of Saṅkara.

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The clear pointers to the identification of this dwīpa are (i) sandalwood, (ii) gold, (iii) Agastya Āśrama and, (iv) Laṅkā and (v) Malaya Mt.

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Agastya Ṛṣi is still said to reside at the Agastya-Kūṭa mountain in Tirunelveli (South India) where the river Tāmraparṇī takes its rise. It is the southernmost peak of the Anamalai mountain. The hermitage of Agastya supposed to be situated at Kara in the Southern Ocean may be identified with Kolai on the mouth of the Tāmraparṇī (N. D. Dey, Dict.).

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Gokarna has been identified with Gendia, a town in the province of North Kanara, Karwar District, 30 miles from Goa between Karwar and Kumta (N. L. Dey, Dict.). It is a celebrated place of pilgrimage (Mbt., Adi. P, Ch. 2, 19; Raghuvamśa, VIII; Siva P, Bk. III, Ch. 15). It contains the temple of Mahādeo Mahābaleswara established by Rāvaṇa. Here Śaṅkarācārya defeated in controversy Nīlakaṇṭa, a Śaiva (Śaṅkaravijaya, Ch. 15). In (vii) above the location of Gokarna is given on the ‘eastern side’, actually it should be the ‘western side’.

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All the pointers mentioned above lead us to the conclusion the Malaya Dwīpa is actually the southernmost peninsula of India. The Malaya Dwīpa has been inserted here by the Purāṇas to emphasise the projection of Bhāratavarṣa southwards, far into the Indian Ocean, and to remind us that the Indian Peninsula is also one of the peninsulas of the Indian Ocean.

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4. Saṅkha Dwīpa (21, 32, 33)

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(i) Its extent is 100 yojanas.

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(ii) It is a territory containing many ‘Ganas’ (republics) of ‘Malechhas’. Inhabited by many savage people.

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(iii) Saṅkhagiri mountain and Saṅkhanāg river. Both are sacred. The mountain looks like a white shell and abounds in gems. On the banks of the river is the Āśrama of Saṅkhamukh, the King of Snakes (Nāgas).

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According to Arab geographers, the term Zangistan (from which Zangibar or Zanzibar, the Zang Coast is derived) covers the whole of the eastern coast of Africa known to the Muslims. ‘Zang’ is obviously equivalent to the Sanskrit ‘Saṅkha’. The Arabs probably borrowed this name from the Purāṇas.

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Saṅkha Dwīpa or (Zang) therefore represents the whole or a part of the eastern shore of Africa from Abyssinia to Madagascar. Ptolemy extended this coast as far south as Gardafui and to the south of it he placed another cape called Lingis or Singis extreme (or Saṅkha).

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Saṅkha Dwīpa signifies 'the island of shells', and the natives of this coast, according to Strabo used to wear large collars of them, but according to some Purāṇas the inhabitants used to live in shells which signifies that they lived in caverns hollowed like a shell. The famous demon Saṅcasūra lived in a shell and was killed by Kṛṣṇa. This Saṅkhamukha Nāga, a giant in the form of a snake, with a mouth like a shell had two countenances, one of a man and another of a snake. The breath of this Nāga was fiery and poisonous which destroyed all vegetation and living beings up to a distance of 100 yojanas. This tradition became current in Arab legends and was kept alive for a long time. The breath of the Nāga evidently refers to the dreadful effect of Samoom or the hot venomous wind which blows from the mountains of Hubab through the whole extent of this region. 'Habab' in Arabic means the 'mountain of the serpent' and the people of these mountains, according to the Abyssinians, have legendary traditions of a snake who formerly reigned over them and conquered the kingdom of Sire. They are famous with their serpentine tribes in oriental tales which appear to have been derived from the Purāṇas.

