Pramāṇa · Search · About · API

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c13.s3.t2: India

Encyclopedia of India–China Cultural Contacts v2.c13.s3.t2

Language
English

India

v2.c13.s3.t2.1

Yindu is one of the Chinese names for India. India is called Bharata in many Indian languages. This name appeared as early as in the Sanskrit epic *Mahabharata* and in the *Padma Purana*. India is also called Bharatavarsa in Indian languages which means the country of Bharata’s sons or Bharata’s country. The ancient Indians also called their land, Jambudvipa.

v2.c13.s3.t2.2

The English name of India originated from the Indus River. Indian people called this cradle of civilisation, Sindhu (the original meaning of which is river). The Persians transformed Sindhu into “Hindu” and the word Hindu was subsequently transformed into “Indu”. The name of India was introduced into Greece by the Persians. The Greeks used the name of this river in western India as the name for the whole of India.

v2.c13.s3.t2.3

After the Muslim invasion of India, they called India, “Hindustan”, following the Persian usage meaning the “place where Indians live” or “Indian country”. Later, the British called the religion followed by the majority of Indians “Hinduism” and called the country itself “India”. In ancient Chinese documents, India was called Sindhu and Tianzhu. Besides, India was also known to the Chinese as Sindo, Sidu, Sindus, Juandu, Indu, Indo, Saidu and so on. These names are transliterations of Sindhu but in different periods, different translators selected different Chinese characters. However, their pronunciations are similar.

v2.c13.s3.t2.4

India Gate, New Delhi

v2.c13.s3.t2.5

The word “Yindu” was first used in the Tang period in Xuanzang’s *Buddhist Records of the Western World*, ‘*juan* 2’. In *Summaries of Yindu - Interpretation of Names*, it is written: “there were many translations of Tianzhu’s name such as Sindu, Sindo. Now let us comply with the legitimate pronunciation and call it Yindu”. However, afterwards, historical documents of the Song period still called India “Tianzhu” and “Sindhu”.

v2.c13.s3.t2.6

(*Han Zhigeng*)

v2.c13.s3.t2.7

Magadha

v2.c13.s3.t2.8

Magadha was one of the 16 states in ancient India in the period from the 6ᵗʰ century to 4ᵗʰ century BCE. It was located south of the middle and lower reaches of the Ganges river. Magadha was established in the period from the 7ᵗʰ to 6ᵗʰ century BCE by an eastern tribe far from the center of Vedic culture. At the beginning of the era of Buddhism, Magadha was ruled by Bimbisàra of the Haryanka dynasty. It was a city-state from this time or earlier. Bimbisara took Ràjagrha as the capital which was surrounded by extensive villages. He used to launch campaigns against Champà, the capital of Anga. He lived in the same period as the Buddha, and believed in Buddhism. He was killed by his son Ajatasatru in his old age.

v2.c13.s3.t2.9

Ajatasatru fought with Kosala for many years and eventually made peace. He then fought with Vajji for 16 years and finally conquered this country and established the hegemony of Magadha in eastern India. Ajatasatru also believed in Buddhism. It is said that in his reign, Buddhism had its first Samgiti at the Saptparni Cave outside Rajgir. One of the fortifications built by him later developed into Pataliputra. This city became the capital of Magadha in the reign of his son. The emperors afterwards all took the throne by killing their fathers. The last emperor was overthrown by an uprising and the minister Sisunaga seized the opportunity and ascended the throne around the year 430. Magadha then conquered the powerful Avanti, Vajji and possibly Kosala states under the Sisunaga dynasty and became even more powerful. The dynasties of the Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas, Kanvas and Guptas all used to extend their power outwards from the

v2.c13.s3.t2.10

Outside view of the Patna Museum, India

v2.c13.s3.t2.11

centre of the Magadha area. Muslims conquered this area in the 12ᵗʰ century.

v2.c13.s3.t2.12

Magadha was not unfamiliar to ancient China. There are references to it in ‘*juan* 221 in the *Xin Tang Shu*’ (New History of the Tang), one of which goes: “The soil there was fertile and suitable for sowing and reaping. There was a different kind of rice, the grains were large and were supplied only to the king. The king lived in……Kusumapura …… In the 21ˢᵗ year of Zhenguan (647), they started to despatch envoys to meet the emperor and present pineapple and aspen. Emperor Taizong despatched envoys to learn the method of extracting sugar by heating. He despatched Wang Xuance to set up monuments in the Mahabodhi Temple.” The Chinese monks 'Faxian and Xuanzang' both used to come here for pilgrimage during their travels in India. Their experiences were recorded in their books, *The Biography of Faxian* and *On Xuanzang's Travels in India*.

v2.c13.s3.t2.13

(*Ge Weijun*)

v2.c13.s3.t2.14

Takshasila

v2.c13.s3.t2.15

Takshasilà, an ancient strategic town of northwest India, is known as Taxila today. In the period from the 6ᵗʰ – 4ᵗʰ century BCE, it was the capital of Gandhàra, one of the 16 states existing then. During the 3ʳᵈ BCE – 2ⁿᵈ century BCE, the powerful Maurya dynasty established its governor-general there. Buddhism became the prevalent faith during the reign of Asoka. This city was located on a vital communication line and was a significant political, economic and academic centre of northwest India. As a place which attracted much talent, it had many students from northern India who used to travel a long distance to study and learn Vedic scriptures and other kinds of knowledge and skills, including medicine. There were even students from Central Asia and West Asia in the famous medical school. The course was rigorous and long. Students had to complete seven years of study and examination before graduating and commencing the practice of medicine. There were also other technological courses.

v2.c13.s3.t2.16

Taxila ruins, today in Taxila, Pakistan

v2.c13.s3.t2.17

Archaeological excavations were undertaken at this site in the early 20th century. Unearthed were coins, jewellery, gold items, copperware, pottery and silver copies engraved with Kharosthi words and a large number of Buddhist works of art. The golden age of the Kushan Empire during the 1st–2nd century CE was the high point of economic, religious and cultural activities there. Taksasila entered a period of decline after the 3rd century and the city was finally ruined by the invasion of the Hephthalite Empire in the middle of the 5th century. The eminent Chinese monks, Faxian and Xuanzang, both came here when they went to India on pilgrimage.

