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Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c12.s3: Concept & Terms

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c12.s3

Language
English

Contents

Concept & Terms

Qigong

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It was a method invented by the ancient Chinese for physical and mental exercise. It had a long history, and Lao Tzu explained life’s position in the natural world and relations between life and nature at the

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*Qianjin yaofang*

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level of philosophy. *Yellow Emperor’s Inner Canon’* had a whole set of theories about “Qi”, expounded relations between “Qi” and life, for example, relations between it and five viscera, blood vessels, main and collateral channels, etc. It also discussed relations between “Qi” and the natural world, for example, relations between it and heaven, earth, Yin, Yang, five elements and seasons, etc. The theory of health and longevity focussed on “Qi” had been established. A *Stained Mind in Chuang Tzu* mentioned, “exhaling the old and inhaling the new, climbing the trees like a bear and stretching like a bird,” for “those who do physical exercises, and wish to keep fit and aspire for a long life,” which showed that China had been the pioneer practising Qigong long ago. “Qi circulation promotion method carved on jade” in 4^th century BCE reflected that China’s Qigong theory had been formed initially.

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The development of Chinese Daoism promoted the development of Qigong under the stimulus of Buddhism between the 3^rd century and 4^th century, and the Daoist Qigong became the representative of Chinese Qigong. There were many famous works related to Qigong, including *Fairy Scripture, Scripture on Living Qi* and *Treatise on Ming Medicine* during this period. *Record of Moral Cultivation and Longevity* compiled by the Daoist and medical scientist Tao Hongjing (452-536 CE) quoted from the books including, *Fairy Scripture, Scripture on Living Qi* and *Treatise on Ming Medicine* summarised methods regulating Qi for treatment and longevity. China’s Qigong theory had been formed systematically.

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After Buddhism was introduced into China, Daoist Qigong and Buddhist Zen (Yoga) borrowed and absorbed from each other, and China’s Qigong had been enriched and improved a lot. Sun Simiao (about 581-682 CE) of Tang Dynasty absorbed, “the way of Zen” of Buddhism into his work *Valuable Prescriptions for Emergencies: Cultivating Temperament & Methods for Regulating Qi. Ten Rules for Female Cultivation* written by the female Daoist Sun Bu’er (1119-1182) in the Northern Song Dynasty absorbed cultivation methods of Tantric Buddhism. *Scripture on Concentration and Observation of the Numinous Treasure from the Cavern Mystery* written by an unknown author emphasised, “Equal cultivation of meditation and wisdom,” which also came from Zen cultivation theory of Buddhism. *Three Elements for Health Preservation* written by Yuan Huang (1538 - 1606) in the Ming Dynasty quoted Zen theory of Buddhism as well. There are many such examples.

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*Deep breathing exercise (imagining the four nodes of the body in spiritual yoga)*

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Chinese Qigong received little attention and was on the verge of extinction after 1949. People began to attach importance to Qigong in the 1980s, but some superstitious activities seized the chance to spread. As a way of health preservation, Qigong has been recognised by the academic circle, and there are specific magazines studying Qigong. Meanwhile, there are many similarities between Chinese Qigong and Indian Yoga, therefore, Chinese and Indian scholars attach importance to them, and conduct relevant studies.

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(*Xue Keqiao*)

Wushu

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It is a Chinese art of fist fight and gymnastics. It has a very long history. It covers fist position and skills requiring use of instruments. There are multiple schools including Buddhist martial arts, Daoist martial arts and folk martial arts, etc.

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The largest characteristic of Chinese martial arts is combination with Qigong, and it pays attention to “internal exercise develops the flow of Qi and external exercise trains the bones and muscles,” which absorbs many Buddhist thoughts and practice methods. Buddhist martial arts had been popular among monks for a long time, especially after the

