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A History of the Canonical Literature of the Jainas c11: Chapter VII. Comparison and Evaluation

A History of the Canonical Literature of the Jainas c11

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English

Chapter VII. Comparison and Evaluation

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The Jaina contributions are vast, varied and valuable. They have enriched in no small measure the treasures of the Indian literature. But, even then, till recently, their value was not probably realized.¹ The Jaina contributions have many new things to suggest; but this requires a deep and scientific study. This is borne out by Prof. Winternitz who sounded a clarion call and

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¹ Prof. A. Weber has said very little about the Jaina literature in his famous *Lectures on the History of Indian Literature* (2nd German edn., 1876). But that was not his fault; for, it may be ascribed to the state of knowledge at that time. He made up this deficiency by giving a splendid account of the Jaina literature in the "Indische Studien" vols. XVI and XVII (1883-85) and in his Reports on Jaina Mss. in the Royal Library at Berlin (1888-91). He was the very pioneer of the Jaina Studies in Europe.

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"The brilliant and much-red book on the Literature and Culture of India by *Leopold von Schrader*, published in 1887, devotes half a page to the sect of the Jainas without even mentioning anything about Jaina literature."

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This is what is said by Prof. Winternitz in *The Jainas in the History of Indian Literature* published in "Indian Culture" (vol. I, No. 2, p. 148).

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*History of Sanskrit Literature* by the late Prof. A. A. Macdonell, published in 1900 has nothing to say about the Jaina literature.—*Ibid.*, p. 143.

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A. Baumgartner in his learned compilation *Die Literaturen Indiens und Ostasiens* (forming a part of a voluminous *Geschichte der Weltliteratur*, 3rd and 4th edn, 1902) devotes 4 pages to the Jainas and their literature, and winds up this topic by quoting the following line from E. Washburn Hopkin's *Religions of India* (Boston, 1895, p. 296 f.):—

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"The Jainas have no literature worthy of that name."—*Ibid.*, p. 148.

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R. W. Frazer in his *Literary History of India* (1898) has well pointed out on p. 310 f., the great influence the Jainas have exercised on the Dravidian literature of the south India but he has nothing to say about Jaina literature and its place in the Samskṛta and Prākṛta literature of India. —*Ibid.*, p. 144

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H. Oldenburg in *Die Literatur des alten Indien*, published in 1903 disposes of the Jainas in three lines.—*Ibid.*, pp. 143-144.

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awakened us from lethargy by contributing his scholarly quota-writing 172 pages on the religious literature of the *Jainas* in his marvellous work "*A History of Indian Literature*" vol. II. He says:-

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"In the English translation of Vol. II of my 'History of Indian Literature' which has been just published, I had to devote 172 pages to Jaina literature. But I have treated in these pages only the religious literature, while reserving the non-religious poetical and scientific literature of the Jainas to the third volume of my book. I am, however, fully aware that I was not able to do full justice to the literary achievements of the Jainas. But I hope to have shown that the Jainas have contributed their full share to the religious, ethical, poetical, and scientific literature of ancient India." -*Ibid.*, p. 144.

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The subject that I have selected for this book debars me from entering the majestic domain of the non-canonical literature¹ of the *Jainas* on the one hand, and the magnificent archive of their religious literature (which for some reason or other could not be completely included in the canonical literature), on the other.

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¹ This topic has been discussed by me in *A Comprehensive History of the non-canonical Literature of the Jainas*, but this work can be published only after the war is over.

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With these preliminary remarks I shall proceed to examine the relative value of the canonical literature of the *Jainas* - a subject which has been incidentally hinted at, in the foregoing chapters.