v2.c13.s3.t2.18

(*Ge Weijun*)

v2.c13.s3.t2.19

Pataliputra

v2.c13.s3.t2.20

Pataliputra is an ancient Indian city, also known as Puspapura, Pataliputta or Pāṭaligrāma. It was initially called Kusumapura and is known as Patna in the state of Bihar today. Located at the intersection of the Ganges, Gandak and Song rivers, it was of strategic importance. King Ajàtasatru of the Magadha dynasty in the 6th century BCE constructed fortifications here to defend against the Vrjji (Vajji) state. His son, Udayabhadra, built Pàtaliputra as a major city after inheriting the throne and moved the capital here. From then on, various dynasties including the Nanda,

v2.c13.s3.t2.21

Pillars during the Mayuran period, excavated from Patna, India

v2.c13.s3.t2.22

Maurya and the early Gupta rulers, all established their capital here.

v2.c13.s3.t2.23

During his travels in India, Faxian was greatly impressed by the grand scale on which Pataliputra was built. “The palaces in the city were built by supernatural beings and spirits, rocks and stones were accumulated to raise the city walls and the imperial watch tower and engraved with decorative motifs and definitely, it was not built by human beings,” he wrote. Xuanzang also visited here and recorded in detail the many stories related to it. Coins, icons and temple foundations were discovered here in the course of archaeological excavations in modern times.

v2.c13.s3.t2.24

(*Ge Weijun*)

v2.c13.s3.t2.25

Kalinga

v2.c13.s3.t2.26

Kalinga is an ancient Indian state which is referred to as Jielingjia, Qielingjia, Jialingwo and Jialing in

v2.c13.s3.t2.27

Remains of the ruins of a statue of the Sum Temple, Kalinga

v2.c13.s3.t2.28

Chinese records. It is located in the coastal region in east India, between the Godavari and Mahanadi rivers. Its territory is equal to about today’s Odisha, and its capital was Dantapura. The ancient Indian classic work, the *Puranas*, has listed the 32 rulers of Kalinga. It was conquered by the Nanda dynasty of Magadha (about 346 BC–324 BC), and then later recovered its independence. In the early years of the Maurya dynasty (324 BC–185 BC), the Greek Megasthenes, who was the envoy sent by Seleucus Nikator to the Maurya dynasty, also mentioned this country. He said its army was strong, with 60,000 infantry, 1,000 cavalry and 700 war elephants. The country’s overseas trade flourished and the economy was prosperous. However, around 260 BC, the third king Asoka of the Maurya dynasty annexed it after a brutal war. The consequence of the war was that 1,00,000 people were killed, 1,50,000 people were captured and the same number of people died indirectly as a result of the war. It is said that Asoka deeply regretted the suffering brought about by the war and so turned to the peaceful “Saddhamma” policy. It is said that this was the point from which he began to believe in Buddhism. Shortly after Asoka’s death, Kalinga regained independence at the end of the 3rd century BC. In the 2nd century BC, during the reign of Khàravela, the country once again became powerful and prosperous. Magadha was subdued and Kalinga captured Rajagrha. Its troops reached Punjab in the west and the Pandya in the south. After Khàravela’s death, the country began to decline again.

v2.c13.s3.t2.29

Xuanzang visited Kalinga during his visit to India. He found that the country was a prosperous place, “with sowing and reaping, numerous flowers and fruits and thick woods and marshes for hundreds of miles”. However, it was already clear by his time that there had been a decline with people gradually moving to other places and the population becoming smaller. The ‘*Sutra of Vinaya (juan 39)*’ translated by Yijing, another monk of the Tang period, also contained this reference to Kalinga: “Buddha has four tooth relics ... with one in Kalinga”. In the second half of the 4th century, a prince Dantha, referred to as Tuoduo in Chinese records, carried it to Simhala (now Sri Lanka) secretly. It is said that the Buddha tooth relic enshrined in Kandy is the same.

v2.c13.s3.t2.30

(*Ge Weijun*)

v2.c13.s3.t2.31

Gandhara

v2.c13.s3.t2.32

Gandhara was one of the 16 countries in ancient India in the period from the 6ᵗʰ century to about the 4ᵗʰ century BCE. It was located at the northeast of the subcontinent of India, mainly including the region around Peshawar on the upper reaches of the Indus River in the north of Pakistan today and the region surrounding Rawalpindi. Its capital Taksasilà (present-day Taxila) was a strategic town and the commercial and academic centre of northwest India. Gandhàra was under the control of Persians and Macedonians from the 6ᵗʰ century so it played an important role in cultural communication between the East and West. It was annexed by the Maurya dynasty in the late 4ᵗʰ century BC. The third emperor

v2.c13.s3.t2.33

The lamp holding monk, sculpture carved around 2-3 century BCE

v2.c13.s3.t2.34

of this dynasty, Asoka, mentioned Gandhàra in his fifth imperial edict carved on stone. In the period of the Kushana empire, which reached its height during the period from the middle of the 1ˢᵗ century to the end of the 2ⁿᵈ century CE, Gandhàra was its core region. Buddhism was introduced in the time of the Emperor Asoka and became popular. Buddhist architecture and art also started to appear here. The development of such art was at its peak period during the Kushana period. One of the greatest constructions was the Kanishka Tower in the suburbs of Peshawar. According to records, the tower was originally 213 m high and surrounded by hundreds of smaller towers. The earlier artistic convention of depicting the Buddha merely by symbolism, through the Dharmachakra, a footprint, a banyan tree or throne was broken, and artists started to depict the person of the Buddha. Absorbing artistic elements from Greece and Rome, Gandhàra art was characterised by fine proportions, exquisite modelling, elegant posture and unique style. Later in the Gupta period, during 320-550 CE, statues were made mostly of clay. After the middle of the 5ᵗʰ century, with the invasion of the Hephthalite Empire, Buddhist temples were ruined and the statuary art also started to decline. Gandhàra’s statuary art was introduced to China via Central Asia and then further east into North Korea and Japan and had a significant impact on the style of statues in East Asia.

