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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s6.t10: sMon lam chen mo in Tibetan

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v1.c7.s6.t10

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sMon lam chen mo in Tibetan

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Prayer Festival (smon lam chen mo in Tibetan) is the largest and grandest event for Gelug Sect. In the first month of Earth Ox year (1409) of the seventh calendrical cycle, Tsongkhapa founded Prayer Festival in Jokhang Monastery to commemorate Sakyamuni for his miraculous feats of defeating "Six Heretics" and advocating Buddhism. Later on, Gelug Sect monasteries continued the ceremony, added new things to it during development and prolonged the duration to a larger and larger scale. In this way, it evolved into a comprehensive prayer festival for Gelug Sect and even all other sects of Tibetan Buddhism.

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Lhasa Prayer Festival (lha sa smon lam chen mo) is held at Jokhang Monastery, Lhasa between the third and 25ᵗʰ day of the first month every year and thus called Prayer Meeting Festival. Participants, mainly lamas from the above Three Monasteries of Lhasa, amount to 20,000-30,000. If secular people are included, that is a very huge number. Aristocrats and merchants from Shannan Prefecture (U region or anterior Tibet), Shigatse Prefecture (Tsang region or ulterior Tibet) and Amdo-Kham donate substantial givings to express their wishes of believing in Buddhism, thanking lamas and eternal bloom of Buddhism. The main agenda includes opening ceremony on fourth day of the first month: lamas begin chanting scriptures and making prayers and perform other thematic Buddhist rites; hold a debate for awarding candidate lamas the highest degree "lha rams pa" on the 12ᵗʰ, 13ᵗʰ and 14ᵗʰ days of the month; have butter-oil lamp exhibition overnight on 15ᵗʰ day, which is pleasantly noisy; take the ceremony "gtor rgyag" on 24ᵗʰ day which means sending off hungry ghosts by giving them food (lamas of rnam rgyal graw tshang and sngags pa graw tshang, Potala Palace and Drepung Monastery specially prepare the event, and 500 lamas even disguise themselves as ancient Mongolian soldiers to parade, burn hay stacks and shot guns so as to dispel all disasters or misfortunes in this year); on the 25ᵗʰ day, perform the ceremony of "inviting Maitreya" then come to an end so that all lamas return to their respective monasteries.

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Kumbum Monastery Prayer Festival (sku vbum smon lam chen mo), was first held in the Water Sheep year (1583) of the 10ᵗʰ calendrical cycle upon edict of Third Dalai Lama Sonam Gyatso (1543-1588). It lasts from 6ᵗʰ-17ᵗʰ day of the first month annually and mainly includes scripture chanting, Buddhism teaching and various rites. On 14ᵗʰ and 15ᵗʰ days, Buddhist dances and butter-oil flower exhibitions

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*A large prayer being held at the Potala Palace*

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favoured by ordinary people are performed. Butter-oil flower exhibition (one of Three Consummate Arts of Kumbum Monastery) is famous for exquisite workmanship and design novelty. The flowers are made of butter, only last one day, much like a flash in the pan. Pilgrims flood the monastery to watch that on the day. That is indeed a spectacular scene.

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Labrang Monastery Prayer Festival (bla brang smon lam chen mo) which originated in reigns of 2ⁿᵈ Jamyang Zhepa or called Jamyang Könchog Jigme Wangpo (1728-1792) is held between the third to 17ᵗʰ day of the first month every year. With various colourful activities, it includes lamas' scripture chanting and eminent lamas' Buddhism teachings throughout the whole period. During the festival, hold massive debates for conferring degrees such as "rdo rams pa" and "rams vbyams pa" on those qualified candidates. In the meantime, hold various rites and ceremonies: the 8ᵗʰ day, "setting livestock free", which means not hurting them; the 13ᵗʰ day, "Buddha painting show" where believers worship thangka paintings in a solemn and grand manner; the 14ᵗʰ day, "Buddhist dance" with vivid scenes attracting all followers; the 15ᵗʰ day, "butter-oil flower exhibition" where people play about till deep night; the 16ᵗʰ day, lamas "hold Maitreya" statue in parade to chant scriptures" around the monastery so as to pray for peace and bliss of the future world" with accompanying Buddhist music.