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*Wudang martial arts*

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6^th century, martial monks in Shaolin Temple won their reputation in the circle of martial arts because of praise from Li Shimin (599-649 CE), and there is the saying that “Shaolin Kong fu ranks No.1 in the world.” As a representative of Chinese martial arts, it’s said that Shaolin Kongfu originated from the Indian monk Bodhidharma who came to China, and people indulged in talking about it, although it draws a false analogy. It is true that Bodhidharma propagated Zen, but later generations fabricated the saying that he created *Tendon Transformation Exercise* and *Marrow Purification Exercise*, and made Dharma fist position, swordsmanship and cudgel techniques. The system of Shaolin martial arts is the result of extensive collection by martial monks generation by generation, and the united creation of the national martial artists. Monk Fu Ju (10^th century CE) and Jue Yuan (13^th century CE) once invited famous national martial artists to enrich Shaolin Kongfu successively, so that Shaolin martial arts were improved gradually, and secured the supreme place of martial arts after the 15^th century CE. Shaolin Kong fu is divided into the southern and northern sects and five branches, and it has influences at home and abroad. For example, Japanese Kendo, karate and judo are related to Shaolin Kung fu. Besides Shaolin martial arts, Sichuan Emei Martial Arts Sect is subject to Buddhist martial arts. It’s said that Emei martial arts was founded in the 13^th century. It integrated Buddhist and Daoist body building and health preservation essences, inherited Chinese tradition of martial arts, and was developed through continuous innovation.

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Daoist martial arts are represented by Wudang Sect, and its Taiji Fist is the most famous. It’s said that the sect was founded by the Daoist Zhang Sanfeng (between second half of 11^th century CE and first half of 12^th century CE) and Taiji Fist position is based on Daoist Qigong, which absorbs Buddhist spirits, integrates strength and grace, slowness and fastness, and is the perfect measure for self-defense and body building. Through development and enrichment of fist masters for generations, Taiji Fist has become one of China’s quintessences and has influences across the world.

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*Shaolin martial arts*

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Because of wide propagation of films and TV, Indian teenagers know Chinese Kong fu well. Since Chinese martial arts was listed as one of the competition events in the Asian Games and the Olympic Games, India’s physical training circle paid special attention to Chinese martial arts, adopted the ways such as employing Chinese coaches and learning in China to develop its own coaches and sportsmen and made excellent achievements in the competitions. Martial arts associations are established in some places of India, performance and competition activities are often held. For example, Martial Arts Association of Uttar Pradesh in India is a nearly-established body with many activities, and its chief visited China once.

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On June 20, 2010, 12 Indian martial artistes took part in the “Indian Festival” held in China, and performed skills with Chinese martial masters on the same stage. Indian martial artists performed with the local martial arts named Kalaripayattu rather than Chinese martial arts, while Chinese martial masters performed Shaolin Kongfu, including drunken fist, eight trigrams boxing, two-finger Zen and cudgel play, etc. This was the first face-to-face exchange between Chinese and Indian martial arts systems and holds historical significance.

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(*Xue Keqiao*)

Indian-Style Massage

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Indian-style massage was a massage method introduced from India to China in ancient times. olume XXVII of ‘*Valuable Prescriptions for Emergencies*’ written by Sun Simiao in the Tang Dynasty mentioned this method, and said that, “it was a Brahmin method”. It was also collected in ‘*Seven Taoist Books in a Cabinet*’ compiled by Zhang Junfang (between late 10th century and mid-11th century) and ‘*Eight Treatises on the Nurturing of Life*’ written by Gao Lian (16th century) in the Ming Dynasty. The method has 18 sections totally, “First, the two hands splay and twist like washing hands.” Second, “the two hands cross and turn towards the chest.” Third, “the two hands cross and rub down the thighs, and the left is same as the right.” Fourth, “the two hands overlap and rub down the thighs,then, turn the body slowly, and the left is same as the right.” Fifth, “the hands look like pulling bow, and the left is same as the right.” Sixth, “the two hands make fists and move forward, and the left is same as the right.” Seventh, “the body moves like beating stones, and the left is same as the right.” Eighth, “fists suspend, and open the chest, and the left is same as the right.” Ninth, “sit with legs crossed and inclines like toppling mountains, and the left is same as the right.” Tenth, “the two hands lace behind the head and toss and turn on the thighs, and it is the method of moving head.” Eleventh, “put the two hands on ground, stoop in a twisting posture and raise for three times.” Twelfth, “the two hands pound the back, and the left is same as the right.” Thirteenth, “sit with legs crossed and stretch one leg with the other drawing forward.” Fourteenth, “put the two hands on the ground and looks back, it is a method of tiger view, and the left is same as the right.” Fifteenth, “stand on the ground and twist the body for three times.” Sixteenth, “cross the two hands and step the feet on the hands, and the left is same as the right.” Seventeenth, “stand up, step forward and back with feet, and the left is same as the right.” Eighteenth, “sit with legs crossed, stretch the feet, use the hands to draw the feet on the knees, and uses a hand to massage it.” A half of actions of this method are subject to massage, and another half of actions are subject to health gymnastics. This was the early method of massage in China, which had important influence on the development of massage in later generations.