v2.c13.s3.t2.35

Gandhara art Buddha Statue, carved around 2-3 century BCE

v2.c13.s3.t2.36

Kashmir

v2.c13.s3.t2.37

Kawmira was the name for present-day Kashmir in India used in Chinese records during the Han, Wei, Northern and Southern dynasties, Sui and Tang periods. In the Han period, the name referred to the area downstream of the Kabul River and the region of Kashmir. It was also called Geshimi or Kasmira.

v2.c13.s3.t2.38

There were many references to Kashmir in Chinese historical records. For example, the *Han Shu* - *the Biography of the Western Regions* said that “Kawmira, Wangzhi Xunxian city (near Srinagar present-day), was 2200 *li* from Chang’an, and it was not governed

v2.c13.s3.t2.39

Kapisa carvings of Buddha, located in Swat Valley, Pakistan

v2.c13.s3.t2.40

by the *duhu* (protectorate-general) in the past, the Xiongnu conquered Tokhara, Tokhara ruled over Bactria in the west and the king of Sai ruled Kawmira in the south.” It also said that the terrain here was flat and the climate was mild and that there was alfalfa, sandalwood, catalpa, bamboo and lacquer. The natives planted grain and grapes and fertilised the fields with manure. They ate raw fresh vegetables in winter. Products there included *fengniu* (zebu), buffalo, elephants, dogs, macaques, pearl, coral, *hupo* (amber) and gems. Craftsmen were skilled at engraving, weaving silk, doing embroidery and building palaces. Vessels were mostly made of gold, silver, copper and tin. The coins were also made of gold and silver with a horse on the front and a human head on the back.

v2.c13.s3.t2.41

Contacts between the Han dynasty and Kashmir started from the time of Emperor Wu (141 BCE – 87 BCE), and the relationship between the Han envoys and the rulers of Kashmir was sometimes cordial and sometimes not. Kashmiri merchants used to come to China during the reign of Emperor Cheng (33 BCE – 7 BCE) and even afterwards. Contact between Kashmir and China was very close in the Tang dynasty. There were frequent references in the *Xin Tang Shu* and *Jiu Tang Shu* to envoys coming from Kawmira bearing local products as gifts and it is mentioned that the royal court of the Tang dynasty also “generously rewarded this country”. Kashmir used to be one of the centres of Mahayana Buddhism so many monks used to come to China to preach Buddhism and translate scriptures. Chinese monks also went to Kashmir to acquire Buddhist learning and scriptures. In the 1st year of the reign of Emperor Suzong of the Tang (758 CE), there were still envoys from Kashmir coming to China but this practice apparently ended after that. The word, Kawmira, also no longer appeared in Chinese historical records.

v2.c13.s3.t2.42

(*Ge Weijun*)

v2.c13.s3.t2.43

Chola

v2.c13.s3.t2.44

The Chola (or Cola, “Zhunian” in Chinese) was a powerful kingdom in southern India. From the early 11th century to 15th century, the country maintained diplomatic and commercial relations with China.

v2.c13.s3.t2.45

The Chola kingdom was located on the Coromandel coast of India, between Nellore and Pudukkottai. Its name can be found in Asoka’s inscriptions which mention that it was beyond the jurisdiction of the Maurya dynasty with Buddhism prevalent. In the 2nd century BCE, the king Elara once conquered Simhaladvipa (now Sri Lanka). Around 100 CE, during the reign of the famous King Karikkal, the country was very strong. He defeated two other important kingdoms in southern India, the Pandyan and Cera (Chera) kingdoms and launched an expedition to Simhaladvipa. In the 3rd-4th century, with the rise of the Pallava in the north and invasions by the Pandyan and Cera kingdoms, the Chola went into decline. In the 7th century, they surrendered to the Pallava. In the early 7th century, when the Buddhist monk Xuanzang visited the Chola kingdom, he noted that “Chola’s circumference is 2,000 and 400 or 500 *li*, the capital’s circumference is more than 10 *li*, with spacious land, deserted lakes and ponds, few households, rampant thieves, warm weather and many malefactors. People are more barbarous and follow beliefs other than Buddhism”.

v2.c13.s3.t2.46

In the 9th century, during the reign of Aditya Chola (880-907), the country returned to its former prosperity. During the reign of Rajaraja (985-1016), the country dominated southern India and by the reign of Rajendra (1016-1044), the country reached the peak of its power which extended up to West Bengal. It even launched a naval expedition to Southeast Asia.

v2.c13.s3.t2.47

Southernmost India, Cape Comorin Point

v2.c13.s3.t2.48

From the 11th century to 15th century, the country had frequent exchanges with China. According to *Juan* 489 of the *History of the Song Dynasty*, Chola was five *li* distant from the sea on the east and 1,500 *li* distant from the western coast of India. It had abundant natural resources including pearls, ivory, coral, gem, areca-nut, cardamom, rattan, date, coconut and so on. It had goats, cattle, pheasants and parrots among other creatures. The city had seven sections, from the outermost to the innermost. Residents lived in the first to the third sections, with the river surrounding them, officials in the fourth section and an offspring of the top officials in the fifth section. Monks lived in the Buddhist temple in the sixth section and the highest officials in the innermost section, which had more flowers and trees. In fighting, they first used elephants and then used guns, swords, and bows and arrows. People charged with light crimes were tied to wooden frames, and whipped 50 to 100 times; and people charged with serious crimes were trampled to death by elephants. According to the Chinese historical records: “in September of the eighth year of Dazhongxiangfu (1015), Rajaraja sent assistant minister Suolisanwen and Pushu to China to pay tribute including real pearl-embroidered shirts and caps, 21100 *liang* of pearls, 60 pieces of ivory and 60 *jin* of frankincense”. Subsequently, in the fourth year of Tianxi (1020), the second year of Mingdao (1033), and the tenth year of Xining (1077) as well, the country sent envoys to China. The name 'Shi Li Luo Cha Yin Tuo Luo Zhu Luo' recorded in the second year of Mingdao was consistent with the modern translation “Rajendra” meaning Rajendra Chola.