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The Purāṇas occasionally, the Arabs generally, and the Greeks invariably, made the mistake of joining the African Coast round the Indian Ocean to the East Indian Islands. Sumātrā and Malaya on Ptolemy's maps show the African Horn pulled far eastwards to the south of Sumātrā and Jāvā, thus enclosing the Indian Ocean in the south. In the beginnig of the Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa, the peninsula of Malaya and Sumātrā join the 'Island or Dwīpa of Saṅkha' (or Zeng). Raneh of Arabian writers, which includes Madagascar and the surrounding islands, was also recognised by the Purāṇics who called it Hariṇa which is mentioned by the Bhāgawata Purāṇa along with Saṅkha Dwīpa, in the south-western quarter of Jambū Dwīpa.

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It is to be noted that the extent of the Saṅkha Dwīpa is given in the Purāṇas as 100 yojanas only. This leads us to the conclusion that the Purāṇic Saṅkha Dwīpa either stood for the island of Madagascar only or a portion of the adjoining African Coast or included both.

5. Kuśa (or Kumud) Dwīpa

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The description of this dwīpa is very sketchy in the Purāṇas. One can understand the summary dismissal of Kuśa Dwīpa on the ground that Kuśa Dwīpa has been discussed by all the Purāṇas separately under the general heading of 'Seven Dwīpas' of the earth. If we refer to the earlier chapters of this monograph, we shall find Kuśa Dwīpa identified with Western Asia. Arabian Peninsula is a part of this dwīpa. Hence, while enumerating the peninsulas of the Indian Ocean, the Purāṇics just add Kuśa Dwīpa here to remind the readers of the peninsular form of this part of Kuśa Dwīpa.

6. Varāha Dwīpa

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The characteristic features of this dwīpa are given as follows:

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(i) Inhabited by numerous savage people.

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(ii) Large number of prosperous cities.

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(iii) Mountains, rivers and forests.

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(iv) The Varāha mountain with gorges, waterfalls, and caves.

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(v) The Varāhi river of clear and tasty water. It banks are regarded as holy.

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(vi) Viṣṇu (in the form of ‘Varāha’) is the principal diety of this dwīpa.

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Wilford⁹ describes a division of the world into seven dwīpas, but he does not mention its source. According to this description the divisions are:

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Jambū is in the centre; to the west, reckoning from north to south are the dwīpas of Varāha, Kuśa and Saṅkha; to the east reckoning from south to north are Malaya, Yama and Aṅga’.

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Our identifications detailed above very closely fit in with the above alignment with respect to Aṅga, Yama, Malaya, Saṅkha and Kuśa dwīpas mentioned by the Purāṇas in connection with the islands and peninsulas of the Indian Ocean. The only help we can get from Wilford’s statement is that Varāha must be an island or peninsula in the west, i.e. in the Arabian sea, somewhere adjacent to the Saṅkha Dwīpa which has been identified with Madagascar and the adjoining African Coast, and to the Kuśa Dwīpa of which a part is identical with the Arabian Peninsula.

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Considering the characteristic features of the Varāha Dwīpa given in the Purāṇas and summarised above, one has to eliminate the dry and arid lands of Makran and the Persian Coast. The only area which can possibly, if not definitely, be identified with the Varāha Dwīpa, is the most perfect peninsula known as the African Horn which may be added in the Purāṇic list as Varāha Dwīpa. The only river Webbe Shibeli in the region represents the Varāhi river and the mountains of Arusi represent the Varāha Mt. of the Purāṇas. A large number of cities, forests and savage tribes can only be applicable to a portion of this peninsula of the Arabian Sea.

Linked texts (6)

Bhāgavatapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Vāyupurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Śivapurāṇa — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit
Raghuvaṃśa — Kālidāsa, Sanskrit
Śaṅkaravijaya — Mādhava, Sanskrit

The Geography of the Puranas c12: Chapter XI Bharatavarsa: Janapadas, Towns and Routes (Geographical Analysis)

Contents

Chapter XI Bharatavarsa: Janapadas, Towns and Routes (Geographical Analysis)

5. Kuśa (or Kumud) Dwīpa

6. Varāha Dwīpa

Linked texts (6)