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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s2: B. Buddhist Sacred Places

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s2

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B. Buddhist Sacred Places

Lumbini

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One of the four holiest pilgrimage sites of the Buddhists, Lumbini, is the birth place of Siddharth Gautam. It is located in the southern terai region of Rupandehi (Rummindei) district of Nepal bordering with India. It is believed that the wife of Shakyan king Shuddhodan, Queen Mayadevi, stopped in Lumbini gardens/ forest on the way to her parents’ home in Devdaha (about 35 km from Lumbini). Attracted by the beauty of evergreen forest having abundance of sal trees in the shadow of Himalayan mountain ranges, she decided to rest here. According to several accounts, while watching the beauty of the garden/forest standing under a sal tree, Maydevi had labour pain. Holding the drooping branch of the tree she gave birth to Prince Siddharth– the future Buddha. The most widely accepted date of Buddha’s birth is Viasakh Purnima (ie, full moon day in April-May) 563 BCE. Some controversy about the date, however, still exists. Lumbini thus became among the most sacred places of the Buddhist religion.

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Incidentally, Devdaha, the ancient capital of Koli(ya) Kingdom was not only the Siddharth Gautam’s maternal home. It was also the home of his step-mother Prajapati Gautam as well as of his wife, Yashodhara’s father, King Suprabuddha.

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The discovery of Buddha’s birth-site owes much to travel descriptions of Faxian and Xuanzang. Following the leads provided by both the Chinese travellers and the discovery of an Asokan Pillar at Rummindei by the Nepali archaeologist Khadga Samsher Rana in 1896, several archaeological excavations, the latest of which was conducted recently between 1990s and 2000s jointly by Nepalese and Japanese archaeologists, claim to have found the exact location of Siddharth Gautam’s birth.

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Shaxi xingjiao temple, Jianchuan County, Yunnan Province, China

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The Rummindei Asokan Pillar inscription announces that when King Devanampriya Priyadarshi (Asoka) had been anointed 20 years, he himself visited this place and worshipped at this spot. He erected a structure/ stone pillar with wall here to mark that the Blessed One (Buddha Sakyamuni) was born here. In mark of respect for the Blessed One, Lumbini was exempted from the payment of state taxes. The pillar has an additional inscription carved by the early 14th century local king Ripu Mall to record his pilgrimage. By the 15th century, the place fell into historical obscurity due to various reasons.

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Ruins of Lumbini

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Excavations in Lumbini have now unearthed ruins of ancient monasteries and stupas of various Buddhist sects from 3rd century BCE to 15th century CE, the Mayadevi temple– where the exact spot of Buddha's birth is marked by an ancient rock stone and the famous bathing pond famous as Pushkarni (where according to legends Mayadevi bathed before the delivery).

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Presently, Lumbini has once again gained the fame as one of the holiest Buddhist pilgrim sites. Its renovation and development tasks are being carried out under the UNESCO's World Heritage schemes and the Lumbini Development Trust. In 2006, the Nepal Government established the Lumbini Buddhist University there. A large Peace Park has been developed with Chinese help. There are also plans to have temples of different sects of Buddhism from various Buddhist countries be built there. With increase in pilgrim tourists world-calls hotels and restaurants are developing. A China-based Asia Pacific Exchange Cooperation Foundation has reported to have signed a deal to invest $3 billion to develop Lumbini. Similar proposals are also afoot from other countries. Lumbini has thus woken up.

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(*Kamal Sheel*)

Kapilvastu

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Kapilvastu, located in the western part of present day Nepal and bordering India, is most famous as a Buddhist site linked with the childhood of Siddharth Gautam (Buddha) and the early phase of his life after attaining enlightenment. Born in nearby Lumbini village, Siddharth Gautam is believed to have spent first 29 years of his life here. It was then the capital of ancient Shakya Republic of which Siddharth Gautam's father, Shuddhodana, was an elected king. Considered among the earliest republics of the world, the Shakyas belonged to the 16 *mahajanpadas* (republics) of the 6^th century BCE.

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The discovery of the exact site of Kapilvastu owes to the travel records of Faxian and Xuanzang. During their visit, both these Chinese travellers found the capital city and the surrounding towns destroyed, desolate and only sparsely populated for long. The whole region was divided into many small states ruled by several kings. The land was fertile and the people peaceful. They located the remains of old palatial buildings as well as about 1,000 sites of a monastery. By the time of Xuznzang's visit there were about 30 monks of the Hinyana sect living in a monastery and there were two non-Buddhist [Śaiva ?] temples. Faxian refers to remains of drawn images, erected topes and constructed marks/ *chaitya* related to the narratives of the early life of Siddharth Gautam. On the basis of these records, archaeologists have located the site at Tilaurakut in Nepal.

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Yet recently, some archaeologists have made claims that Piparhawa, in the border-district of Siddharthnagar in India and about 40 km from Tilaurakut in Nepal, is the site of historical Kapilvastu. Remains of a large Asokan Stupa over a Shakyan stupa with Buddha's urns in it and an inscription proclaiming it to be the the Kapilvastu Buddhist Mahavihara were found there. Some historians link Kapileshwar in Orissa (now Odisha) with historical Kapilvastu. The controversy remains unresolved. Near ancient Kapilvastu was Nigrodhārāma (in the present village of Kudan which is about 6 km from Tilaurakaot, Nepal) where archaeologists have found a site of monastery. According to several accounts, Buddha was provided a residential place here in the banyan grove by a Shakyan-turned-Buddhist monk to stay during his visits to his home town. It is believed that he preached cula *dukkhakkhandha sutta*, *sakka sutta*, *madhupindika sutta* and promulgated several *vinaya* rules here. Yet in the absence of further concrete evidences, Tilaurakut in Nepal is widely believed to be historical Kapilavastu and the site at Piparhawa was located, an extension of large Kapilvastu kingdom where a large Shakyan Monastery under the control of Buddhist *sangha*.