v2.c13.s3.t2.49

Chinese works on geography also had many records about the Chola. According to '*Ling Wai Dai Da*' of Zhou Qufei in the Southern Song period (1135-1189), the Chola often waged war with countries to the west. It had 60,000 war elephants. In wartime, the warriors stood on the howdahs on the elephants' backs. Spears were used in close fighting and bows and arrows for fighting at a distance. Victorious elephants were also honoured. People here were more impulsive, he claimed. If there were people who despised each other, they would fight with short swords right in front of the king, and even if they died, they had no regrets. Fathers, sons and brothers would not use the same stoves and utensils but they were loyal to each other. The *Zhu Fan Zhi* of Zhao Rushi (1170 – 1231) also contains detailed descriptions about the Chola system of marriage and divorce.

v2.c13.s3.t2.50

(*Ge Weijun*)

v2.c13.s3.t2.51

Tamralipta (now Tamluk)

v2.c13.s3.t2.52

Tamralipta (Tamalitta in Pali) was an ancient country in the northeastern part of India and was also an important port. Many Chinese monks visited this place which was known as Danmolidi in Chinese.

v2.c13.s3.t2.53

Tamralipta was located in the Ganges River delta in western Bengal, in the area of present-day Tamluk on the right bank of the mouth of the Hooghly river as mentioned in the ancient epic *Mahabharata*. As a centre of land and water transportation, it had commercial intercourse with Rome from the 1st and 2nd century CE and also with southern India and countries in Southeast Asia. During the Maurya era (about 321 BC – 185 BC), this place was a part of Magadha. Shortly after 250 BC, Sanghamitta, the daughter of Asoka, at the invitation of Simhala (now Sri Lanka), initiated the queen Anulo and the concubines in the palace into nunhood and established the Bhiksuni Sangha. It is said that to escort her and the Bodhi tree branch she carried, Asoka personally led the troops to Tamralipta and watched her ship sail away.

v2.c13.s3.t2.54

Many Chinese monks visited Tamralipta. Faxian during the Jin dynasty visited the country in 408 CE, and noted: “… Duomolidi is a seaport. It has 24 Buddhist temples, full of Buddhists, and Buddhism is flourishing”. Faxian lived there for two years.

v2.c13.s3.t2.55

Hoogly River, West Bengal, India

v2.c13.s3.t2.56

He copied scriptures and made portraits. Later, he boarded a merchant ship and after 14 days and nights, he reached Simhala. Xuanzang also paid a visit. In the *Record of the Western Regions of the Great Tang*, he wrote: “Danmolidi is one thousand four hundred or five hundred *li* in circumference, and its capital is more than 10 *li* in circumference. The country is near the sea, with the dampness of a low-lying land. During the season of sowing and reaping, flowers and fruits are abundant. The weather here is warm and hot. People here are strong and brave, believing in good and evil. There are more than 10 Buddhist temples, with thousands of monks and there are more than 50 temples. There are different beliefs. The country is near the sea and is at the intersection of land and water, with many treasures so people in this country are generally rich.” Faxian had also wanted to go to Simhala by sea from here but a south Indian monk thought that the sea route was more risky and advised him to choose the land route. So he went in a southwesterly direction to Udra (in the north of Odisha today). Monk Yijing from the Tang period boarded a Persian merchant ship from Guangzhou to India on his pilgrimage in November of 671. He stayed for half-a-year in Srivijaya (Sumatra in present-day Indonesia), then went to Tamralipta and met with another monk Dachengdeng who had lived there for many years. He stayed there for one year and learned Sanskrit. They went to central India together. Before leaving India, he again resided in Tamralipta to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese and then returned to China by ship directly from there.

v2.c13.s3.t2.57

Uddiyana

v2.c13.s3.t2.58

Uddiyana, which means “garden”, is the name of an ancient country which lay on the branch of the Silk Road connecting India and China. It is also known as Ujjāna, Uḍḍiyāna, Oddiyāna, etc. It is widely believed that Udyàna was located on the upper reaches of the Indus River of north Pakistan today and the drainage basin of the Swat

v2.c13.s3.t2.59

Uddiyana Buddha Pagoda, Pakistan

v2.c13.s3.t2.60

River. It was situated on the only route on the Silk Road for Buddhist monks and merchants going between India and China. *Juan* 97 of the Chinese work ‘*Bei Shi*’ said, “Udyàna was south of Shemi. In the north were the Pamirs and south was India.” Faxian said in his *Record of the Buddhistic Kingdoms*, “Udyàna was due north of India, and people there all spoke Middle Indic.” Eminent monks, Song Yun and Huisheng, when they went west on pilgrimage in 518, met the king when they passed Udyàna. According to the *Records of the Luoyang Temples - Ningxuan Temple*, while talking about their own country they told him about “the morals of Zhou Gong, Confucius, Zhuangzi and Laozi... the cure of diseases by Hua Tuo and the necromancy of Zuo Ci”. This was supposed to have excited the king, and he said, “what you have spoken about is the country of Buddhism and I would like to be born in that country in my next life.” Besides, they also “spent from their travelling expenses and built a statue of Buddha on the mountain top and made a stone engraving to record the merits and virtues of the Wei dynasty.”

v2.c13.s3.t2.61

There are more detailed descriptions in Xuanzang’s account of his travels: “Udyàna had an area of more than 5,000 *li* with mountains, valleys, rivers and lakes. Though they planted grain there, the oil there is not suitable. It had abundant grapes but there was little sugar cane. There was also gold and iron. It is suitable for tulip cultivation. The forests here were green and flowers and fruits were growing in profusion. The climate was comfortable. People here were timid, common and cunning. They were engaged in learning but not in physical labour and magic arts were popular. They respected Buddhism and believed in Mahayana.” There were many Chinese monks who travelled to the West who visited Udyana. Among them were Hui Jing, Dao Zheng, Hui Dai, Hui Chao, Dao Lin and Xuan Zhao.

v2.c13.s3.t2.62

(Ge Weijun)

v2.c13.s3.t2.63

Kamarupa

v2.c13.s3.t2.64

Kàmarupa was an ancient place in the eastern part of India, located in the western part of present-day’s Assam, encompassing the Brahmaputra Valley and surrounding areas. It was called Pràgjyotisha in the past and later the name was changed to Kàmarupa, also translated into Chinese as Jiamolu.