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*Languages* - To begin with, we may take a survey of the linguistic field. Prākṛta as a language holds no insignificant a place therein. It has several varieties², Pāli, Addhamāgahī and Soraṣeṇī being some of them. Just as we owe the existence of the Pāli literature to the *Bauddhas* and that of Avesta and Pahlavi to the *Zoroastrians*, so for the varied and vivid specimens of the Addhamāgahī literature, we are grateful to the *Jainas*. As a crest-jewel of Addhamāgahī specimens I may mention *Ayāra* (I, 1). To my mind, its reading appears as if the very words of the first sermon delivered by Lord Mahāvīra or by his first apostle Indrabhūti are embodied herein; for, I notice here that there is sublimity in thought, serenity in expression and veracity in words. In short it is a panacea for the afflicted and aspirants after truth.

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² See Dr. S. M. Katre's article *Names of Prakrit Languages* published in "*A Volume of Indian and Iranian Studies presented to Sir E. Denison Ross, Kt., C. I. E.*"

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Had the *Jainas* not resorted to Addhamāgahī language and developed and preserved it as they have done, perhaps we would not have been in a position to explain some of the forms and words occurring in the *Rg-Veda*, *Śuklayajuḥprātiśākhya*, *Atharva-saṃhitā*, *Taittirīyasaṃhitā*, *Vājasaneyisaṃhitā*, *Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa*, *Gopatha Brāhmaṇa*, *Taittirīya āraṇyaka* etc.¹

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¹ For illustrations see *Pāia-sadda-mahaṇṇava* (vol. IV, intro., p. 11). Dr. P. D. Gune's *An Introduction to Comparative Philology* (p. 192) may be also consulted.

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Now a word about Apabhraṃśa language. It appears that the Apabhraṃśa literature consists mostly of the *Jaina* works, those composed by the non-*Jainas* being few and far between. Hemacandra Sūri is the Pāṇini of Apabhraṃśa grammar, and he has quoted several verses from the works of his predecessors. It remains to be ascertained if the following verse occurring in Śīlāṅka Sūri's com. (p. 107) on *Sūyagaḍa* is found in any of his works:-

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कोद्वायओ को समचित्तु
काहोऽवणाहिं काहो दिज्जउ वित्त ।
को उग्घाडउ परिहियउ परिणीयउ को व कुमारु
पडियउ जीव खडप्फडेहिं बंधइ पावइ भारु ।"

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Probably the following verse, too, occurs in this com. "वरि विस खइयं न विसयसुहु इक्कसि विसिन मरंति । विसयाविस पुण घारिया णर णरएहिं वि पडंति ॥"

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These verses help us to some extent in fixing the period of the origin of Apabhraṃśa literature, though it may be argued that the very fact that the Addhamāgahī language also known as Ārṣa and Ṛṣibhāṣita is defined as one consisting of 18 *Desī bhāṣās* distinctly suggests that Apabhraṃśa is very very old and can be said to have its origin at least as early as the composition of the *Jaina* canon.

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I may now turn to the Saṃskṛta language. We do not come across any *Jaina* canonical treatise which is written in Saṃskṛta; but, if we can believe that the *Puvvas* were composed in Saṃskṛta (vide p. 89), their bulk can speak volumes about the *Jaina* contributions in Saṃskṛta. But, as these *Puvvas* are now extinct, I may refer to the *Cuṇṇis* and *Samskṛta* commentaries on the canonical treatises. Just as in the *Vaidika* mythology, we hear about the *Nṛsiṃha avatāra* (the 4th incarnation) of *Viṣṇu* and about *Ardhanārīśvara rūpa* (form) of *Mahādeva*, so in the *Cuṇṇis* almost in every sentence we come across a portion in *Prākṛta*¹ followed by a portion in *Samskṛta*. This hybrid as some might term it, is probably due to the transitional period when an attempt was slowly but surely being made to compose the *Jaina* exegetical canonical literature in *Samskṛta* and not in *Prākṛta* as before. Is there any parallel instance of this type anywhere else?

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¹ At times this presents some features to be had in the *Śaurasenī* language.

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*Samskṛta* language has been freely and fairly resorted to by Haribhadra Sūri and other saints who followed him, while they were engaged in composing *Samskṛta* commentaries on the *Jaina* canon. These commentaries and the *Samskṛta* quotations occurring in *Cuṇṇis* enrich the *Samskṛta* literature.