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PHILOSOPHY

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PHILOSOPHY

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PHILOSOPHY

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India-China philosophical interaction traces its history back to 1ˢᵗ century CE. With the spread of Buddhism from India to China, the two countries have carried out exchanges in religion, philosophy and culture for 2,000 years. Dating from Han Dynasty, India-China philosophical exchange was carried out intesively in Wei Jin Southern and Northern Dynasties reaching a climax in Sui and Tang Dynasties and was taken further in Song and Yuan Dynasties. In Ming and Qing Dynasties,

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‘A Source Book in Ancient India Philosophy’, translated by Yao Weiqun, front cover

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India-China philosophical exchange was at a low ebb due to the obstructions caused by the Western colonialism. In modern times, it has achieved a leapfrog development and entered a period of growth due to increasingly powerful status of India and China as well as the development of friendly relations between the two countries. In ancient China, there were numerous Buddhist monks and scholars who endured much hardship to study in India and seek wisdom. Similarly, a large batch of Indian Buddhist monks and scholars went to China to preach and translate sutras as well as carry out academic exchange at the same time. In Sui and Tang Dynasties (6ᵗʰ to 9ᵗʰ centuries CE) Indian and Chinese scholars carried out philosophical exchange on a scale and frequency rare in the cultural history of the world. Besides Buddhist philosophy, the philosophy of *Astika* that includes *Samkhya*, *Vaisesika*, *Yoga*, *Nyaya*, *Puarra Mimansa* and *Vedanta* and *nastika* that includes Jainism and Lokayatika were introduced to China and had a profound influence on ancient Chinese thought and culture. Meanwhile, Chinese philosophy such as Lao Zi's Dao De Jing, Daoism and Confucianism also spread to India and is believed to have had some influence on Indian religious and cultural development.

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Spread of philosophy of Buddhism to China

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In the 1ˢᵗ century CE, Buddhism spread to China in the transitional period between the Eastern Han and Western Han Dynasty. With the spread of Buddhism in China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures were successively translated from Sanskrit into Chinese and accepted by Chinese Buddhists, resulting in the rise of Buddhist philosophy in China. During the early stages of translation of Buddhist scriptures, monks from India and Western Regions played a major role. In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, Master An Shigao from Parthia went to China to teach the doctrines and philosophy of Theravada Buddhism and translated Theravada sutras such as *Anapanasati Sutta*, *Jataka Sutra* and *Dvadashamukha Shastra*. Additionally, the Tokharian monk Lokakṣema taught Mahayana Buddhism and translated Mahayana sutras such as *Asahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra*, *Shurangama Sutra*, *Paramita Samdhi*, *Vimalakirti* Nirdesa Sutra and *Aparimitayus Sutra* with a group of his disciples. In Eastern Jin Dynasty, eminent Indian monk Kumarajiva who was well-versed in Mahayana Madhyamika philosophy translated a large number of Mahayana sutras including the famous *Mahaprajna Paramita Sutra*, *Lotus Sutra*, *Amitabha Sutra*, *Vajracchedika Prajnaparamita Sutra*, *Madhyamakakarika*, *Sata Sastra*, *Dvadashamukha Shastra*, *Mahaprajna Paramita Sastra* and *Satyasiddhi Sastra* which expounded on the Madhyamika philosophy formulated by Nagarjuna. With the increasing popularity of Buddhism in China, many Chinese Buddhist scholars participated in translation of Buddhist *sutras*. Among them, Master Xuanzang studied sutras in India for 17 years and brought over 600 Buddhist sutras to China. After returning to China, he devoted himself to translation of Buddhist scriptures for 20 years and translated 75 Mahayana and Theravada sutras running to over 1300 volumes including *Mahaprajna Paramita Sutra*, *Ksitigarbha Pranidhana Sutra*, *Sajdhinirmocana Sutra*, *Yogacarabhumi Sastra*, *Abhidharma Mahavibhasa Sastra*, *Mahayana Samuparigraha Sastra* and *Prakaranasyavaca Sastra*. With the spread of Buddhist sutras, Buddhist philosophy and doctrines prevailed in China, including *Skandha*, four noble truth and Nidana in Theravada Buddhism and Prajna, Madhyamika and Vijnanavada of Mahayana Buddhism.