v2.c13.s3.t2.65

The epic *Mahabharata* mentions King Bhagadatta who ruled Prāgjyotiṣa. During the famous Kurukshetra War described in the epic, he was on the side of the Kauravas and was killed on the battlefield. Kàmarupa was founded in the 4ᵗʰ century CE by Pushyavarman, who used to be subservient to Samudragupta (reign 330–375 CE), the second emperor of the more powerful Gupta Dynasty. This dynasty lasted for 13 generations of emperors and became independent in the 6ᵗʰ century during the time of Bhutivarman. Its last emperor Bhàskaravarman was a contemporary of Harsha. He died around 650 CE and the kingdom changed hands afterwards. The governor of the new dynasty was Sàlastambha, the founder of the Mleccha Dynasty. In the 13ᵗʰ century, Ahoms from the east and Muslims from the west invaded, putting an end to this kingdom.

v2.c13.s3.t2.66

Tea gardens of Assam

v2.c13.s3.t2.67

Historically, Kàmarupa had been in close contact with China. The eminent Chinese monk, Xuanzang and the Tang envoy, Wang Xuance were both warmly received here. There is a detailed description of it in Xuanzang’s account. In it, he said, “Kàmarupa covered an area of thousands of *li* and the capital covered more than 30 *li*. The fields there were full of water and people sowed and reaped at the right time. There were many valuable trees, rivers and lakes crisscrossed the city. The air was gentle and pleasant and the people’s customs were simple. People were short and black and they believed in some gods rather than Buddhism.” There were also references to Kamarupa in *juan* 198 of the *Jiu Tang Shu* (*The Old Tang History*). It said: “There are tens of countries in ancient India, and their customs and local products are similar. There is a country called Jiamolu. There, the custom was to open the east door to face the sun. When Wang Xuance arrived there, the ruler despatched envoys to offer as tribute rare treasures and exotic things and maps, because he had received (from China) a statue of Lao-tzu and the (scripture) *Dao De Jing*.”

v2.c13.s3.t2.68

*(Ge Weijun)*

v2.c13.s3.t2.69

Kanchipuram

v2.c13.s3.t2.70

Kanchipuram, Huangzhi in Chinese records, was one of the seven holy cities of ancient India, and is situated in pres-day Tamil Nadu.

v2.c13.s3.t2.71

Kanchipuram used to be the capital of the Chola and Pallava kingdoms. It was an important academic town of Hinduism and Buddhism as well. Many splendid temples were built which attracted countless pilgrims. From the point of view of the history of maritime communications, Kanchipuram was also an important sea port. In the section on geography in the Chinese work, the *Han Shu* (*History of the Former Han Dynasty*), it is said: “from Fugandulu, if ships travelled for more than two months, (they would reach) Huangzhi, the folk customs of which were similar to Zhuya. It has been sending tribute since the time of Emperor Wu. There was a translator, distantly related to the (royal house), named Huangmen, who went to sea together with others he recruited to trade pearls, jewels, rare stones and exotic things and they took gold and silk with them. During the reign of the Emperor Ping when Wang Mang was regent, in order to show the power and virtue of his country, he generously rewarded the king of Huangzhi and asked the envoys to present him with live rhinoceros.” Thus, it can be seen that this place had trade relations with China since the Western Han dynasty and official diplomatic contacts as well. The famous Tang pilgrim Xuanzang visited this city and called it Kanchipura. In his account he wrote: “Kanchipura is also known

v2.c13.s3.t2.72

Indian Hindu Temple, Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu

v2.c13.s3.t2.73

as Anagarika Dharmapala…. not very far in the south of the city is a large temple. People there are bright and farsighted and are outstanding.” Hui Li also said in his *Biography of San Zang of Da Ci’en Temple* that “Kanchipura is a sea port in the south of India and is only three days to Sri Lanka by sea.”

v2.c13.s3.t2.74

*(Ge Weijun)*

v2.c13.s3.t2.75

Purushapura (now Peshawar)

v2.c13.s3.t2.76

Purushapura was a city in the northwestern part of ancient India. Many Chinese Buddhist monks passed through here frequently when they went westward on pilgrimage. Purushapura was also known in Chinese as Fulousha, Bulushabuluo, Fuliushafuluo and Fuloushafuluo and it had also a Chinese name based on the translation of the name ‘Purushapura’ (city of men) – Zhangfucheng.

v2.c13.s3.t2.77

According to the textual sources, the old location of Fulousha was to the northwest of Peshàwar, a city located in the northern part of present-day Pakistan, and it was the capital and major commercial city of the state of Gandhara. Kanishka, the king of the Kushàna empire and devout follower of Buddhism, moved his capital here and built a big tower in the city. As an important Buddhist cultural centre, the place was also famous for Buddha’s bowl and the peepal (Bodhi) tree. When Faxian reached here during the Eastern Jin Dynasty in 402 CE, Buddhism was still flourishing here. He recorded the local legend about Buddha’s bowl, its shape and structure and the miraculous feature: “(the bowl) can hold two *dou*\* and have different colours, which are mainly black. The bowl is glossy and has distinct edges with a thickness of 0.5 cm to 0.7 cm. The poor could fill the bowl with fewer coins while the rich might not be able to fill it with a million or even ten million coins”. The Chinese Baoyun, Sengjing and others had also visited Purushapura to make offerings to the Buddha bowl and then returned to China. Song Yun, the envoy of the Northern Wei dynasty, also visited here.

v2.c13.s3.t2.78

*Nirvana Buddha Statue, now in possession of Peshawar Museum, Pakistan*

v2.c13.s3.t2.79

However, by the time the Tang monk Xuanzang arrived, the country already presented a desolate scene: “(Gandhara)’s capital Purushapura is more than 40 *li*\*\* in circumference... The city has very little cultivation with only a few residents. However, in a corner of the palace grounds, there are thousands of

v2.c13.s3.t2.80

*Boddhisatva Sculpture, now in possession of Peshawar Museum, Pakistan.*

v2.c13.s3.t2.81

households with many crops, countless flowers and fruits, and much jaggery produced from sugar cane. The weather is either warm or hot and there is little frost and snow. People here are cowardly and like to study classics and crafts; instead of believing in the proper dharma, they follow paganism”. As for the Buddha’s bowl, he said: “There is an ancient stylobate in the northeast of the capital city and reportedly the stand of Buddha’s bowl. After the Nirvana of Tathagata, his bowl was brought into this kingdom, offerings were made in accordance with the rule of the dharma and (this practice of making offerings) spread to all other kingdoms around...” About the peepal tree, Xuanzang recorded that “location of the tree is about eight or nine *li* away from the southeast of the capital city... the height of the tree is over one hundred *chi*\*\*\*. The branches and leaves are luxuriant and well-spaced and cast thick shadows”. He paid a visit to Kaniska’s stupa as well, and had descriptions of it and related legends. In addition, Purushapura was also the hometown of Asaïga, the founder of the Yogacara School of Indian Mahayana Buddhism, and of the Vasubandhu brothers.