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Ruins of Kapilavastu

Bodhgaya

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Bodhgaya is the place where Gautam Buddha attained enlightenment. It is one of the four holiest sites which Buddha himself recommended his disciples to visit for pilgrimage. The other three are Sarnath, Lumbini and Kushinara. Bodhgaya is originally a village at the fringes of the ancient city of Gaya and not far from Nalanda, Rajagriha and Patliputra (Patna) in southern Bihar.

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It was historically known as Uruvela and was situated at the banks of River Niranjana (Lilanjan) which merged with the holy River Falgu that flowed past the city of Gaya. According to 5th century commentator Dharmapala, the name Uruvela derived from the abundance of sand (*vela*). Others link its name to the existence of a or many vilva trees (Aegie marmelas) there. Archaeological excavations of the local village site, however, reveal that it was an area with human settlement dating at par with Indus Civilisation of about 4,500 years ago.

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After its linkages with Gautam Buddha and the disappearance of its original name due to disuse, it was referred to differently as the city of Smbodhi [Complete Enlightenment], Bodhimanda [Enclosure containing the holy Bodhi tree], Vajrasana [Diamond throne] or Mahabodhi [Perfect Knowledge/ Enlightenment] until its present name Bodhgaya gained popularity after the rediscovery of this site with a large temple and other ruins in the early 19^th century.

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*Bodhgaya, Bihar, India*

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Sambodhi is the first name used for the Uruvela village in an Asokan Rock Edict of 256 BCE. Another name Bodhimanda refers to a circular area around the Bodhi tree which was, according to Kalingabodhi Jataka, covered with clean and shining sand without a blade of grass growing on it with surrounding trees and shrubs bending in its deference. The name, *Vajrasan*, derives from the famous "Diamond Throne" meditation seat, sitting over which Buddha received enlightenment. However, Mahabodhi was the most commonly used name until the rediscovery of the site in the mid-19^th century.

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According to Buddhist texts, more than 2,550 years ago, Siddharth Gautam spent six years in Uruvela [Bodhgaya] subjecting himself to intense penance and fasting. Failing to attain the required knowledge, he accepted the rice pudding from a local woman devotee Sujata who lived just across the Niranjana River. Finally after deep meditation for three days under a peepal tree, he attained enlightenment and became the Buddha on *Vaishakh Purnima* (full moon day in April-May). He then spent seven weeks in seven different sites here in contemplation before setting off to Sarnath in Varanasi to announce his newly discovered knowledge, wisdom and truth. From Sarnath, he returned to Uruvela again on the way to Rajgriha. He met here three ascetic brothers, Nadi Kasspa, Gaya Kassap and Uruvela Kaasap. Deeply impressed by his serenity and wisdom, they along with their 1,000 disciples requested to be ordained as monks and proceeded to Rajgriha with him. Buddha probably never returned to this place again.

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The holy site of Bodhgaya initially developed around the Bodhi tree and the Vajrasana. The Bodhitree shrine, which later became the Mahabodhi Mahavihara [temple], was built by the Emperor Asoka in the 3^rd century BCE. The structure of the temple underwent many changes over the time. During the Sunga period (2^nd-1^st centuries BCE) a two storied structure enclosing the tree and a *stupa* were erected and the stone meditation seat was decorated with a diamond-shaped design pattern. The original Mahabodhi temple [mulagandhakuti] had been built by the second half of the 6th century CE, with extension and addition during the Pala-Sen dynasty (10^th-12^th centuries CE).

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Bodhgaya had become a famous Buddhist pilgrim centre by the time of Asoka whose visit to the city of Sambodhi [Bodhgaya] is recorded. Since Buddha's time, patronised by men and women of both royal and commoner households as well as by monks and seekers of knowledge, it has been at the centre of the Buddhist pilgrimage map. Among famous earliest visitors from abroad, one finds evidence of Sri Lankan monk Culla Tissa and a group of lay pilgrims making their way to Bodhgaya in about 100 BCE. Inscriptions and other material evidences indicate visit and renovation of this place by disciples from Sri Lanka, Myanmar, China, Nepal, Tibet, Sumatra, Vietnam and other Buddhist countries. In 4th century CE, Sri Lankans built the great Mahabodhi Monastery which later grew into a great monastic university for the study of Theravada Buddhism. Buddhaghosa wrote both the Atthasalani and the now lost Nanodaya at this monastery. Other famous names associated with it include Chinese monks Ijing, Jin Hong and Xuan Chao, south Indian monk Dharmapala, who was the author of the *Madyamakacatuhsatika*, Kashmiri scholar Ratnavajra, Tibetan Tsami Lotsawa Sangye Trak, Sri Lankan Anandashri etc. Chinese traveller-monks Faxian and Xuanzang provide the earliest detailed description of the place identifying areas of its sacred sites. The last one to write about the place was Tibetan scholar-monk Dharmasvamin who came there in 1234 CE and found the place deserted with only four monks staying there. A series of attacks by Indo-Turkic rulers since the 12th century led to its fast decay.

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The railings of the Bodhi temple at Bodhgaya

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Rediscovered during the colonial period in a decayed state, its restoration commenced first by Francis Buchanan in 1811-12 and finally, in 1881 by J D Beglar under the supervision of Alexander Cunningham. After the initial renovation of the temple, the first International Buddhist Conference was held in Bodhgaya in 1891. This brought this famous sacred site once again on the pilgrim tourist map. In 1956, the 2,500 the anniversary of Buddha was celebrated here under the auspices of the Government of India with participation by a large number of representatives from different Buddhist sects and countries. In 2002, the Mahabodhi Temple complex was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Bodhgaya is now fast developing as an internationally recognised Buddhist religious and pilgrim centre with Buddhist chanting in different languages of various countries buzzing the area and temples, monasteries and parks of different Buddhist sects and countries being erected all over the place.