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‘Lotus Sutra (Fahua jing)’, Song Dynasty edition

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‘Madhyamakakarika (Zhong Lun)’

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In Sui and Tang Dynasties, Buddhism was in its heyday in China and eight Buddhist sects such as Tian Tai Sect, Three-Sutra Sect, Pure Land Sect, Huayan Sect, Dharma-image Sect, Meditation (Chan) Sect, Vinaya Sect and Esoteric Sect emerged in China, most of which were influenced by Indian Buddhist philosophy. Among them the *Three-Sutra Sect* which was rooted in Madhyamaka in Indian Mahayana Buddhism and was typified by *Madhyamakakarika*, *Dvadashamukha Shastra* and *Sata Sastra* by Nagarjuna and Aryadeva, emerged in Sui Dynasty and it espoused Madhyamaka philosophy formulated by Nagarjuna and Aryadeva and preached the emptiness of nature, the twofold truths and eight-negation Middle Way. The *Dharma-image Sect* founded by Xuanzang and his disciple Kui Ji was influenced by Indian Buddhist philosophy as well as typified by *Sajdhinirmocana Sutra*, *Yogacarabhumi Sastra* and *Vijnaptimatra Siddhi Sastra* translated by Xuanzang and his disciple Kui Ji. By embracing the philosophy formulated by Asanga and Vasubandhu, leading members of the Dharma-image Sect of Mahayana Buddhism, it preached the doctrine of Consciousness-Only (vijnapti-matrata-Perception is reality). The Tian Tai Sect that emerged in the Sui Dynasty inherited Nagarjuna's philosophy, the representative of Madhyamaka and considered Nagarjuna as the founder of the Sect. By embracing the emptiness of nature established by its founder Nagarjuna and further development combined with their own practices. The *Tian Tai Sect* developed the doctrine of Three Meditations of One Mind or threefold contemplation in one mind. By interpreting void, unreal and mean existence in tri-satyas advocated by Nagarjuna as three dogmas (truths), to their eyes, all existence in the universe was subject to conditions (unreal truth), all unreal

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Vajra Prajna Paramita (Diamond) Sutra, Kangxi edition of Qing Dynasty

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existence was void (void truth) and unreal truth and void truth were inseparable (mean truth). If one could meditate on this concept with the whole mind, it was called Three Meditations of One Mind or Inconceivable Profound Meditation. The *Chan Sect* emerged in Tang Dynasty and prevailed in Song Dynasty, becoming the most influential Buddhist sect in China. Under the influence of *Lankavatara Sutra*, *Vajracchedika Prajna Paramita* and *Mahayana Sraddhotpada Sastra*, it espoused Buddhist philosophy and advocated the doctrine adapting to the actual situation of China. In ontology, *Chan Sect* regarded original consciousness and divinity as an immortal spiritual world and all things in the real world reflected the nature of divinity. In other words, it advocated pure and non-contaminated immortal original consciousness, divinity and human nature. It developed the doctrine of knowing one's own mind and discovering one's own nature and thus attaining enlightenment and achieving complete Buddhahood which gained in popularity among Buddhist believers in China.

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*Left:* Commentary on the Śata-śāstra, Kangxi period (1680); *Right:* Commentary on the Śata-śāstra, Yanbao period, Japan (1680)

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In 7^th century CE, Buddhism spread from Mainland China, India and Nepal to Tibet. The Buddhism that emerged in Tibet was called Tibetan Buddhism. The philosophy of Tibetan Buddhism advocated the doctrine of Dependent Origination and the Emptiness of Nature of Madhyamaka of Mahayana Buddhism under the influence of Indian Buddhism. It was split into different sects such as *Nyingma Sect*, *Kadam Sect*, *Kagyu Sect*, *Sakya Sect* and *Gelug Sect* due to different doctrines, practices and regions. Among them, the *Gelug Sect* was the most influential and widespread sect. It embraced the philosophy of Dependent Origination and the Emptiness of Nature of Madhyamaka advocated by Nagarjuna and expounded on the doctrine of all existence in the universe being subject to conditions and all the things in conditional existence lacking intrinsic nature/existence (immortality), negating the truth of objective things and shedding light on the philosophy of desisting from ego and entrenched belief, dispelling ignorance and illusion and achieving immortality by embracing the doctrine of Dependent Origination and the Emptiness of Nature.