v2.c13.s3.t2.82

\*A unit of volume, 1 *dou* = 10 litre) \*\*A unit of length, 1 *li* = 500 metre) \*\*\*A unit of length, 1 *chi* = 3.33 cm)

v2.c13.s3.t2.83

(Ge Weijun)

v2.c13.s3.t2.84

Kollam (Quilon)

v2.c13.s3.t2.85

Kollam is a city in Kerala on the southwest coast of India where numerous ancient Chinese envoys and merchants once visited. In Chinese, it is referred to as Gulin.

v2.c13.s3.t2.86

Kollam, (formerly Quilon), as a crucial trans-shipment port of trade between China and Arab region, was recorded in many ancient Chinese works but with different names. For example, it was called Coran in *‘juan’* 490 of the Song History, Kollam in Zhou Qufei’s *Ling Wai Dai Da* and Zhao Rushi’s *Zhu Fan Zhi*, Julan in *juan* 210 of the Yuan History, and Small Gelan in *juan* 304 of the Ming History, Ma Huan’s *Yingya Shenglan* and Gong Zhen’s *Records of Countries of the Western Oceans of Ming Dynasty*.

v2.c13.s3.t2.87

As described in the *Ling Wai Dai Da*, Kollam locals had dark skin, straight hair and beards and they often wore white cloth and red leather shoes. In normal times, they liked to practice archery and in wartime, they bound their hair with colourful cloth. The king also used to wrap a cloth around himself. He sometimes rode an elephant when going out. According to this work, people in this state believed in Buddhism. Many Arabs lived there. According to the *Zhu Fan Zhi*, Kollam was abounded with coconut and logwood. The wine there was brewed with honey and coconut flower juice. The Yuan government attached great importance to the state of Julan. The Yuan History records that “only Maabar (Zhunian in the southeast of India, that is, the Chola state) and Julan can lead all nations but Julan is the protector of Maabar.” Kublai Khan once sent Yang Tingbi and others to visit Julan. In March 1282, Kollam sent an envoy to the Yuan.

v2.c13.s3.t2.88

Coconut Grove in Kollam

v2.c13.s3.t2.89

In the Ming period, Zheng He sailed west seven times and visited Kollam. Ma Huan, who accompanied Zheng He, said in the *Yingya Shenglan* that this state was surrounded by the sea on four sides, was bounded by hills in the east and was narrow at the northern and southern ends. Its people believed in Buddhism and worshipped cows and elephants. It had various fruits and vegetables and different kinds of cattle and sheep. The sheep had green fur and long feet and stood two or three feet tall; the cattle weighed three or four hundred jin. Many people engaged in selling butter and people mixed their food with butter. They usually had two meals a day. ‘*Juan* 326 of the Ming History’ notes that Small Gelan bordered on Kochi. In spite of poor lands and low incomes, the people were honest and warm-hearted. Pearl umbrellas, white cotton cloth and pepper were exported to China. In the fifth year of Yongle (1407), Kollam is recorded as having sent an envoy to China to pay tribute, and the Ming court presented silk, sheer leno fabric and other gifts to its king.

v2.c13.s3.t2.90

(Ge Weijun)

v2.c13.s3.t2.91

Bengala

v2.c13.s3.t2.92

Bengala is the name of an ancient Indian state located in Bangladesh and West Bengal area of India today.

v2.c13.s3.t2.93

This country was often mentioned in Chinese historical records. It was called “Panqi” in *Hou Han Shu*. Zhao Rushi, tiju of the foreign trade bureau of Quanzhou in the Southern Song Dynasty wrote *Chufan Chih* in the first year of Baoqing of Emperor Lizong, and in this book he called the country “Pengjialuo”, “the western Pengjialuo, the capital was Chanaxi, covering an area of 120 li, people there were very competitive and good at robbing. They grinded white shells as money and locally produced treasured swords and tula-cotton cloth.” Folk voyager in Yuan Dynasty, Wang Dayuan wrote *Island Tribes Chronicles*, which recorded what he saw and heard abroad. In this book, the country was called Pengjiala. He said that this place “the five ridges were towering, forests were luxuriant and people lived together. They lived on farming so there was no free land in the wild, and the fields were very pretty. They harvested grains three times each year, and the products there were very cheap……. The custom there was very pure…… and the tax was 20%.” In *Xing Cha Sheng Lan* by Fei Xin and *Ying Ya Sheng Lan* by Ma Huan, this place was called “Banggela”. Fei Xin had been abroad four times from the seventh year of Yongle to the sixth year of Xuande, and in his records he said, “In the 10th and the 13th year of Yongle, for twice Hou Xian and other leaders commanded the fleet under upper command and held the command of the emperor in hands, awarded the king, the princess consort and the chief officials. At the seaport of the country there was a port called Chadi Port and was established with tax office. Its king knew that Chinese ships arrived at their country, so he despatched troops to take clothes and other things to welcome them.” There were also sharp observation and records of the local custom, “the custom of that country was very pure, men wore decorating brocade around their heads, and wore long white gowns and gold thread sheepskin boots and they were very gentle. For the trade, though there might be large profit, but they should never regret once the price was determined.”

v2.c13.s3.t2.94

A picture of the book ‘Ying ya Shenglan’

v2.c13.s3.t2.95

His description revealed the praise over the pure folk custom.

v2.c13.s3.t2.96

In volume 304 of the “History of Ming Dynasty” it is said that after Hou Xian visited Bengala, the ruler of the time Saifuddin sent kylin and other local artifacts as tributes which pleased the Ming Emperor Chengzu. Later, Saifuddin sent envoys several times to the western marshland which is located in Jaunpur area of present-day Uttar Pradesh, to persuade the ruler to invade. During the 18th year of Yongle reign (1420), Hou Xian visited this country again and gifted the ruler with gold coins and later withdrew all his troops. This was the dawn of good neighbourly friendship in this area.