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(*Kamal Sheel*)

Vajrasana

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Vajrasana, translated often as Diamond Throne, refers to the stone seat decorated with diamond pattern surface on which Gautam Buddha sat in meditation and attained enlightenment under a peepal tree [Ficus Religiosa or Bodhi tree] in Uruvela village (Bodhgaya). It is also known as the Victory Throne of all Buddhas (Sabbabuddha-nam Jayapallankam) or the Navel of the Earth (Pathavinabhi). The *Vajrasana* and the peepal tree are recognised as the most significant sacred spots for Buddhists. The Mahabodhi Temple, which was later erected to enshrine the place, was called (Vajrasana Gandhakuti). It was believed that when the universe will be finally destroyed, this would be the last place to disappear and that it would also be the first place to form with the beginning of the re-evolution of the universe. Emperor Ashoka built a red sandstone structure with railings here in the 3rd century BCE to mark the exact spot of the meditation seat. Until the popularity of the name Bodhgaya for Uruvela, the place was for some times also known as *Vajrasana*.

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In Pali texts, the most often quoted story is that Buddha went into extreme austerities in the banks of Niranjana River for six years but was not able to attain "supreme knowledge". He then accepted the sweetened rice-milk from a local village girl, Sujata. Gaining strength from it, he sat in deep meditation under a peepal tree facing east on a *kush*-grass mat offered by a local grass-cutter with a strong resolve that he would not rise until the attainment of perfect enlightenment. Disturbed by the power of his meditation, Mara (the god of illusion and worldly vices) first sent his beautiful daughters and *apasaras* (celestial maidens) to break his resolve and lure him to worldly pleasures. When they failed, Mara sent bolts of lightning, wind and heavy rain one-by-one,and finally his demonic armies. None could dissuade Gautam Buddha from his virtuous path.

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Vajrasana

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Meditating on *Vajrasana* with his hand touching the earth, he conquered all of them through the strength of his virtue and compassion and attained the perfect enlightenment on the full moon day of the fourth month of lunar calendar. He became the Buddha, the "Enlightened One".

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Xuanzang's travelogue also provides other legends for the place. He describes that the *Vajrasana* was located in the middle of the enclosure surrounding the Bodhi tree. This "diamond throne" has come up in the beginning of *Bhadra-kalpa* (refers to the recreation of the universe in the present aeon) and stands at the centre of three "meta-thousand" worlds. Appearing on the surface of the earth, it is connected below with the golden wheel. Made up of the hardest stone (diamond), it was known as the *Vajrasana* because in *Bhadra-kalpa*, 1,000 Buddhas had meditated here and were enlightened. It was also known as the Bodhi-*mandapa*. Standing still even at the time of an earthquake, this was the place which provided Buddha protection to pursue his meditation without any interruption. Buddhism, it was believed, would decline with the sliding down of the *Vajrasana* to the earth. To protect it, kings and emperors had installed two statues of Avlokitaeshwara befitting its size. Xuanzang, however, found the statue in the south had already slid down to the chest thus indicating the decline of Buddhism. Similar legends are found in Buddhagosh's discourses too.

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Presently adorned beautifully with golden clothes and colourful umbrella, this is a must-visit place in the Mahabodhi Temple complex for pilgrims.

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(*Kamal Sheel*)

Gaya

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Among the ancient living cities of India, Gaya has been famous for both of its Hindu and Buddhist connections. Situated at the bank of River Falgu (referred in Ramayana as Niranjana), it actually encompasses the historical village of Bodhgaya (about 11 km), the place where Buddha achieved enlightenment. It is not far from Patliputra (about 100 km), the ancient capital of Magadh and Maurya kingdom, or Patna, the present capital of modern Bihar province. Ancient cities of Vaishali, Rajagriha, Nalanda (about 70 km) are also close-by. It is surrounded by small rocky hills (Mangla-Gauri, Ram-Shila and Brahmayoni) by three sides and the river flowing on the fourth (eastern) side.

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The history of origin of Gaya is shrouded in legends. In *Puranas*, the city's name is linked with the tale of a demon Gayasura who lived here and attained divine power after severe penance. Fearful of his power intruding the work of gods of Heaven, Lord Vishnu killed him by pressing his chest and body down to earth by his foot. He, however, granted him the boon that anybody performing worship in the area covered by his body shall attain salvation. The Vishnupada (Vishnu's footstep) Temple erected there later commemorates that event and is the most famous and holiest temple of the city. Another legend found in *Mahabharat* as well as in *Buddhacharita* attribute the name of the city to the holy residence of a most respected sage called Gaya. Xuanzang in his travelogue too refers to this story.

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Pipal/Bodhi trees

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Historically, Gaya has been known as a prominent city under the Magadh empire. During the time of Bimbisar, the fifth king of the Sisunaga dynasty in 600 BCE, the city became more famous as it came into the limelight because of its significant association with Lord Gautam Buddha and Mahavir. After the brief rule of Nandas, the city came under the Mauryans whose great emperor Ashoka,] patronised the city after having embraced Buddhism. The famous Mahabodhi Temple and Ashokan Pillars adorned the city. During Gupta dynasty, it became the headquarters of Bihar district. The Guptas were followed by the Palas whose king Dharamapala built/ rebuilt the present Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya. During his visit to Xuanzang, he found it inhabited by about 1,000 respected Brahmin families belonging to earlier sages. They had their own exalted social status independent of the King's political authority. Between 12th and 18th centuries, Gaya was ruled by the Muslims like Bakhtiyar Khilji and Shershah Suri until it came under the control of British after the battle of Buxar in 1764. It became an independent district in 1865 and after India's Independence, it was incorporated in Magadh Division in 1981.