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After its spread to China, Buddhist philosophy had an influence on Chinese philosophy and folk thought. In Southern and Northern Dynasties and Sui and Tang Dynasties, Buddhist philosophy was absorbed into the mainstream of Chinese philosophy and outweighed Confucianism in the Eastern and Western Han Dynasties and Metaphysics of the Wei and Jin Dynasties. Additionally, Neo-Confucianism that emerged after the Tang Dynasty reflected the ideas and influence of Buddhist philosophy. For instance, Zhu Xi, an exponent of Neo-Confucianism of Song Dynasty, advanced the theory of feudal ethics and asceticism by embracing the philosophy of the nature of mind of Chinese Buddhism that prevailed in the Sui and Tang Dynasties. Additionally, the philosophy of life and the moral philosophy advocated by Indian Buddhism such as reincarnation, karma, virtue having its reward and evil having its retribution, abstaining from killing animals and freeing captive animals, had an influence on Chinese people’s thoughts.

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The Philosophy of Hinduism and Jainism and its transmission to China

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Samkhya is a sect of *Sad-darsana* (*Astika*) which spread to China early and had a considerable influence on China. As one of the earliest philosophical systems of India, its history can be traced to 5^th century BCE and it developed its total system as a philosophy in 5^th century CE typified by *Samkhya-Karika* of Isvarakrsna in the 4^th century CE. After Samkhya spread to China, it was translated into *Samkhya*, *Samgha Philosophy* and *Kapila Philosophy* in Chinese Buddhist sutras. Nevertheless, the majority of scholars deemed that it should be translated into Samkhya for Samgha which was meant to do calculation (counting) and took on a deep meaning of meditation and study. According to *Annotation of the Doctrine of Mere Consciousness* authored by Kui Ji, a Chinese monk of Tang Dynasty, Samgha Philosophy carried the literal meaning of doing counting and calculation, and numeration was considered the origins of all dharmas. Therefore, it was named Samkhya. As elaborated by Sata shastra by the Chinese monk Ji Zang of Sui Dynasty, all dharmas revealed 25 truths and Samgha Philosophy was

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*Satyasiddhi Shastra* (*Completion of Truth*/*Chengshi lun*)

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named Samkhya. The spread of Samkhya to China dated from late 4^th century CE to early 5^th century CE (the Eastern Jin Dynasty), when Indian Buddhist monk Kumarajiva translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit into Chinese. His translation works *Maha-prajnaparamita-shastra* (*Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom* by Nagarjuna) and *Mahayana-sutra-lankara* (*The Sutra of Glorifying the Enlightened Mind* by Asvaghosha) introduced Samkhya. In 6^th century CE (Northern and Southern Dynasties), the Chinese Buddhist monk Chen Zhendi (about 548-596 CE) translated *Samkhya-karika* in Sanskrit into a Chinese version entitled *Hiranyasaptati* (*Suvarnasaptatisastra*) and annotated and elaborated on the relations between spiritual self, self-nature and the three virtues or powers, the relations between spiritual self and self-nature and the evolution of self-nature (primordial substances). This facilitated Chinese understanding of the philosophy of Samkhya. *Hiranyasaptati* had been valued and well preserved in Chinese Buddhist circles. In modern times, since *Samkhya-karika* has not been passed on from generation to generation in India. *Hiranyasaptati* had great value in academic study. Indian scholars hailed *Hiranyasaptati* which was translated and annotated by Chen Zhendi as the best annotated work of Samkhya. To preserve Samkhya sutras, they translated *Hiranyasaptati* in Chinese into Sanskrit and published it in India, showing that Chinese Buddhist monks made a contribution to preserving Indian cultural heritage and promoting India-China philosophical exchange.