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In the end I may say that the *Gujarātī* commentaries on the *Āgamas* are very helpful for the study of the old Gujarati language.

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*Intonation*—It seems that most of the people are under the impression that intonation is associated with the *Vedas* only, so far as the Indian literature is concerned. But it is not so; for, in *Aṇuogaddāra* (s. 151) we find the word *ghosa* used while defining this *sutta* and while indicating as to how it should be pronounced. This word *ghosa* meaning *udāttādisvaraviśeṣa* occurs in *Vavahāra* (X), too. In *Tattvārtha* which is a compendium of a portion of the preachings of *Arhat* as stated in its *Bhāṣyakārikā* (v. 22) we have in IX, 25, the word *āmnāya*. It is explained as under in its *Bhāṣya* (p. 258):—

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“ आम्नायो घोषविशुद्धं परिवर्तनं गुणनं, रूपादानमित्यर्थः। ”

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Siddhasena Gaṇi while commenting upon it observes on p. 258:

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“ आम्नायोऽपि परिवर्तनं उदात्तादिपरिशुद्धमनुभावणीयमभ्यासविशेषः।”

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From this it will be clear that *udātta*, *anudātta* and *svarita* are associated with the canonical literature of the Jainas, too; but, strange to say that neither do we come across any *Jaina* Mss.

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of these works indicating udātta etc., nor do we find any Jaina saint reciting their holy scriptures by paying attention to udātta etc.

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*Versified commentaries*—A work may be either in prose or in verse. Usually the text is in prose, and at times it is in verse. But, probably a versified commentary is a novelty, and the fact that we have at least two versified commentaries¹ on one and the same text of the Jainas, is still a greater novelty. For, I do not think that in the Indian literature there is any parallel to this feature of the Jaina literature.

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¹ One of them is a Nijjutti and the other a Bhāsa or at times Bhāsas. 2 These occur in Śūdraka’s Mṛcchakaṭika (Act I, v. 18, 21, 23 etc.). 3 Cf. “नानादेशविनयगणसमोहार्थमागमे दुमपर्यायशब्दान् प्रतिपादयन्नाह” —Haribhadra’s com. (p. 17ᵇ) on Dasaveyāliya. 4 Cf. the following verse of Kappanijjutti:— “बंधाणुलोमा खलु सुत्तम्मि य लाघवं असम्मोहो। सथ्यगुणदीवणा वि य एगट्ठगुणा हवंति॥१७३॥” 5 “सुय सुत्त गंथ सिद्धंत सासणे आण वयण उवएसो। पणवणमागमे इय एगट्ठा पज्जवा सुत्ते॥१७४॥” In v. 179 the etymology of siddhanta (scripture) is given, and in v. 181-183 4 types of a scripture are outlined. 6 See Haribhadra Suri’s com. (p. 17ᵇ) on Dasaveyaliya.

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*Synonyms*²—We have already noticed that egaṭṭha is one of the features of Nijjutti, and it should be so; for, otherwise a commentary is not worth the name. A thing or a point gets correctly understood, when synonyms are suggested.³ This is one of the reasons⁴ why even in the original texts we find at times words practically having the same meaning used in one and the same sentence. Some of the Buddha texts may be cited as parallels. The egaṭṭhas of several words are referred to in Chapter VI. To this list may be added egaṭṭhas of nikkhera (v. 150), sutta (v. 174⁵), anuoga (v. 187) and vihi (v. 208) given in Kappanijjutti above referred to.

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Some scholars go to the length of suggesting that the egaṭṭha we come across in the Nijjuttis is a progenitor of lexicography. If so, it immensely adds to the value of the canonical literature of the Jainas. I may add that at times the synonyms are purely Deśya words,⁶ and hence they are very useful for the study of languages of olden India.