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(*Xue Keqiao*)

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Qing Daoguang, Buyue lou edition, *'Zun shou ba jian'*, a picture painted from a woodblock of a canonical text on preservation of life,

Yoga

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As one of the major philosophical schools of Brahmanism, Yoga has a long history in India, and can trace its roots back to the early civilisations in the Indian subcontinent. Some of the most ancient Indian literatures contain information on the practice of Yoga. It came into its own and became an independent school of philosophy around the mid-2nd century BCE. The theories and ways of practice of Yoga have long been a subject of wide interest among all Indian schools of thought. As a highly influential school of philosophy in India, it spread to China along with Buddhism.

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Historical Evolution and Foundational Text

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The word “Yoga” comes from Sanskrit and originally means “union” or “conjunction” and by extension, “conformity with the mento-emotional energy”. As a religious practice, Yoga school took its rudimentary form as early as the period of the Indus Valley civilisation. At two representative Indus ruins, Mohenjo-daro (Mound of the Dead) and Harappa, thousands of small seals have been unearthed which were mainly used at the time as clan emblems, lucky charms, or identity indicators. A few of them even reflect the religious beliefs practised then. Some show deities seated in a posture consistent with the popular Yoga posture we are familiar with today. Therefore, it can be established that the practice of Yoga originated from the period of the Indus Valley civilisations, ie 2500 BCE.

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Such ancient Indian classics as the *Upanishads*, *Arthashastra* and the Sanskrit epic *Mahabharata* all contained references or information about Yoga. Its ways of practice have long been adopted by many other Indian schools of philosophy. However, religious practices of Yoga were concluded and summarised, then it became an independent religious and philosophical school with systematic theories of its own at a much later date.

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It is generally acknowledged that Patanjali was the creator of Yoga, and the school’s earliest foundation text is the *Yoga-sūtra* by Patanjali. Containing additional parts incorporated later, the

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Indian Yoga

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extant version of the sutra was compiled between 300-500 CE. There was an Indian grammarian active around 150 BCE who was also named Patanjali. If this grammarian and author of *Yoga-sūtra* were the same person, then we can establish with certainty that the early version of the sutra first appeared around 2ⁿᵈ century BCE.

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After the ‘*Yoga-sūtra*’, classic texts of the Yoga school mainly consists of commentaries on the sutra, including the '*Yoga-sūtra-bhasya*' by Vyasa (6ᵗʰ century AD), the “Tattva-vaisarabi” (commentaries on '*Yoga-sūtra-bhasya*') by Vacaspati Misra (around 9ᵗʰ century AD), the 'Rajamartanda' by Bhoja (11th century AD), and the '*Yoga-varttika*' (commentaries on '*Yoga-sūtra-bhasya*') and '*Yoga-sara-samgraha*' (direct exposition on the theory of this school) by Vijnana-bhiksu (16th century CE).

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Following the appearance of the *Yoga-sūtra* and commentaries thereon, the Yoga school saw its influence steadily growing. Some new Yoga classics such as the New Upanishads also emerged which mainly dwell upon the relationship between deity, soul and body. In addition, the theories and ways of practice of Yoga were also assimilated and improved upon by many other Indian schools of thought. Except for the Lokayata School, all major schools of philosophy popular in ancient India have Yoga elements of their own.

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The Yoga elements inherent in the various Indian schools of thought partly derive from the ancient Indian Yoga traditions, and partly from the Yoga school. Each school was generally influenced by both aspects. The Yoga school organised and improved the traditional Yoga practices and theories, which helped promote the formation of religious practice theories of many Indian religious and philosophical schools that arose still later.

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The theories and ways of practising Yoga exerted an influence on both Brahminism (orthodox school) and Buddhism (non-orthodox school).

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The Vedānta School of the Brahminism absorbed a lot of Yoga elements. Many Vedānta thinkers borrowed extensively from Yoga practices, and considered the “imported” Yoga elements highly instrumental in helping them grasp the Brahmin.

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The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the Samkhya school. There was no concept of creator-deity in the early-day Samkhya school, but over time, due to the influence of the Yoga school, the later-day Samkhya school started to accept the concept of creator-deity in its philosophical system.