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Most of the references of Gaya describe it as an important centre of pilgrims for Hindus. It is believed that offerings made here in the name of ancestors earned enough merits for a person to get rid of all the sins and attain salvation. The spiritual merit of Gaya is mentioned in Mahabharata as well as in *Puranas* like Padma, Naradiya, Varaha, Kurma, Garuda and Vayu. Lord Rama came to this city with his wife Sita to perform offering-ceremonies for his departed father, King Dashrath. Even now, the city is visited by hundreds and thousands of Hindu pilgrims to worship for their ancestors. Beside the famous Vishnupada Temple (renovated by the Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar in the 18th century) and the sacred Akshayavat (the everlasting banyan/peepal tree), there are sacred shrines on the hilltop at Rama Shila, Mangla Gauri and Brahmayoni and are part of the pilgrimage circuit. Bhumihar Brahmins, known as Gayawal Pandas, are the traditional priests here.

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Buddhist tradition regards the footstep in the Vishnupad Temple as those of Gautam Buddha (who is regarded by a section of Hindus as an incarnation of Vishnu). Buddhists, however, regard the Brhmayoni Hill (Xuanzang refers to it as Gaya-Shir), an important sacred place. Buddha preached the Fire Sermon (Adittapariyaya Sutta) to a 1,000 former fire-worshipping ascetics who all became enlightened while listening to this discourse. Ashoka had built many stupas on the way to this hilltop.

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Presently, Gaya is the second largest city of Bihar province and an important hub of social, political and intellectual activities of the region.

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(*Kamal Sheel*)

Mrigdava

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In Buddhist texts, Sarnath, one of the four most significant spots of Buddhist pilgrimage, is referred alternatively as Mrigdava/ Mrigdaya, or by its full name Rishipattan Mrigdava in Sanskrit and Isipatan Migdaya in Pali. Mrigdava literally means deer forest while Migdaya indicates place offered to a deer as their share of "inheritance". Rishipatan/ Isipatan refers to a place where bodies of sages fell.

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The historical origin of these names is not known. Avadana and Jatak stories, however, tell about legends associated with these names. In Mahavastu Avadana as well as in Nigrodhmigjataka, there is a story about the king of Kashi, Brahmadutt, who, frequently indiscriminately hunted deer in the nearby forest. Many a time, injured by his arrows, the deer used to run away deep in the forest where they either died due to their wounds or became easy prey of other animals or birds. Distressed by such wanton destruction of their herd, the deer-leader met the king and offered to send him one deer daily to stop the indiscriminate hunting. The king accepted the proposal. One day, it was the turn of a doe to go to the king. She was pregnant so she appealed to the leader that she be exempted until the delivery of a fawn. Pitying her condition and finding no one else offering to go, he himself went to the king to maintain his promise. Surprised, the king asked him the reason for offering himself. When he heard the full story, he felt that that if an animal could be so upright and compassionate then there was no

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*Dhamekh Stupa, Saranath*

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reason for him to be so selfish and cruel. He must follow his dharma. He then immediately issued a royal order granting full protection to deer there. The forest area became known as the protected place offered to deer as their share of "royal inheritance" ie, Mrigdaya or Mrigdava. This story is also referred in Xuanzang's travelogue.

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The full name of this place was Rishipatan [Isipatan] Mrigdaya/ Mrigdava [Migdaya]. Mahavastu Avadan mentions that it was so called because remains of the bodies of hundreds of Pratyeka-Buddha (sages) fell here. These Buddhas, who lived here, were advised by the gods to vacate this place for the arrival of Gautam Buddha. They, therefore, attained nirvana and went to heaven. They burnt their bodies while going up and its remains fell here. The place was then called Rishipattan. These two names based on two different stories when joined together became Rispattan Mrigdava (present-day Sarnath).

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Following the above names for Sarnath in Buddhist texts the Chinese translation refer to it as Luye [鹿野] = Deer Forest; Xianren luye yuan [仙人鹿野苑] = "Deer Forest" Garden for Sages Luye yuan zhong xianren zhuchu [鹿野苑中仙人住處] = Abode of Sages in the "Deer Forest" Garden; Xianmian chu [仙面處] = Place Where Sages Are Seen Shi lu lin xianren duochu [施鹿林仙人墮處] = Place for Sages in the Bestowed Deer Forest; Xianren duochu luye yuan [仙人墮處鹿野苑] = Sages' Abode in "Deer Forest" Garden; Xianren duochu shi lulin [仙人墮處施鹿林] = Sages Abode in Bestowed "Deer Forest" etc.

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(*Kamal Sheel*)

Sarnath

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Lord Buddha proclaimed four holiest pilgrimage sites of Buddhism which were related to important events of his life. Of these four sites, Lumbini was related to his birth, Bodhgaya to his enlightenment, Sarnath to his first sermon and Kushinara to his attainment of nirvana. Sarnath is thus famous as the place where Buddha set in motion the wheel of law (Maha-Dhammacakkappavattana), by preaching his first five ascetic companions the fundamentals of Buddhism ie, Four Noble Truths and Eight Paths as well as several other *suttas* [discourses/ teachings]. He thus laid the foundation of Buddhist *dharma* and *sangha* which spread both in India and abroad, making Buddhism once the largest religion of the world. Located close to Varanasi-Kashi in eastern Uttar Pradesh, it is historically known as Rishipattan or Ishipattan (place of sages) and Mrigadaya (deer park). The popular name Sarnath is derived from its association with Rishi Sarangnath (master of deer), a Saiva sage.