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Statue of a Yoga practitioner

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The *Vaisesika* philosophy of Hinduism spread to China in earlier times and its Padartha and Anu had an enormous influence on Chinese philosophy. *Vaisesika* emerged in 2^nd century BCE, much later than Samkhya, and its sutras included *Vaisesika-sutra* by the sage Kanada and *Daśapadārthaśāstra* (*Treatise on the Ten Padarthas*) by Maticandra. Vaisesika was transliterated into “fei-shi-shi-jia” (吠世师迦) and “pi-shi-jia” (毗世师) and literally translated into “sheng-lun” (胜论) or “sheng-zong” (胜宗) in Chinese sutras. Because Chinese scholars regarded *Vaisesika* as a philosophy that studied difference among the world’s phenomena, and some deemed that it focussed on special categories (*Visesa-padartha*), it outshone other sects. According to *Annotation of the Doctrine of Mere Consciousness* by Kui Ji, it was named *Vaisesika* because it established Padartha and other unrivalled doctrines or it was created by Vaisesika. In 5^th century CE, *Vaisesika* spread to China and this is attributed to eminent Indian monk Kumarajiva whose translation work entitled *Satyasiddhi Shastra* (*Completion of Truth*) mentioned *Vaisesika* many times. In 6^th century CE, eminent Chinese monk Ji Zang elaborated on Padartha in *Vaisesika* in his work entitled *Sata shastra* in Sui Dynasty. In 7^th century CE, Xuanzang studied in India and brought *Daśapadārthaśāstra* (*Treatise on the Ten Padarthas*) in Sanskrit by Maticandra to China. In 648 CE, he translated it into Chinese in Chang’an in the 22^nd year of the Zhenguan Reign. Subsequently, Vaisesika prevailed in China. In modern times, the *Daśapadārthaśāstra* (*Treatise on the Ten Padarthas*) in Sanskrit was lost in India and only its Chinese version translated by Xuanzang was well-preserved in China. Therefore, it was of great academic value to study the philosophy of Vaisesika and the thought of ancient India. After the spread of *Vaisesika* to China, its Visesa-Padartha and Anu had an enormous influence on Chinese philosophers. For instance, Tang Materialist philosopher Lu Cai (600～655 CE) quoted the Anu of Vaisesika many times and defined atoms and transmittable gas within the scope of substances which formed the basis for the world when he was expounding on his Atheism and Materialism. Additionally, he made a comparison between the doctrine of atoms constituting substance in *Vaisesika* and the doctrine of *qi* producing all things in *Book of Changes* and drew a conclusion that Vaisesika and *Book of Changes* advocated the same doctrine in different forms.

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Nyaya in Hinduism, also know as *Hetu-vidya*, was included in *Najarjuna-pancavidya-sastra* as a philosophical school in Hinduism specialising in the study of logic. After Buddhism emerged, it further developed *Hetu-vidya* based on *Nyaya* in Hinduism. As early as 5^th century CE (Northern and Southern Dynasties in China), Indian *Hetu-vidya* works (including both Buddhist and Hindu works) were introduced to China and translated into Chinese. In Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang translated *Nyayamukha* by Indian *Hetu-Vidya* Master Dignaga and *Nyayapravesa* by Sankarasvamin, disciple of Dignaga, into Chinese, which influenced the development of Chinese logic. Additionally, Indian Hetu-vidya prevailed in Tibet more than the in the Central Plain.

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Ekottaragama -sutra (Anguttara-Nikaya)

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‘The Monasteries of Luoyang (Luoyang jialanji)’

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In 8th and 9th century CE, a large number of Indian Hetu-vidya works were translated into Tibetan script. After the 11th century CE, Tibetan Buddhist scholars composed their own Hetu-vidya works after absorbing and digesting Indian Hetu-vidya. It is worth mentioning that the *Annotated Edition of Pramanavishchaya* or *Brief Annotated Edition of Pramanavishchaya* by Gedain Sect Scholar Qiaba Queji Sengge and *Interpretation of Pramanavishchava* by Chapa Chkyi Sengge (1109-1169), disciple of Qiaba Queji Sengge, *Nyaya-dvaratarka-astra* by Sakya Sect Scholar Sapan, *Pramānavārttika Nyayakosa* by Uyugpa Rigpabisinge and *Note for Pramana Samuccaya* by Gu Caojie (1364〜1432 CE), disciple of Tsongkhapa, had a profound influence on Tibetan Hetu-vidya.