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*Nikkheva*—*Nikkheva* is another constituent of *Nijjutti*, and it seems to be a special feature of the *Jaina* literature. I think it owes its origin to *anekāntavāda* popularly known as *syādvāda*. It leaves no room for confusion so far as metaphysical discussions are concerned. For, every object is denoted by a word, and every word is usually seen to be used in four senses viz. *nāman*, *sthāpanā*, *dravya* and *bhāva*. Out of them *dravya* has further varieties, and they are to be met with, in several *Jaina* works e. g. *Aṇuogadāra* (s. 8-27). Here the word *āvassaya* is discussed, and all the varieties pertaining to it are noticed therein.

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*Nirutta*—*Nirukta* is an etymological interpretation. It is a name of one of the six *Vedāṅgas*, and it contains glossarial explanation of obscure words occurring in the *Vedas*. It is also a name of Yāska's com. on the *Nighaṇṭu*; but it may be noted that this is not the name given by Yāska himself. This topic of *nirukta* (Pr. *nirutta*) is discussed in *Aṇuogaddāra* (s. 130; p. 150ᵃ) etc. Some of the words for which *niruttas* occur in *Nijjuttis* are noted by me in Chapter VI. So I shall here simply add that in v. 188 of *Kappanijjutti* with its *Bhāsa*, *nirutta* is defined, and its two varieties viz. *sutta-nirutta* and *attha-niruta* are mentioned, and in v. 29-30 of *Dasaveyāliyanijjutti*² the word *ajjhayaṇa* is derived. All the extant *Nijjuttis* more or less indulge in the discussion of *niruttas*. So it will be a matter of great pleasure, if some one undertakes to collect and co-ordinate them; for, it will be then easy to compare these etymologies with ones discussed elsewhere. This is another instance how the Indian literature gets enriched by *Jaina* contributions.

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² Haribhadra Sūri in his com. on this work mentions etymologies of some words e. g, धर्म (p. 21ᵃ), विपय (p. 22ᵃ), चरित्र (p. 23ᵃ), श्रमण (p. 23ᵃ) etc.

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*Grammar*—The canonical literature furnishes us with some grammatical information, which has its own importance¹, though it does not by any means add to our stock of knowledge by way of an original contribution. To begin with, Āyāra (II, 4, 1; s. 355) mentions 3 numbers, 3 genders, 3 tenses and 3 persons. Ṭhāṇa (s. 609) deals with 8 cases and their functions. The pertinent portion occurs almost ad verbatim in Aṇuogaddāra (s. 128). This latter work notes in s. 130 bhāvappaṃāṇa and its 4 varieties viz. sāmāsiya, taddhiya, dhāuya and niruttiya. Under the 1st variety, 7 kinds of compounds are noted along with their illustrations. The 2nd variety is eight-fold. Herein while explaining siloāṇāma Maladhārin Hemacandra Sūri says that since Śabdaprābhṛta is extinct, it is not possible to explain it in its entirety. Under the 3rd variety we have “भू सत्तायां परस्मैभाषा एध वृद्धौ” etc., whereas under the 4th we have etymologies attended to e. g. “मयां शेते महिष:” etc. This portion is to some extent in Saṃskṛta which is rather unusual. In s. 123 there is an exposition of genders and the corresponding endings (see pp. 111ᵇ-112ᵇ), and in s. 124 that of euphony. Verse 325 of Kappanijjutti mixed up with its Bhāsa mentions 5 types² of paya - a topic discussed in s. 125 of Aṇuogaddāra, and v. 326, 4 types of payattha such as sāmāsiya etc., already noted. In the com. (p. 3) to v. 2 of this work, it is noted that certain³ letters and the dual number have no place in Prākṛta whereas in the com. (p. 99) on v. 326, are given the names of 7 kinds of compounds along with their examples, 8 varieties of taddhita etc. Koṭyācārya in his com. (p. 129) on Visesa° quotes a verse⁴ whereby we learn that in Prākṛta, the dual number is represented by the plural, and the dative case is replaced by the genitive.⁵

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¹ The *nikkevas* of several words have been already noted. So it will suffice if I add that those of *maṅgala*, *inda*, *nandi*, *suya*, *sutta*, *gantha* and *vayana* are treated in *Kappanijjutti* mixed up with its *Bhāsa* in its verses 5, 12-15, 24, 175-177, 178, 178 and 185 respectively.