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Sarnath is widely referred to in various Buddhist writings. The *Jatakas* have several stories connected with events and activities as well as several legends about Lord Buddha there. Both Faxian and Xuanzang found it to be a grand and flourishing place. During his visit in the early 5th century CE, Faxian noted four *stupas* and two monasteries here. Two centuries later, Xuanzang witnessed the whole area to be religiously very active. In Varanasi, the city under whose boundary was Sarnath, he found over 30 monasteries and approximately 3,000 resident monks of Sammatiya sect. Sarnath was surrounded by a wall. Within it were buildings and pavilions as well as several lakes and gardens built in line with good planning. Near 1,500 monks of Sammitiya sect lived there. There was a tall and huge temple/ monastery with a golden top shaped like a mango. The temple had a copper statue of Buddha in *dhammchakkapavattan* style. He noted many *stupas*, some of which were more than 200 feet in height. There was also a 70 feet stone pillar which was very soft, shining and had inscriptions.

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Xuanzang observed the grandeur of art and craft that characterised Sarnath during the Mauryas, Sungas, Kushanas and the Guptas and were evident in Dhamekh and other *stupas*, Ashokan Pillar, the Buddha statue and scores of various artifacts. The Sarnath School of Buddha sculpture produced the most beautiful stone statue of the preaching Buddha, the style of which was emulated in India and abroad and particularly in pre-Angokorine Cambodia. Coomaraswamy noted this statue as one of the three best sculptures of the world. Sarnath retained its charm even during the Pala period. Plunder by Afghan-based Mahmud Ghajni’s and Ghori’s invasions in the first and decades of 11th century Sarnath. Kumardevi, wife of Govindchandra (1114-1154 CE) of the Gahadavala dynasty, built a large monastery at Sarnath which is probably the last impressive monuments raised here. By the beginning of 13th century, the periodic onslaught of Turko-Muslim kings followed by ransacking by local roving powerholders for building material, Sarnath was completely destroyed.

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The glorious heritage of Sarnath was finally uncovered by the British archaeologists, especially A C Cunningham during the 19th century. They found tall and huge Dhamekh *stupa*, foundation remains of Dharmarajika *Stupa* (bricks of which were pillaged aand used as building materials in Varanasi), severely destroyed Chaukhandi stupa constructed to spot the site of Buddha’s meeting with five ascetics – later over which Akbar constructed a memorial to mark his father Humayun’s hiding place after defeat by Sher Shah Suri. They also found ruins of Mulgandhkutivihar. (In 1930, Sri Lankan monk Anagarik Dharmapal constructed a new Mulgandhkuti Temple there.) They also found the Ashokan Pillar broken, with its top which had a statue of four lions that has been declared a national symbol and is now adorning the Sarnath museum. Besides this, located in Sarnath are also Jaina and Shaiva temples.

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Now fast developing as the Buddhist pilgrim centre, almost all the major Buddhist countries have their temples here with each representative having the architecture of their respective native land. A Chinese temple was constructed in 1939 by donations from Fukienese Buddhists through the Kolkata-based Chinese Association in India. The modern Thai Temple there has a huge statue of Buddha. Recently, Koreans and Japanese too have built their temples besides one old one by Myanmar. It is now a part of much-travelled Buddhist tourist circuit.

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(*Kamal Sheel*)

Shravasti

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Once among the six largest and flourishing cities of ancient India, Shravasti was the capital of the Kosala kingdom during 6th century BCE. By this century, it had almost vanished. The city remained in oblivion until Alexander Cunningham discovered its ruins

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Ruins of Śrāvastī in 1862. Its geographical location is in northeast Uttar Pradesh in Sahet (modern Gonda district) and Mahet (modern Baharaich district), along the bank of River Rapti, which led to the creation of a modern Shravasti district with the Bhinga town as its headquarters by carving out Bharaich and Gonda districts. It is about 150 km away from Lucknow, the capital of Uttar Pradesh.

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Not much is known about the origin of ancient Shravasti. According to Vishnu Purana, the city was founded by Ishvaku King Shravast or Shravastak, along the bank of Achirvati river. In Pali Tripitika texts, Buddhaghosh writes that the city was named Savatthi after the Sage Savattha who lived here. At another place, Pali texts note that it was named Sravasti because everything for human consumption and entertainment was available in this mega town and capital of the powerful Kosal kingdom that had a large population and market.

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Shravasti has been referred as one of the richest cities of Buddha’s era. It was connected with all the other five largest cities through trading routes. The route from Shravasti to Rajgriha was the most famous and frequented. According to Buddhist Sanskrit text, Divyavadan, this commercial route passed through the ancient cities of Setatya, Saket, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Pava, Bhagnagar and Vaishali. It had to cross River Ganges for which boats were arranged by either Licchavis of Vaishali or the rulers of Magadh during the time of Ajatshatru. Another commercial route that connected Shravasti with Paithan (Pratishthan/ Pishtapuram) was the illustrious capital of Satvahana empire in southwest India. This touched the cities of Saket, Kaushambi, Vidisha, Gonaddha, Ujjain and Mahishmati.

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Most of the references to Shravasti, however, relate to its Buddhist and Jain connections during the era of the Kosal kingdom. Buddha spent 24 *chaturmaas* (four-month rainy season) in Shravasti. The most famous Buddhist monastery, Jetvanaram, was located here. This was constructed by a local rich merchant, Anathpindaka (Sudatta), and donated to Buddha. Its magnificent entrance gate was built by Kumar Jeta. Another famous monastery was built by Vishakaha Mrigarmata under the direction of Monk Mahamodglayana and was known as Purvaram monastery because of its location near the eastern gate of Shravasti. King Prasenjit also constructed a monastery for Buddhist nuns, Rajkaram, here. On the request of Mahaprajapati Gotami, Buddha had preached a *sutta* (verse) of Majjhimnikaya. In fact, Buddha presented the maximum number of discourses on *suttas* and Jatak stories in this city. The dreaded robber and murderer, Angulimal, was ordained here.

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Both Faxian (5th century CE) and Xuanzang (7th century CE) had travelled to Shravasti. Both found it to be a city in fast decline. They witnessed and identified most of the places referred to in the Pali texts. Xuanzang found two Ashokan *stupas* and piillars at the eastern gate of the city.