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Indian Yoga had a profound influence on China. Originally, Hindus practiced Yoga to achieve spiritual liberation and Yoga took shape in the Upanishadic era. In 2nd century BCE, Yoga developed into a theoretical philosophy by means of generalisation and theorisation. After the emergence of Buddhism, it established its own system of practice by absorbing Yoga sutras of Hinduism. With the spread of Buddhism to China, Indian Yoga sutras and methods of practice were introduced to China and had a profound influence on Chinese Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism, medicine, martial arts, Qigong and Chinese Buddhist sect practice methods such as Utmost

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Graduation ceremony photo of the first study class of Yu Jia Shi Di Lun (Yogacarabhumi- sastra), Famen Monastery Buddhist College

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Vehicle Zen by Dhyana, Six Dharmas by the *Tian Tai Sect* and Samadhi of Buddha Recitation by the Pure Land Sect. In ancient China, many traditional Chinese body-building exercises learned from Indian Yoga and *Sutras of Tendon Changing* prevailing in Northern and Southern Dynasties, Tianzhu Massage prevailing in Tang Dynasty and Brahmanic Techniques prevailing in Song Dynasty, were all introduced from India. Bodhidharma, founder of Shaolin Temple, was a monk from India and once taught the Sutras of Tendon Changing at Shaolin Temple. The practice of *Sutras of Tendon Changing*, such as inner strength, outer strength, moving exercise, static exercise, somatic exercise, breathing exercise and mental exercise, showed a striking resemblance to Astanga Yoga including inner practice, outer practice, sitting posture (somatic exercise), regulating breathing (breathing exercise) and meditation (metal exercise). The Brahmanic Techniques which prevailed in Song Dynasty and were mentioned in Yun Ji Qi Qian by Zhang Junfang included 12 techniques such as Snake-gong, Tortoise-gong, Peacock-gong, Crane-gong, Lotus-gong and Immortal-gong which

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Graduation ceremony photo of the Arts and Philosophy Class of Peking University, June 1918. (Front row, from left): President of the Peking University Cai Yuanpei (5th), Chen Duxiu (6th), Liang Shuming (7th).

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fostered the development of Chinese martial arts and Qigong.

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Besides Hindu philosophy, Indian Jainism and Lokayatika philosophy was also transmitted to China quite early. *The Sutra on the Descent of Maitreya* by monk Dharmaraksa in the western Jin Dynasty introduced Nirgrantha Jnanaputra and his thought. Chinese Buddhist scriptures including *Ekottaragama-sutra*, *Samyuktagama-sutra*, *Mahaprajnaparamita-shaskra* (*Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom*) and *Satyasiddhi Shastra* expounded on the doctrine and philosophy of Jainism. It is worth mentioning that *Commentary on the Ten Stages Sutra* and *Satyasiddhi Shastra* translated by Eastern Jin Master Kumarajiva introduced Lokayata Philosophy to the Chinese people. As a popular ancient Indian folk philosophy of atheistic and materialism, Lokayatiaka was regarded as a kind of false doctrine by Buddhists. According to *Satyasiddhi Shastra*, it advocated the doctrine of no donations, no temple, no incineration, no kindness, no evildoers, no good/evil karma, no current life, no afterlife, no parents, no myriads, no karma, no transmigration, no arhat Sambo practice and intelligence and no body.

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'A Brief History of Indian Philosophy', Shang Yongtong, 1946, (front cover)

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Spread of Confucian and Daoist Philosophy to India