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The literature of the Vaiśesika school and the *Nyāya* school also contains elements of Yoga practices. Although the said two schools never addressed these Yoga elements as their main subject of interest, they mentioned them frequently in discussing their own epistemological concepts or principles. An important practice of Buddhism, meditation owes its origin to the ancient Yoga practices. After the Yoga school emerged, Mahayana Buddhism was also heavily influenced by the school.

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Meditation in Yoga

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In addition to influencing other schools of thought, the Yoga school was also influenced by other philosophical schools and absorbed some of their ideas and theories. Buddhism, for instance, has been a huge source of influence. The fourth chapter of the *Yoga-sūtra* was widely deemed to be added later, in which a lot of Buddhist elements were adopted. Therefore, it can be claimed that the Yoga school and Buddhism have exerted mutual influence upon each other throughout the course of their development.

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Yoga in Malayalam text

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The influence of the theories and practices of Yoga school still lingered strongly in contemporary Indian society. Many contemporary Indian thinkers or philosophers advocated, to varying extents, the practice of Yoga, including Dayananda Saraswati (1824-1883), Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), and Aurobindo Ghose (1872-1950).

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It must be pointed out that the concept of “Yoga” in contemporary India had differed greatly from the ancient concept of “Yoga”. For instance, the “Yoga” mentioned by Svāmi Vivekānanda actually refers to all major aspects of his teachings, including religious beliefs, ethics, and philosophical doctrines. Aurobindo Ghose also incorporated some new connotations into the traditional concept of “Yoga” by propounding such concepts as “The Life Divine” and “Integral Yoga”, all of which were never mentioned or discussed in ancient Yoga literature such as *Yoga-sūtra*. So it’s fair to say that the Yoga theories had undergone significant new developments in later years.

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The ancient Yoga school also exerted important influence on Neo-Platonism in the west and religions in Iran, China, and Japan which further extended to still other parts of the world in contemporary times. For instance, there are now many Yoga research centres in Europe and the United States of America, with Yoga’s positive role in the field of general healthcare and fitness also gaining increasing attention.

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Theory and Practice of Yoga

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According to *Yoga-sūtra* and most commentaries thereon, the theoretical system of the Yoga school primarily comprised the following concepts: mind activities; *Samadhi*; seer and the seen; eight limbs; and siddhis.

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Mind Activities (“vrttayah”)

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The *Yoga-sūtra* defines Yoga as “the mastery of the activities of the mind-field,” positing that there are five mind activities: correct perception; incorrect perception; imagination; sleep; and memory.

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Correct perception means accurate, truthful general information in daily life, and may be acquired by partyaksa, anumana and agama directly.

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Incorrect perception is based on false information and on perception of what is not the true form.

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Imagination is verbal information which can distinguish or divide things, and is followed by concepts which are devoid of reality;

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Sleep is the mind-consciousness mode which is supported by the absence of objective awareness.

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Memory is the retained impression of experienced objects.

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According to the definition of “Yoga” contained in the *Yoga-sūtra*, “Yoga” is concerned with attaining a English edition of Patanjali Yoga

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state of tranquil abiding (*Samadhi*) free of external influences, because the five mind activities are actually the product of external influences (“Xiang”). Both correct perception and incorrect perception are reflection of external objects and manifestation of people’s consciousness with regard to their interaction with the external world. The “correct perception” mentioned here refers to a mind activity that correctly reflects the worldly characteristics of external objects, while the “incorrect perception” is a mind activity that incorrectly reflects the worldly characteristics of external objects. “Imagination” is a mind activity that arises out of differentiating external objects; “sleep” is a mind activity that is actually spawned from sleepers’ interaction with external objects when he or she is awake; and “memory” is also a mind activity that stems from external objects, since it is mainly a product of recollection of external objects. All-in-all, these five mind activities cannot exist apart from external objects and what external objects manifest is mainly of an insubstantial, illusive nature, which can only harass and disturb. In the opinion of yogis, only by isolating oneself from the influences of illusive, unreal external objects can one truly attain a state of physical and mental tranquility.