v2.c13.s3.t2.97

Kochi

v2.c13.s3.t2.98

Kochi (formerly Cochin) is an important port on the southwest coast of India. In the 15th century in particular, the country had regular intercourse with China. *Juan* 326 of the *History of Ming Dynasty* refers to Kochi as being in the southwestern part of India, near the sea, with a tropical climate, abundant natural resources, rare treasures from the sea and dense forests. It said that no wild beasts were to be found in its mountains and there were very few species of poisonous fish in the river. Being fond of eating fish and softshell turtles, people there were said to be mild in temperament and not prone to fighting; old people loved children and young people respected the old, all living in peace. The *Xingcha Shenglan* written by Fei Xin presents a vivid description of this country. He said that the local people were pure and honest, they wore short gowns consisting of a single cloth wrapped around and some people also used leaves and grass for clothing. Some lived in houses while others lived in caves or trees, fishing for a living. *Yingya Shenglan* written by Ma Huan has a more detailed record, pointing out that "the country has mountains on the east and the sea on the west". The mountains are obviously the Western Ghats. It pointed out that people used coconut wood for building their houses

v2.c13.s3.t2.99

Chinese fishing nets used in Kochi, passed on to India during the Ming Dynasty by Zheng He's sailor fleet

v2.c13.s3.t2.100

and coconut fronds for the roof. Brick and mud were used to build storehouses for the storage of expensive clothing and other valuables and to prevent them from fire and theft. However, it also claimed that the king believed in Buddhism, respected elephants and cattle, built Buddhist shrines and erected a copper Buddha statue, building a ditch around the base of the statue. After the bell and drum were sounded in the morning, people used to get water from well to water the statue from top thrice, and then, only after worshipping it, they used to leave. The work *Records of Travelling to the West* written by Gong Zhen has a similar account of the place.

v2.c13.s3.t2.101

In the first year of Yongle (1403), the Ming ruler sent the official Yin Qing to visit Kochi with an imperial edict, and presented the king with silk fabrics, coloured silks and a canopy, among other things. In the sixth year of Yongle, famous admiral Zheng He was sent to the country. Three years later, the king of Kochi, referred to as Keyili in the Chinese records, sent an envoy to China. The following year, he visited the country again and then Kochi sent envoys to China for two successive years. Later, when Zheng He made another visit, the Ming Emperor wrote some inscriptions and ordered him to inscribe them on rock there to publicise the emperor's benevolence. In 1430, 1,433 and 1,436 envoys were again exchanged between Kochi and China. During He's seven voyages, Kochi was one of the places where he would regularly halt for supplies of food and water and to trade. Sometimes, he waited there for the monsoon winds to arrive. There appear to have been other Chinese also present in Kochi at the time who welcomed the arrival of He's fleet. There is some evidence that Kochi once had a Chinese temple. It is said that the gold and iron statue of an official of the Ming Dynasty found in southern India in recent years was a statue of Zheng He erected by these Chinese in Kochi.

v2.c13.s3.t2.102

(Ge Weijun)

v2.c13.s3.t2.103

Varanasi

v2.c13.s3.t2.104

Varanasi (also Benaras or Kashi), on the banks of river Ganges in Uttar Pradesh, is one of the most ancient living cities of the world – having archaeological and written records of its continuing existence from about the end of second millennium BCE. Bound by the river Varuna and Asi in the north and south, it derived its name, Varanasi (Varuna + Asi). Its half-moon like location on the banks of holy river Ganges has from time immemorial added to its unique charm. Known as the city standing on the trident of Lord Shiva, its fame as one of the holiest and most reputed abodes of knowledge attracted people from all over India as well as visitors from far off. All the famous Chinese travellers in the past visited the city at one time or the other. Its cosmopolitan character has turned it into a microcosm of India. It is known as the "cultural capital of India" or "the bliss city of salvation".

v2.c13.s3.t2.105

Originally, Varanasi was the capital of the ancient kingdom of Kashi. After the dissolution of the kingdom, the name Kashi also became the name of the capital city. In the Puranas, it has been mentioned as Avimukta Kshetra, Mahashamshan, etc. For a very brief time during the era of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb, it was also called Mahmudabad. The name Kashi originated from the name of the 7th king of the first local dynasty, King Kasa.

v2.c13.s3.t2.106

The earliest known dynasty which ruled over Kashi claimed its descent from Manu. Among the notable kings of this dynasty, besides Kasa, were Dhanvantri, Divodas I, Pratardana, etc. Around the time of the Mahabharat awar, Kashi/Varanasi came under the control of the legendary King Jarasandh which resulted in the kings of Kashi siding with the Pandavas in the great war. This was followed by a line of King Brahmadutta, mentioned in the Jataka stories. They ruled over Kashi in the early centuries of the first millennium BCE. Later, Kashi became a bone of contention between the kingdoms of Magadh and Kosala. After the death of Bimbisar of Magadh, his son Ajatsatru was defeated by Prasenjit of Kosala in a long drawn war. The wedding of Prasenjit’s daughter with Ajatsatru, however, kept Kashi under the Magadhs and it remained so during the time of the Nandas, the Mauryas, the Sungas and the Guptas except for a short period when the Kausambi kingdom and Kushanas had sway over it. After the Guptas, the Maukaharis and the Vardhanas of Kannauj controlled it. During the 8^th century, the tripartite struggle between the Pratiharas, Rashtrakutas and Palas frequently led to shifts in the control over Kashi. Finally, the Pratihars were able to hold it until the 10^th century. They were followed by the Chedis and Ghadwals during periods of anarchy in the Gangetic plain.