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¹ For instance, it is in Prākṛta. Bharata's Nātyaśāstra (XVII, pp. 367-369) is another example of this type; for, it mentions in Prākṛta some characteristics of this language. Further the Āgamas give us an idea about concord in Prākṛta works-a topic discussed by Prof. A. M. Ghatage in his article entitled Concord in Prakrit Syntax and published in the "Annals of B. O. R. I" (vol. XXI, pts. I-II, pp. 73-96).

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² "नाम निवाउवसग्गं अक्वाइय मिस्सयं च नायव्वं । पंचविहं होइ पयं लक्खणकारेहिं निदिट्ठं ॥३२५॥"

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³ See Visesa° (v. 3455). It begins with "एत्थ भयंतईणं"

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⁴ Its 2nd foot is quoted by Haribhadra Sūri in his com. (p. 1ᵇ) on Dasaveyāliya.

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⁵ For details see my article Grammatical topics in Paiya to be published hereafter.

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Poetics—As noted on p. 161 *Aṇuogaddāra* (s. 130) mentions 9 *kāvyarasas* along with their illustrations. Therein the mention of *velaṇāa* as one of the *rasas* seems to be unique¹. Incidentally I may state that *Thāṇa* supplies us with a lot of *upamās*, and various descriptions² occurring in the *Āgamas* show the poetical ability of the authors concerned.

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¹ For details see my article “वेलाण रस” published in *Mānasī* (vol. VI, No. 1, pp. 19-24).

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² Some of these are noted in the foregoing pages. To these may be added the description of Kaochulla Nārada given in *Nāyādhammakahā* (I, XVI; s. 122) and that of a person to be executed in *Vivāgasuya* (II; § 37).

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Sutta—Leaving aside the 1st *suyakkhandha* of *Sūyagaḍa* and the 6th *ajjhayaṇa* of its 2nd *suyakkhandha*, and several *ajjhayaṇas* of *Uttarajjhayaṇa* and some of the *Paiṇṇagas*, we have the rest of the *Jaina* canon mostly written in prose. They consist of small sentences which are styled as *sūtras*³ (*Pr. suttas*), and this is supposed to have led to every *Āgama* being designated as *sūtra*⁴. Even Prof Winternitz uses this terminology; for, he has used the word *Āyāraṃgasutta* in his article (p. 147) referred to on p. 206, fn. 1.⁵ It is true that these *suttas* appear at times as disconnected members of a joint family.¹ Commentators have tried their level best to show how a subsequent *sutta* is connected with the preceding one; but, even then this has failed to satisfy some of the modern critics. The nature of some of the *suttas* is such that the free translation is desirable, and Mr. G. J. Patel in his *nivedana* (p. 5) to *Āyāra* has already said so, while justifying as to why he has preferred *chāyānuvāda* to the literal translation. In doing so he has said that the method he has adopted is one approved of by Prof. A. B. Dhruva.² In this very *Āyāra* we find that Prof. Schubring splits up sentences-*suttas* in a way that differs from one to be noticed in the Āgamodaya Samiti edition. So it seems that the *suttas* are so composed that there is ample space for such differences of opinion. Perhaps this is true not only in the case of the *Jaina* *suttas* but also in the case of some of the *Bauddha* *suttas* and *Vaidika* *sūtras*, too.