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Although among the five activities there are both correct and incorrect ones, the Yoga school held that they all posed hindrances to the attainment of the highest state of wisdom, and therefore should be suppressed, or put specifically, “eliminated” through long periods of “practice” and “abandonment of desires”. “Practice” means to make continuous efforts to achieve mental tranquility which requires the deepest absorption and great exertions to fend off the external influences; and “abandonment of desires” refers to the efforts to abandon the pursuit of external things, namely to get rid of worldly pleasures and special, transcendental pleasures (such as heavenly pleasures). Through “practice” and “abandonment of desires” one can finally attain the blessed state of “Samadhi”.

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Samadhi

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The “samadhi” concept adopted by the Yoga school means the focus of the mind on a single object through calming and/or increasing mental activities, also sometimes referred to as “Samāpatti” in *Yoga-sūtra*.

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The *Yoga-sūtra* divides “samadhi” into two types: “Savikalpa Samadhi” and “Nirvikalpa Samadhi”.

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Savikalpa Samadhi: A state of consciousness in which one knows one’s own consciousness but remains in a subject-object relationship with the world.

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Nirvikalpa Samadhi: The highest, transcendent state of consciousness in which there is selflessness, no-mind, non-duality, and the subject-object relationship momentarily disappears. It is the highest, samadhi-state of non-dual union with one’s own consciousness.

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The *Yoga-sūtra* also discusses the means to attaining “Nirvikalpa Samadhi”. The author held that one must rely on confidence, stamina, introspective memory, concentration force and profound insight to reach this blessed state. In addition, “Nirvikalpa Samadhi” can also be achieved by the method of profound religious meditation upon the Supreme Lord. The Supreme Lord is that special person who is not affected by troubles, actions, developments or by subconscious motivations. “Of Him, the sacred syllable āum (Om) is the designation. That sound is repeated, murmured constantly for realising its meaning. As a result there is inwardness of the sense consciousness and the disappearance of obstacles to progress.” These obstacles are disease, idleness, doubt, inattentiveness, lack of energy and prone to sensuality, mistaken views, not being able to maintain the progress attained, unsteadiness in progression, scattered mental and emotional energy. Distress, depression, nervousness and laboured breathing are the symptoms of a distracted state of mind. For the removal of obstacles, there should be the practice of a standard method used in the pursuit of the reality (tattva). The abstract meditation resulting from the serenity of the mento-emotional energy comes about by friendliness, compassion, cheerfulness and non-responsiveness to happiness, distress, virtue and vice, or by regulating the exhalation and inhalation, or by fixing the mento-emotional energy on someone who is without craving; or by conduct *Dhyana* (meditation) on any random object.

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When called “samāpatti”, “samadhi” can be divided into four categories: “savitarkā-samāpatti”, “nirvitarka-samāpatti”, “savicāra-samāpatti” and “nirvicāra-samāpatti”, which, in their respective order, represent a progressive process.

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“Savitarkā-samāpatti” is when the unity, word, purpose, knowledge and imagination completely mix.

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“Nirvitarka-samāpatti” is when the memory is completely purified and the essential inquiring nature disappears.

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“Savicāra-samāpatti” and “nirvicāra-samāpatti” depends on the yogi’s interest in particular subtle phenomena, approaching to reality of an object.

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Though by progressing through the four samāpattis mentioned above, the yogi can achieve a fairly high level of dhyana, the Yoga school maintained that these four samāpattis are “seeded Samadhi”, meaning that although the yogi has gradually expunged those distractions or impressions, he or she has not yet completely eliminated the lingering latent force (seed) resulting from his or her past karmas. If he or she can go one step further and eliminate, or at least effectively suppress the latent force inherent in the “seeded Samadhi”, the blessed state of “seedless Samadhi” may finally be achieved.

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The Yoga School held that the dynamic kriyā Yoga practices which form a union with the soul are: austerity, spiritual reading, and complete obedience to the Master. “Austerity” is an act to purify one’s mind; “spiritual reading” refers to the reciting of pure words (such as Om) again and again; and “complete obedience to the Master” means to dedicate everything to the Supreme Lord.

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The *Yoga-sūtra* specifies five hindrances: the darkness of unwisdom, self-assertion, lust, hate and attachment. The darkness of ignorance is the field of the others. It is exhibited when what is temporary, impure, distressful and mundane, is identified as being eternal, pure, joyful and spiritual respectively. Self-assertion comes from thinking of the Seer and the instrument of vision as forming one self. Lust is the result from the sense of enjoyment. Hate results from the sense of pain. Attachment is the desire towards life, even in the wise, carried forward by its own energy.