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Shravasti is also famous as a Jain sacred place where it is also known as Kunalnagarí, Chandrikapuri and Manikpuri. It was associated with the 3rd Jain Tirthankar Sambhavanath as well as with the last Tirthankar, Lord Mahavira, who spent several *chaturmaas* in the city. Kosal King Prasenjit was a follower of the latter. According to Jaina texts, many of the *shresthis* (businessmen), as well as members of the royal family from the city embraced Jainism. This included famous businessman, Nagdutta, and son of King Jitshatru, Mrigdhwaj. The ancient Shobnath Temple and other Jaina monuments indicate strong Jain connection. During 10th and 11th centuries CE, the city was ruled by successive Jain kings like Mayurdhwaj, Hansdhwaj, Makardhwaj Sudhavadhwaj and Suhridhwaj.

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(*Kamal Sheel*)

Rajgriha

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Now a small decrepit town known as Rajgir, the ancient city of Rajgriha, was the famous capital of the mighty Magadh kingdom of ancient India until the rise of Patliputra in 5th century BCE. Located close to Nalanda (Bihar), it is about 100 km from Patna (Patliputra) and 75 km from Gaya. According to Ramayana and ancient Puranic texts, the city was founded by Brahma’s grandson King Vasu and was called Vasumati. In the period of Mahabharat, with the founding of a dynasty by B силуath, it became known as Brahadrathpur. A successor of this dynasty was the legendary king Jarasandh. It was then also known as Girivajra (ie, mountain-fenced or collection of hills) because it was surrounded by five hills. In the Mahabharat, these hills are mentioned as Vaibhara, Varaha, Vrishabh, Rishigiri and Chaityaka. The Pali texts identify them as Vebhara, Pandava, Vepulla, Gijjhakuta and Isigili. Later Buddhist and Jain texts as well as Xuanzang’s accounts. identify the city also as Kushagrapura. According to available historical evidence, it was King Bimbisara (6th century BCE) of the Haryanka dynasty who built or rebuilt it and named it Rajgriha meaning "the abode of royalty".

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Modern archaeological excavations trace the history of Rajgriha to 1,000 BCE. However, this ancient city gradually lost its pre-eminence due to various reasons including the shift of capital to Patliputra. Much information of its physical setting is available through the travel records of Chinese traveller-monks – Fa Xian, Xuanzang and Yijing which note the existence of an old and a new city and describe that the city lies within a valley and is surrounded by low-lying hills. It is demarcated by an earthen embankment (the Inner Fortification) which associated with the Outer Fortification, a complex of cyclopean walls that runs (with large breaks) along. New Rajgir is defined by the larger stone embankment constructed outside the northern entrance of the valley to the plain. These are dated to the period of Bimbisara and Ajatshatru in the 6th-5th centuries BCE. When the Chinese Buddhist monk Faxian visited Rajgriha in the early 5th century CE, he found the city largely shorn of its earlier splendour. He however, noticed many monasteries and *stupas*. This included one constructed by Ajatshatru over his share of Buddha's relics which were divided into eight portions and distributed among claimant neighbouring kingdoms; as well as a large *stupa* with the elephant-capital on top of the pillar, later built there by Emperor Asoka. During his visit to the city in the middle of 7th century CE, Xuanzang too notes the decline of the city but located various sites connected with historical Buddha. The city, according to literary evidences, survived until 12th century CE. Lost for seven centuries with even its exact location erased from historical memory, it was later rediscovered by British archaeologists during the colonial period following the Chinese travellers' records.

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Bath at the hot spring of Rājagrha, India. According to legends, Buddha would bathe at the hot springs near the south-west cliff of the Vaibhara Giri Hill. It is said that there were 500 hot water springs here.

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The city has been referred to in numerous Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina texts. Its fame is linked to the exploits of Mahabharat's powerful legendary King of Magadh, Jarasandh who had many battles with Lord Krishna. Jarasandh, was finally killed in a duel by Bheem, one of the famous Pandava brothers, with the help of Krishna. The city's linkages with historical Buddha and Jain Thirthankar Mahavira as well as with contemporary kings, Bimbisara and Ajatsatru are well recorded. The Pali texts indicate it to be a favourite place of Gautam Buddha. According to legends, King Bimbisara respectfully received Gautam Siddharth as the son of *kshatriya* Shakya King Shuddhodan and made him promise to visit him again after attaining enlightenment. Buddha kept his promise. Not only did he visit Rajgriha soon after his enlightenment but also ordained Bimbisara and his large retinue to his newly established Buddhist fold. Bimbisara dedicated his favourite Venuvana garden to Buddha and his disciples after building a *vihara* [monastery] there. This was the first Buddhist monastery. Buddha spent many rainy seasons [*chaturmasa*] here and visited this city for the last time just before his Mahaparinirvana [ultimate liberation of soul] in Kushinagar. A Pali text describes his happiness and fascination with different sites of the city. These are identified and are now pilgrimage sites and tourist attractions. Buddha's famous disciples, Sariputta and Moggallana, belonged to this place. Soon after his death, the first Buddhist Council [*Sangiti*] was held here under the leadership of Mahakassapa to codify his teachings.

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Similarly, the city is also linked with Lord Mahavir, the last (24th) and the most famous Jain Tirthankar [enlightened immortal]. The Jain texts record that he spent 14 *chaturmasa* [four months] here and had many disciples which included King Ajatshatru. It is one of the important pilgrim centres for Jainas. The hills of the city are adorned with Jain temples and many Jain legends are linked with it.