v2.c13.s3.t2.107

Beginning with the 13^th century, Varanasi came under the Muslim rulers and began to be known as Benaras. It was dominated until the 14^th century by the Turko-Afghans. The Sharqi kings of Jaunpur and the Lodhis ruled over it in the 15^th century. Later, the Surs and Mughals frequently fought for its control. It was finally captured by Akbar in 1567. The Mughals controlled it until 1725 when the Nawab of Awadh handed over the revenue directly to Mansaram, founder of the present ruling family of Kashi. His son, Balwant Singh, rebelled against Awadh and established an independent kingdom. In 1794, it came under the British rule but the descendants of the ruling family were allowed to continue as the zamindars and nominal kings. After Independence, Kashi/Varanasi became a division of the state of Uttar Pradesh.

v2.c13.s3.t2.108

In spite of a very disjointed political history, the city had been reputed as the abode for knowledge since early times. Immensely contributing to the literature, music, art and culture of India, it has been closely linked with ancient Hindu, Buddhist and Jain religious traditions and until today continues to be one of their foremost centres of pilgrimage. Its support for new and radical currents of thought attracted scholars from near and far to this city. It was from the beginning a sacred place linked to Siva, a non-Vedic deity, as well as to the non-Brahamanical Yaksha-Naga cult, all of which were later added in

v2.c13.s3.t2.109

*Ghats of the River Ganges, Varanasi*

v2.c13.s3.t2.110

the Hindu pantheon. During the time of Ajatsatru, the famous Brahmin scholar Gargya Balki was overwhelmed by the philosophical discussions that took place here. Also, Gautam Buddha came here to deliver his first sermon which founded the basis of Buddhism.

v2.c13.s3.t2.111

By the 7^th century, Kashi’s fame surpassed that of its rival Taxila. Xuanzang (spelling different in different entries), the 7^th century Chinese traveller-monk, was awe-struck by the devotion to learning in Varanasi. He found numerous temples and scholar-devotees of both Siva and Buddha. In the adjacent Sarnath, about 1,500 Buddhist monks resided in monasteries. The 23^rd Tirthankar of the Jainas, Parshvanath Muni was of the King of Varanasi, Asvasen. In the 8^th century, the great scholar-philosopher Adi Sanakaracharya established his abode here and wrote his famous commentary on Vedant Sutra. Commentators on Hindu Dharmasastra like Lakshmidhara Bhatta (Krityakalpataru), scholar of poetics Panditraj Jagannath (Rasgangadhara) and many such others belonged to Varanasi. With the influx of pundits from Maharashtra and Karnataka, the study of nyaya (Hindu law), advaita (vedant) and sahitya (literature) greatly flourished here. Alberuni and Prabodhachandrodaya refer to the high reputation of the city. Just a few among the list of great literary scholars linked with Kashi were Ramanand, Kabirdas, Raidas and Tulsidas in the medieval period and Bhartendu Harishchandra, Jaishankar Prasad and Premchand in the modern times.

v2.c13.s3.t2.112

*Ganges River Festival*

v2.c13.s3.t2.113

*University campus of the Benaras Hindu University*

v2.c13.s3.t2.114

*Bathing on the banks of Ganges, India*

v2.c13.s3.t2.115

Besides being a sacred place and knowledge centre, Varanasi has been also noted as a prosperous city on account of its arts and crafts, trade and commerce. Located on the important trade routes, it was famous for its textiles, perfumes, pottery and ivory works. The Sarnath School of Sculpture produced the statues of soft and beautiful preaching Buddha which was praised by the world-renowned art historian AK Coomaraswami as one of the three best sculptures of the world. The influence of this school spread as far as to pre-Angkor Cambodia. Similarly, in the field of music and dance, Varanasi developed its own style.

v2.c13.s3.t2.116

The city has continued to uphold its reputation with now four universities (namely Banaras Hindu University, Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapeeth, Sampoornanand Sanskrit Vishwavidyalaya, Institute of Tibetan Higher Studies), the Arabic University, and scores of educational institutions focussing on the most ancient to modern learnings and covering various branches of knowledge ranging from art, music and literature to the science. It is the place of hundreds of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples of all sects—the most famous being the Vishwanath Temple (7th century) and the Mahadev Temple (recognised as the oldest surviving temple of the Gupta period), numerous ghats (embankments on the river) with each having its own special characteristics, famous brocade work and saris, wooden toys and not the least its paan (betel leaves). The mere linking of the name Banaras, Varanasi or Kashi to an object, profession or art evinces special characteristics, and there is perhaps no other city which is reputed to flavours of so many elements of the society.

v2.c13.s3.t2.117

(*Kamal Sheel*)

v2.c13.s3.t2.118

Madras (now Chennai)

v2.c13.s3.t2.119

Madras was the name of present-day Chennai, the fourth largest city of India, situated on its southeast coast. The name refers both to the former Madras Province or Madras Presidency of British-ruled India as well as to its capital city. The larger Madras Presidency included the present-day state of Tamil Nadu, the Malabar region of northern Kerala, coastal Andhra Pradesh and Rayalseema, as well as some parts of Odisha, Karnataka and the Lakshwadeep islands. The city of Madras grew out of the trading settlement established by the British East India Company as Fort St George in 1640. As such, it played a role in the British and Indian trade with Southeast Asia and China in the early modern era. In earlier centuries as well, this part of India (known as the Coromandel Coast) had extensive trading contacts with China, especially under the Chola rulers. The Government Museum at Egmore in Chennai today houses three important collections of Chinese coins unearthed in nearby parts of Tamil Nadu that testify the importance of trade with China in that period.

v2.c13.s3.t2.120

Although its trading links with China were not as extensive as those of Calcutta (Kolkata) and Bombay (Mumbai), Madras was also one of the ports from which trade with China and Southeast Asia was carried on from the seventeenth century. Binny & Co was one of the early firms trading with China from Madras. A letter from the British agency house at Canton, Magniac & Co., to Binny & Co dated December 31, 1830 mentions that “the stock of Madras cotton here now is large”. It further says that “Howqua, the senior Hong merchant, is the only holder and having the market under his command, is realising a profit on his recent purchases from the company, which were made at 8.8 Taels per picul. Good Tinnively cotton would always be safe if purchased on terms that would not exceed nine Taels per picul but should not be bought if the cost and charges exceed 10 Taels.” There is also a reference to the existence of a ‘China Bazar’ along the northern walls of Fort St George in records dating back to 1758. It is presumed that Chinese porcelain was sold in this bazar.

First 120 of 167 passages. Read on

Linked texts (12)