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The Yoga school maintained that asaya (latent force) produced by one’s behaviour was rooted in klesa. From this root grows and ripens the fruits of birth, of life-span, of all that is tasted in life. As long as people remain in this state, they cannot escape from sorrow and pain.

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Seer and the Seen

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The Yoga School held that sorrow is an integral part of reincarnation, and therefore, to discuss the reason for reincarnation is to discuss the reason for the generation of sorrow, which concerns the basic philosophical theories held by the Yoga school. The school maintained that fruits of rejoicing or affliction are sprung from holy or unholy works done in the past during the process of human survival. Changes belong to affliction and reincarnation is a process of change with a lot of differential things, therefore, all differential things belong to affliction. In the opinion of Yoga school, the generation of reincarnation is related to the two entities. The *Yoga-sūtra* states that, “The cause of what is to be warded off, is the absorption of the Seer in the Seen.” And the “seer” and “the seen” here refer to the *prakriti* and *purusha* directly relating to reincarnation, respectively.

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It is widely acknowledged that the Yoga school borrowed extensively from the Samkhya school, which held that reincarnation results from the combination of *prakriti* and *purusha*. In the philosophical system of the Yoga school, the two entities are called “the seer” and “the seen”, respectively. Both schools believed that “purusha” is a spiritual or positive entity, while *prakriti* is a material or negative entity. When *purusha* affects *prakriti*, the two will combine, generating all things or all kinds of life phenomena and giving rise to reincarnation. During this process, *purusha* can be called “the seer”, while *prakriti* may be referred to as “the seen”.

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The Yoga school believed that the “Seer” is pure vision; and “the seen” have manifestation, action, inertia as their property. They are formed by the elements and the sense-powers. They make for experience and for liberation. The very essence of things seen is that they exist for the Seer.

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The school held that the cause for association of the Seer with things seen is the darkness of unwisdom. If the darkness of unwisdom were eliminated, the combination could not exist. In order to eliminate the darkness of unwisdom and make the Seer get rid of the Seen, we must obtain the help of discrimination (viveka-khyati). One significant commentary on the *Yoga-sūtra* by Vyasa states that “viveka-khyati is a perception of the different nature of *prakriti* and *purusha*”. As soon as the differences between the seer and the seen can be perceived, the combination of the two will come to an end, terminating reincarnation, thereby allowing people to escape sorrow and pain. Therefore, it is of vital importance to acquire “viveka-khyati”, according to the philosophies of the Samkhya school and the Yoga school, the latter of which claimed that to acquire the “vivekakhyati” one will need to rely on a particular set of Yoga practices, ie The Eight Limbs of Yoga.

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The Eight Limbs of Yoga form the structural framework for Yoga practice. They are: the Commandments, the Rules, right Poise, right Control of the life-force, Withdrawal, Attention, Meditation and Contemplation.

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There are Five Commandments that must be obeyed by the yogi: non-injury, truthfulness, abstaining from stealing, from impurity and from covetousness.

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The “rules”, or “fixed observances” include: cleanliness, contentment, austerity, study, and persevering devotion to God. From purity follows a withdrawal from enchantment over one’s own body as well as a cessation of desire for physical contact with others. Supreme happiness is gained via contentment. Impurities can be removed and special powers can be received in the body through austerity. By studying and reading, we can communicate with the Lord. *Samadhi* can be realised by the persevering devotion to God.

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Right poise must be firm and without strain. Right poise is to be gained by steady and temperate effort, and by setting the heart upon the everlasting. The fruit of right poise is the strength to resist the shocks of infatuation or sorrow.

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There follows the right guidance of the life-currents, the control of the incoming and outgoing breath. It is regulated according to place, time and number. Energy-control which goes beyond the sphere of external and internal is also vital.

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Pratyahara refers to the withdrawal of the five senses from external objects, so as to prevent the mind from getting distracted by the external world.

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*Dharana* is the fixing of the mind in a single spot (any chosen object).

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*Dhyana* is a progression of dharana, i.e. sustained concentration on the meditated object.

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*Samadhi* is the highest state of wisdom for Yogi practitioners, wherein only the “object” shines forth in the mind, with the consciousness and the object become fused together; even self-awareness disappears in the state of samadhi.