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Modern Rajgir is now a famous tourist spot with many popular ancient sites like Jarasandh's *akhara* [wrestling ground or gymnasium], Ajatshatru's Fort, the prison where Bimbisara was detained, Cyclopean Walls, Sonbhanadar (gold treasury), Saptaparni and Pippila caves, site of Venuvana Monastery, Griddhakuta hill, hot springs etc. Among the recent addition is the World Peace Stupa containing a large statue of Buddha. It has been built by the Japanese at an altitude of 400 meters and can be reached by a ropeway. Numerous ruins and sites linked with landmark historical events in India bear testimony to its illustrious past.

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(*Kamal Sheel*)

Griddhkuta Hill

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Famous as a favourite rainy season retreat of Gautam Buddha, Griddhkuta Hill (Vulture's Peak) is one of the five large hills that surround the ancient capital of Magadh, Rajagriha or Giribraja (see the entry). GriddhkutaIt was so named because it resembled the beak of a vulture. In Pali texts, Attakatha, the other four hills are known as Pandava, Vemar, Isigili and Vupullu. The Jain text, Vividhatirthkalpa, refers to Griddhkuta as Ratnagiri and other hills have been mentioned as Vipulgiri, Udayagiri, Sonagiri and Vaibhargiri. These hills had connections with Gautam Buddha and Lord Mahavir. As such both Buddhist and Jain texts had accorded it a sacred status, declaring it an important pilgrimage centre for their respective followers.

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The memorial archway at Gṛddhakūṭa Hill, India

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Pali texts link many of the significant events of Buddha’s life to Griddhakuta Hill. He met and ordained here the Magadh King Bimbisara and his royal retinues. While living at this place, he delivered many of his *sutras* during interactive sessions with monks and disciples. This included the famous *Sadharmpundrika Sutra* (*Lotus Sutra*) and *Mahaprajnaparmita* (*Perfection of Wisdom*) *Sutra*. It is said that Buddha’s cousin, Devdatt, made an attempt on his life by throwing a large slab of stone on him which injured his toes and fell here. When Bimbisar was imprisoned by his son, Ajatsatru, on a hillock, he wanted his prison to be so constructed that he could see Buddha passing by in the morning and evening. This was also the final resting place for Buddha before he departed to Kusinara for his Mahaparinirvana (total liberation).

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The hill existed as a famous Buddhist pilgrim place when Faxian (5th century) and Xuanzang (7th century) visited the place. Both devoted specific separate sections in their travelogue on their visit to the hill. In a moving description, Faxian writes about spending a night on the top of the hill. He describes going up to this beautifully green and the highest of the five surrounding hills with incense sticks, flowers, oil and lamp along with two long-timer resident monks for making his offerings. Looking at Buddha's footprints and abode, he was overfilled with emotion. He writes: “Here Buddha delivered the *Surangama* (a Mahayana Buddhist Sutra linked with Nalanda’s Buddhist school which literally meant "indestructible"). I, Faxian, was born when I could not meet with Buddha. And now, I only see the footprints which he has left, and the place where he lived and nothing more.” He became so melancholic that he spent the whole night there chanting *Surangama sutra* in a cavern there. He, however, found the large brick prayer hall where Buddha preached in ruins and identified the place where Buddha’s protection saved Ananda from evil designs of Mara and the cavern where Buddha and Arhatas meditated.

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Two centuries later, when Xuanzang was asked by the king of Turfan reasons for his perilous visit to India, he replied that it was "to kneel at the Griddhkuta (Vulture’s Peak) to show respect for Buddha and prostrate on the hill for receiving Buddha’s blessings". In his description of the visit to Griddhakuta, he notes the existence of stairways that King Bimbisar had built to facilitate people to go up to the top of the hill to listen to Buddha. There were two small *stupas* on the way. The one designated the spot after which the movement of carriages of kings and members of royal family was prohibited. The other indicated the place up to which common people could go. On the western slope of the hill, there was a large and tall prayer hall where Buddha used to preach. Xuanzang found there a large standing statue of Buddha in sermon-delivery pose. He details all other places that were linked with different events in Buddha’s life like the place when the stone thrown by Devdutt fell, the stone house/cave where he meditated, the spot of his meditative perambulation/ stroll, the hole in stone created by his extending hand from another cave to protect Anand from Mara, the stone slab with clear white and shining lines appearing on account of Buddha drying his robe there, his footprints on the stone, etc.

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Presently, a World Peace Pagoda and Nipponzan Myohoji Temple adorn the top of the hill which could also be reached by a ropeway constructed by the Japanese. This is now an important pilgrimage site of the Buddhists.

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(*Kamal Sheel*)

Vaishali

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Vaishali was among the largest and most flourishing cities during the Buddhist era of ancient India. Governed by the Khastriya Lichchavi clan under the Vajjian confederacy, it was the capital of the Lichchavi Republic which is historically considered among the earliest democratic states of the world. It was located on the banks of Gandak River and was on the trade route connected in north with Shravasti and Kapilavastu and in south with Rajgriha. Like many other ancient cities of the Buddhist era, it too was lost in oblivion. Its exact location and identification owe much to travel records of Faxian and Xuanzang. In 1861, following their travel path mentioned in these records, famous British archaeologist Alexander Cunningham located its ruins in Basarh village in the district of Muzzaffarpur, Bihar. The old district has now been carved to create the modern district of Vaishali with its headquarters in Hajipur, about 50 km to the north of Patna, the capital of modern Bihar.