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Chinese Confucian and Daoist philosophy spread to India and had some influence on Indian religion and philosophy. As more and more merchants, officials and monks travelled from China to India, Chinese Confucianism and Daoism were introduced to India as well. According to *The Monasteries of Luoyang* by Yang Xuanzhi, in the 6^th century CE, Chinese Buddhist monk Song Yun and Huisheng were granted an audience by the King of Wuchang State on their pilgrimage to India and they introduced and elaborated on Confucius' and Mencius' philosophy as well as Lao Zi's and Zuana Zi's philosophy to him. In the 7^th century CE, Tang officials Li Yibiao and Wang Xuance returned to China after they served as envoys to the Western Region and reported that the King of East Tianzhu State showed interest in Lao Zi. Therefore, Emperor Tang Taizong issued an edict ordering eminent monk Xuanzang to translate *Dao De Jing* from Chinese to Sanskrit. After Tang Xuanzang translated it from Chinese to Sanskrit, Daoism spread to India and had influence on Indian ideology to some extent. Daoist practices affected the Saktam in Hinduism. For instance, Daoism advocated that the balance between yin and yang produced the world and that one should practice inner Alchemy and outer Alchemy. Similarly, Saktam proclaimed that copulation produced all things in the world and it attached importance to mental and body practice.

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Exchange of philosophical ideas in the Modern and Contemporary period

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From 1840 to 1919, since both India and China lost some of their status and were dominated by Western powers, philosophical and cultural exchange between India and China declined. In modern times, with the revival of India and China, and the improvement of their relations, India-China philosophical exchange ushered in a new era of growth. Two events contributed to this. First, in 1924, the celebrated Indian poet and philosopher Rabindranath Tagore visited China and his philosophical wisdom aroused Chinese people's interest in Indian philosophy across China. Second, in the early 20th century, the movement of the revival of Chinese Buddhism emerged. Due to this movement, China set up Buddhist academies in different regions such as Shanghai Huayan University, Hangzhou Huayan University, Chinese Inner Studies Institute in Nanjing, Buddhist Institute in Wuchang, Yushan Buddhist Institution in Zhenjiang, South Sea Buddhist Institute in Putuo Mountain and Minnan Buddhist College, to impart Buddhist knowledge, train Buddhist talent and study the philosophy of different religions of India. Additionally, Chinese Buddhist institutes offered courses on Indian Buddhist philosophy, the *Vedas*, Upanishads and the philosophy of six Hindu sects.

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In early 20^th century, China launched a campaign to study and research into Indian philosophy and many universities offered a course on Indian philosophy. In 1916, the Philosophy Department of Peking University ran the course on Indian philosophy and Xu Jishang taught it. From 1917 to 1924, Liang Shuming taught Indian philosophy at Peking University. In 1922, Tang Yongtong returned from the United States and taught history of Indian philosophy and Chinese Buddhist history at Southeast University in Nanjing, Nankai University in Tianjin and Peking University. In 1946, Wuhan University offered a course on Indian philosophical history, and Jin Kemu and Shi Junxian taught the course in succession. In 1948, Jin Kemu taught Indian philosophical history at Peking University. When Tang Yongtong served as vice president of Peking University, he continued to offer the course on Indian philosophy to postgraduate students. The above universities ran the courses on Indian philosophy which encompassed Indian Buddhist philosophy and the philosophy of six Hindu sects, Jainism and Lokayata of Atheism.

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As they carried out the study of Indian religious philosophy in depth, Chinese scholars published a multitude of academic works. In 1919, Liang Shuming published *Introduction to Indian Philosophy*. In 1925, Liang Qichao published *A Brief History of Indian Buddhism*. In 1936, Huang Chanhua published History of *Indian Philosophy*, and in 1943, Yin Shun published *Buddhism in India*. In 1945, Tang Yongtong published *A Brief History of Indian Philosophy*. Additionally, they published many papers on Indian philosophy in magazines to introduce ancient and modern Indian philosophy to Chinese people.

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After founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949, India and China cemented relations and consequently a new era in India-China philosophical exchanges was ushered in. In 1950s and 1960s, the Department of Oriental Languages and Culture of Peking University began to admit students who studied Hindi language, Sanskrit and Pali and Beijing Broadcasting Institute (predecessor of today's Communication University of China) ran courses on Tamil language and Bengali language to train expertise on India-China philosophical exchanges. After the start of reforms in 1978, Chinese scholars carried out the study of Indian philosophy in depth and China launched

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South Asian Studies (front cover)

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a campaign which called for setting up academic institutions, training professionals and reaping the fruits of research.