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The Yoga school called the first five levels “external aids to Yoga” (*bahiranga sadhana*), and the last three “internal aids to Yoga (*antaranga sadhana*). The external aids to Yoga, aka *bahiranga sadhana*, focus on moral, ethical and physical disciplines; and the internal aids to Yoga, aka *antaranga sadhana* (Raja Yoga), focus on spiritual practices.

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The Yoga school attached great importance to the internal aids to Yoga (*antaranga sadhana*), believing them to be “more interior” than the other five. The three levels of the *antaranga sadhana* are also called *samyama*, by acquiring which one can finally reach an enlightened state.

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Siddhis

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The Yoga school held that certain types of miraculous force can be obtained through samyama. This kind of miraculous force is in essence a supernormal power, aka *siddhis*. The force differs depending on the specific objects of samyama. The *Yoga-sūtra* mentioned many types of siddhis, which refer primarily to certain knowledge or abilities normal people could rarely acquire. For instance, through samyama on one’s body, one can become invisible; via samyama on differences between speeches and objects, one can understand animals’ sounds; through samyama on perception, one can read minds; through samyama on behaviours and consequences thereof, one can gain valuable insights into death; via samyama on the latent force, one can acquire knowledge about his or her former life; and through samyama on animals, the sun, the moon, the stars, body organs and functions thereof, etc., one can accordingly obtain a wealth of supernatural knowledge and miraculous ability. In addition, one may also acquire the *viveka-khyati* to distinguish between sattva (prakriti) and purusa (purusha). Once the yogis achieve this particular *viveka-khyati*, he can gain a mastery over all existences and infinite knowledge. If yogi went further and got rid of “viveka-khyati”, he could destroy the seeds of evil and enter into an absolute independent state. In this state, sattva (prakriti) and purusa (purusha) have the same nature of cleanliness. Both of them exist independently without combination. Thus, there is no basic condition for reincarnation, which makes elimination of suffering possible. This is a state pursued by the Samkhya school and the Yoga school.

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The *Yoga-sūtra* also discussed the means to achieving “siddhis”, claiming that there are five sources where it derives: firstly, people are born with it; those who are born with siddhis must have practised Yoga in their past lives; secondly, people acquired it with the help of medicine or herbs; thirdly, people can achieve it through spells or incantations; fourthly, people can acquire it through austerities; and fifthly, people can acquire it via the samadhi, ie threefold power of Attention, Meditation and Contemplation.

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Among the five sources mentioned above, the Yoga school put the greatest emphasis on the fifth one. It maintained that by achieving siddhis through samadhi, the yogi never left behind any asaya (latent force or momentum), but only a karma that is “neither white nor black,” which is similar to “avipāka-karma” in Buddhism. According to the *Yoga-sūtra* and other relevant literature, if the yogi can perceive the difference between the seer and the seen, and acquire the *viveka-khyati*, and rid themselves of fixation, karma, sorrow and dirtiness, he may finally achieve the samadhi of the “dharma-meghah-s.” type, in which the “seeds” will be destroyed, enabling one to break out of reincarnation cycles, escape pain and get delivered.

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**Influence in China:** The Yoga school made some improvements and also some systematisation efforts on the ancient Indian Yoga practices, which had exerted a noticeable influence on many popular schools of religious philosophy in ancient India. For instance, Buddhism absorbed a lot of elements from the school. Therefore, when Buddhism spread to China, the theories and ways of practice of the Yoga school were also brought to China, and went on to make a noteworthy impact in the country.

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The Yoga school emphasised the suppression of the modifications of the mind, which bears considerable similarity to the Buddhist meditation. Chinese Zen emphasised that meditation shall be separated from appearance externally and mind shall not be influenced internally. In fact, this is the modifications of the mind required by the Yoga school and generated from the suppression on influence by external unreal things. Besides, such concepts as the eight limbs, samadhi and siddhis advocated by the Yoga school also exist in Indian and Chinese Buddhism in varying forms. The Buddhist essential Threefold Training in discipline, meditation and wisdom also overlaps to a large extent with relevant practices of the Yoga school. The first two of the eight limbs of Yoga school prescribe rules similar to those contained in Buddhist precepts. The state of “samadhi” pursued by the Yoga school is also close to the Buddhist Dhyāna. The highest wisdom or truth sought by the school is also highly similar to the Buddhist “wisdom”. Many such Yoga elements were mixed with relevant Buddhist concepts and enjoyed wide popularity in ancient China.