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The origin and early history of Vaishali is not widely known. The city and the legends of its origin are, however, mentioned in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain texts. According to some Hindu texts, it was founded by King Vishala and was, therefore, named Vaishali. Tracing its history, Vishnu Purana mentions its 34 kings starting with democratic conscientious Nabhaga to Sumati who is considered to be a contemporary of Ayodhya's King Dashrath (father of lord Rama). Pali texts note Vaishali as a rich and flourishing city with numerous buildings and ponds, with a large population. Due to an expanding settlement, its boundaries were extended three times. It, therefore, became famous as Vaishali. Buddhaghosh too refers to this explanation for the name of the city. Jatak stories describe three large surrounding boundary walls of the city adorned with towers. Jain texts mention one of the walls covering the city of Vaishali and two others protecting the suburban cities of Vaniyagama and Kollaga. They describe it as a beautiful garden city surrounded by forests or a well-endowed heavenly city. The city thus appears to be flourishing by 6^th century BCE. Faxian in 3^rd century CE finds that many of the buildings still exist. It had, however, declined to a great extent by the time of Xuanzang's visit (7^th century CE) who notes flourishing agricultural fields and fruit gardens but only a few remains of its thousands of old buildings and hundreds of monasteries, and a greatly reduced population. Of all the sectarian disciples, *digambaras* (Jaina) were most.

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The name and fame of Vaishali owes to its Buddhist and Jain connections. Prince Siddharth first came here from Kapilavastu after renunciation in search for enlightenment. Udraka Ramaputra and Alara Kalama of Vaishali were his first spiritual masters. Five years after the attainment of his Buddhahood, he spent a *chaturmaas* (rainy season) in the city and later came here several times. Many of his *Vinay Suttas* were first enunciated here like Mahāli, Mahāsíhanāda, Cúla Saccaka, Mahā Saccaka, Tevijja, Vacchagotta and Sunakkhatta. These also included the Ratan Sutta, mentioned by both Faxian and Xuanzang with reference to Vaishali, which he prescribed to people there to rid the city of all misfortunes and evil. During his last visit to the city, he confided to his disciple, Anand, of his impending Mahaparinirban and made his last journey to Kushinagar after leaving behind his alms bowl. The city is also linked with Buddha's ordaining of his stepmother, Maprajapati Gotmi, and establishment of *sangha* for the Buddhist nuns. In fact, many of the organisational ideas of *sangha* were derived from the governing practices of the city. The famous city courtesan, Amrapali/ Ambapali became his devotee here and donated her mango grove. After the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha, Lichchavis built a *stupa* over their share of his relics. Later, another larger *stupa* with a pillar crowned by a beautiful Asiatic lion was erected by Emperor Asoka. There is also a *stupa* over the relics of his foremost disciple Ananda. The second Buddhist Council was convened here in 383 BCE by the King Kalashok to resolve schism in the Buddhist order.

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Vaishali's linkages with Jainism were equally intimate. Lord Mahavira, the last Tirthankar of the Jains, was born in Kshatriyakund at the outskirts of the city to King Siddhartha and Queen Trishila. He lived there till the age of 22. After attaining enlightenment, he returned here and spent 12 of his 42 rainy seasons. Presently, the Government of Bihar celebrates the birthday of Lord Mahavir on the full moon day in Vaishakh (mid-April) as Vaishali Mahotsava (Great Fair). The place has become a famous tourist site. Besides ruins of various monuments linked with Buddhism and Jainism, there is a huge mound with a circumference about 1 km which is said to be the ancient parliament house of Lichchavis as well as a coronation tank in the sacred water of which an elected representative was anointed before swearing-in. Among the modern addition is the World Peace Stupa built by Japanese Buddhists.

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(*Kamal Sheel*)

Kushinagar

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Among the four holiest pilgrimage sites highlighting landmark events of Buddha’s life, Kushinagar is linked with his last sermon and Mahaparinirvana (complete extinction/ passing away). Located in the eastern part of India's Uttar Pradesh province and bordering Nepal, it is about 52 km from Gorakhpur. Presently a small town, it finds earliest references in Ramayana as the city of King Kushha, the son of Ayodhya’s legendary king, Lord Rama. During Buddha’s time, Kushinagar and Pava were two important places located on the link trade-route passing through the Republic of Mallas and connected with ancient highways. In Jatakas, this city is known as Kushavati and elsewhere is also called Kushinara and Kasia.

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*Asokan Stone Pillar at Vaiśali*

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Maha Nirvana Stupa and Mahaparinirvana Temple, Kuśinagar, India

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According to Buddhist texts, the Republic of Malla was divided into two parts with one governed by the Kusinerika Malla having its capital in Kushinagar, and the other by Paveyakka Malla with capital in Pava. River Kakutha was the boundary line separating these two kingdoms. Gautam Buddha loved his Malla admirers and the region. During the course of his wanderings, he visited this area several times. At the age of 80, when he decided to take his last voyage from Rajgrha to Kushinagar, his disciple, Anand, resisted saying that this was a small uncivilised rural town. Buddha, however, reminded Anand that this was, in fact, Kushavati, a well-known, highly civilised and prosperous capital of King Mahasuddassana and preached to him about *Mahasuddassana Sutta*. It is said that Buddha mostly stayed in Baliharan in Kushinagar. But during his final visit, he chose Upvattan forest area covered with sal trees as his last stop. Out of his three discourses for the Bhikku, known as *Kusinara Sutta*, two were delivered at Baliharan and the last one was at Upvattan. Having falling ill after having taken the meal served with *sukaramaddava* at the house of his disciple, Cunda, in Pava, just before his death, he invited the Bhikkus to satisfy their queries if any. They all, however, remained silent. He then finally left his body lying under two huge sal trees.

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Buddha’s body was laid in state for seven days at a coronation hall/ Chaitya of the Mallas and offerings were made to him. The last rites, it is said, were performed by Mahakashyap of the Mallas at Mukut Bandhana, Ramabhar (in Kushinagar) on the banks of Hiranyavati River. There were scrambles among the kings to collect his ashes. Finally, a Brahmana Drona intervened and divided his ashes into eight equal parts and distributed it to representatives of eight kingdoms for preserving as relics. The Mallas erected a big *stupa* over his ashes at the cremation place. Later, Emperor Ashoka renovated and expanded the *stupa*. According to legends, he further divided Buddha’s ashes and built more than 84,000 *stupas* over the relics.

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