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In 1978, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences worked with Peking University to set up the South Asia Institute with Ji Xianlin as its director and Huang Xinchuan as deputy director. It had Indian Philosophy Research Office specialising in research into the philosophy of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. Subsequently, the Department of Philosophy of Peking University set up an Oriental Philosophy Research Office. The Department of Philosophy of Renmin University of China set up a Religious Research Office and the Institute of Philosophy of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences set up an Oriental Philosophy Research Office. In 1979, the South Asia Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences pioneered in producing the first academic journal for studying South Asia issues entitled *South Asia Studies*. Subsequently, Sichuan University produced the quarterly periodical entitled *South Asia Studies* and the Yunnan Academy of Social Sciences produced *Southeast Asia and South Asia Studies*. The establishment of these related academic institutions and the production of academic journals strengthened the study of Indian philosophy and culture by Chinese scholars and trained a large batch of postgraduates and new scholars.

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As they carried out study of Indian philosophy in depth, Chinese scholars had great achievements in this field. First of all, they reaped the fruits of translation of Indian philosophical sutras by translating almost all the great ancient Indian philosophical classics from Sanskrit to Chinese. After the 1980s Indian classics were published in succession. These included the *Ramayana* translated by Ji Xianlin in 1980, *Mahabharata, the Preface* translated by Jin Kemu in 1993, *Mahabharata* translated by Huang Baosheng in 2005. *Sanskrit Aesthetics Anthology* translated by Wu Baihui in 1997 (excerpt from *Wisdom of Moon State*), *Fifty Upanishads* translated by Xu Fancheng in 1984, *Upanishads* translated by Huang Baosheng in 2010, *Manava Dharma Sastra* translated by Jiang Zhongxin in 1986, *Bhagavad Gita* translated by Zhang Baosheng in 1989, *Bhagavad Gita* translated by Huang Baosheng in 2010, *Agama Sustra* translated by Jiang Zhongxin in 1986, *Agama Sastra (Frog Upanishad)* translated by Wu Baihui in 1999 and *A Source Book in Ancient India Philosophy* translated by Yao Weiqun in 2003.

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Meanwhile, Chinese scholars translated a good number of Indian philosophical works and some modern works from English to Chinese including *Indian Philosophy* authored by D Chattopadhyaya and translated by Huang Baosheng and Guo Liangyun in 1980, *Lokayata: A study in Ancient Indian Materialism* authored by D Chattopadhyaya and translated by Wang Shi'an in 1992, *Contemporary Indian Philosophy* authored by Basant Kumar Lal and translated by Zhu Mingzhong in 1991, *The Life of the Divine* authored by Aurobindo Ghosh and translated by Xu Fancheng in 1984, *Sadhana* authored by Rabindranath Tagore and translated by Gong Jing in 1992, *The Yoga and Its Objects* authored by Aurobindo Ghosh and translated by Xu Fancheng in 1998 and *The Synthesis of Yoga* authored by Aurobindo Ghosh and translated by Xu Fancheng in 2005.

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Besides translation works, Chinese scholars published academic works on Indian philosophy including Huang Xinchuan's works such as *Study of the Indian Modern Philosopher Swami Vivekananda* (1979), *History of Indian Philosophy* (1989) and *Modern and Contemporary Indian Philosophy* (1989), Wu Baihui’s *Indian Philosophy Exploration of Veda and Interpretation of Upanishads* (2000), Yao Weiqun’s *Indian Philosophy* (1992) and *Introduction*

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The Synthesis of Yoga (front cover)

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*to Indian Religious Philosophy* (2006), Li Jianxin’s *Study of Indian Classical Yoga Philosophy* (2000), Sun Jing’s *Indian Advaita Vedanta Philosophy* (2002), Gong Jing’s *Rabindranath Tagore* (1992) and *Radhakrishnan* (1996), Zhu Mingzhong’s *Aurobindo Ghosh* (1994), Jiang Yili’s *Sankara* (1997) and *A History of Indian Vedānta Philosophy* co-authored by Sun Jing and Zhu Mingzhong (2013). Among them, Huang Xinchuan’s *History of Indian Philosophy* quoted ancient Chinese data to expound on the philosophy of the Upanishads, Six Hindu sects, Buddhism, Jainism and Lokayata and other religions in a comprehensive and systematic way, reaching the highest level of study of Indian philosophy by contemporary Chinese scholars.

Cites (36)