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The classic texts and theories of the Yoga school have also received widespread scholarly attention in modern China. The *Yoga-sūtra* has been translated into Chinese, with the theories of the school being extensively studied by Chinese scholars. A large number of research papers are being published every year on the *Yoga-sūtra* or Yoga theories. There are also many Chinese books that specifically deal with the Yoga school. Some Chinese universities also offer Indian philosophy or religion courses that contain information on the Yoga school. Some Masters’ or PhD candidates in relevant Chinese universities or research institutions also chose Yoga theories as their thesis or dissertation topic. Besides, in some professional conferences or symposiums held in China, the theories of the school or papers published on the school were also discussed with great interest.

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Among the Chinese, Yoga elements are adopted primarily with the purpose of boosting physical wellness, with the practice of Yoga becoming increasingly popular in the country. Throughout China, Yoga training programmes or classes are offered to dedicated and enthusiastic fans.

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(*Xue Keqiao*)

Kalaripayattu

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Kalaripayattu is a kind of Indian martial arts. “Kalaripayattu” means site fighting training. The meaning of “Kalari” is a training site. It is mainly popular in the state of Kerala and some regions of Tamil Nadu. It has a long history, and it’s predicted that it had a history of 3,000 years or 2,000 years, which didn’t have reliable bases. Its theoretical source can be traced back to Yajur Veda. People thought that its founder was Parasurama, who was one of the incarnations of Vishnu, and they worshiped the magic figure as the founder. It’s thought that ancient people understood secrets of integration of motion, quietness and combination of vigour & suppleness from motion characteristics of fierce animals such as lion, tiger, elephant, bear and python, and created Kalaripayattu. The more reliable saying was that Kalaripayattu was formed in the north of present day Kerala State between the 9ᵗʰ century and 12ᵗʰ century. There were many small kingdoms in the southwest coast of India involved in frequent wars and battles at that time, and people conducted Kalaripayattu training out of need for warfare and defense. It had become a part of their social life gradually, and it was the compulsory subject for soldiers. Young boys and girls can enter Kalari to learn skills when they are eight-years-old, and people took pride in training and participating. Kalaripayattu developed quickly, and many Kalaris were established in cities and rural areas. Kalaris were closed during the reign of the British East India Company in the 18th century in order to avoid revolt of the masses. Therefore, Kalaripayattu training stopped and was on the verge of extinction. Some martial masters opened Kalaris from place to place in order to revive Kalaripayattu and adopted disciples widely in the late 19th century, so the tradition of Kalaripayattu was restored. At present, over 120 Kalaris are established in Kerala, and each Kalari has about 30 members. Its training purpose have changed from the former preparation for war to body building and development of a brave and tenacious spirit and will of teenagers. Its training is usually divided into three stages: the first stage aims at physical fitness training, and focuses on developing students’ endurance, explosive power, flexibility and agility; the second stage targets at training wood instruments and developing students’ skill in using these instruments including cudgels to fight; the third stage orients at training metal instruments and developing students skills to use weapons including daggles, axes and spears to fight. Generally speaking, it takes eight to 10 years to grasp the whole set of skills, a guru needs not only the skills and an excellent character, but also the skills to treat surgical injuries.

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*India's Kalaripayattu*

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*Indian Kalaripayattu performance*

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*On the occasion of the celebration of Indian festival in China at Henan in China in June 2010, the performance of Indian and Chinese martial arts performers*

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There are many similarities between Kalaripayattu and Chinese martial art. For example, training attaches importance to students’ martial virtues, and developing integrity, and proposes a calm mood and combines vigour and suppleness during training; skill trainings include unarmed fight and use of instrument, etc. China’s Shaolin martial arts regarded Bodhidharma as the founder, who was from South India, and Chinese common people had a natural sense of identity towards Kalaripayattu. Kalaripayattu was introduced through newspapers and television in the 1980s, in China. Twelve Indian Kalaripayattu masters participated in the “Indian Festival” held in China, and performed with Chinese martial masters on June 20, 2010. This was the first face-to-face exchange between Chinese and Indian martial arts systems, which holds historical significance.

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(*Xue Keqiao*)

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Suggestion on illustration: Select two illustrations from Contest of Martial Arts between Chinese and Indian Kongfu Masters in Shaolin Temple on Song Mountainreported by dahe.cn on June 21, 2010.

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(*Xue Keqiao*)

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