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³ This word is used in the Indian literature of olden days in various senses:
(i) A short rule, a concise sentence or an aphorism used as an aid to memory. This is what is conveyed by the following verse:— “अल्पाक्षरमनन्दिग्धं सारवद् विश्वतोमुखम् । अस्तोभमनवद्यं च सूत्रं सूत्रविदो विदुः॥”—Cf. p. 214, fn. 4. The main idea is to achieve the utmost economy of language that can be had without marring the intended sense.
(ii) A work consisting of pithy sentences e. g. *Aṣṭādhyāyī* known as *Pāṇinisūtra*.
(iii) A work having short sentences where the utmost verbal economy is not strictly aimed at. The *Prātiśakhyas*, *Śrautasūtras*, *Gṛhyasūtras* and *Dharmasūtras* are the works which may be cited as instances.
(iv) A discourse or a sermon. This meaning is applicable to the sacred works of the *Jainas* and the *Bauddhas*.

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⁴ I am inclined to believe that this word here means a scripture and not a pithy sentence, though both these meanings are conveyed by this word.

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⁵ It remains to be ascertained as to who was the first to have added the word *sutta* as a suffix to the name of an *Āgama*. I do not think that the author of the work concerned, has done so.

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¹ They can be grouped as has been done by Mr. G. J. Patel in his translation of *Aṅga* V.

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² "આયારંગસૂત્રના આ અનુવાદ સત્તકૃતાંગના અનુવાદની માફક છાયાનુવાદ જ છે. જૂનાં આગમોની બાબતમાં એ અનુવાદપદ્ધતિ જ વધુ ઉપયોગી છે, એમ આચાર્યશ્રી આનંદશંકરભાઈ જેવા શાસ્ત્રજ્ઞ પંડિતોએ પણ કબૂલ કર્યું છે."

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The word *sutta* is used in special senses in the *Jaina* canon, One of them is defined as under in *Kappanijjutti* mixed up with its *Bhāsa*:—

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"अप्पगंथ महत्यं बत्तीसादोसविरहियं जं च। लक्खणजुत्तं सुत्तं अट्ठहि य गुणेहिं उववेयं ॥२७७॥"

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From this it will be seen that brevity of expression is only one of the characteristics of a *sutta*, the others being absence of 32 defects and presence of 8 attributes. These 32 defects are treated in v. 278-281, and the 8 attributes in v. 282. Verse 310³ gives the various etymologies of the word *sutta*, and they, too, point out the special significance of this word. Verse 285⁴ defines a *sutta* spoken of by an omniscient being, and v. 315 mentions 3 varieties of *sutta* from two different stand-points. From one angle of vision, *sutta* is three-fold viz, *sannā-sutta*,¹ *kāraṇa-sutta*² and *paya-raṇa-sutta*³, and from another it is of two kinds viz. *ussaggiya* and *avavāiya* In the com. (p. 97) on v. 318, 3 varieties of a *sutta* are differently noted. They are: *utsargasūtra*, *apavādasūtra* and *utsargāpavādasūtra*.⁴ Further, this com. adds *apavādotsargasūtra* to these three and thus notes 4 varieties of a *sutta*.⁵ It also furnishes us with corresponding examples. This exposition of the various varieties of a *sutta* has its own value, even when it has a parallel in the non-Jaina literature.

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³ सुत्त तु सुत्तमेव उ अहवा सुत्तं तु तं भवे लेसो। अत्यस्स मयणा वा सुवत्तमइ वा भवे सुत्तं ॥३१०॥

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⁴ "अप्पक्खरमसंदिद्धं सारवं विस्सजोमुहं। अत्थोभमणवज्जं च सुत्तं सव्वन्नुभासियं ॥२८५॥"

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⁴ By adding *vihi-sutta*, *ujjama-sutta*, *vaṇṇaya-sutta* and *bhaya-sutta* to these 3 varieties we get 7. See *Arhatadarśanadīpikā* (p. 816).

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⁵ A *sutta* becomes six-fold when two more varieties of it viz. *utsargotsargasūtra* and *apavādapavādasūtra*, are taken into account along with this. *Ibid.*, pp. 818-819.

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The word *sutta* has several Saṃskṛta equivalents such as *supta*, *śruta*, *sūkta*, *sūtra*, *śrotra* and *srotas*. Out of these the last two are here, out of question. And so is the 1st meaning of *sūtra* out of 3 viz. (i) a prologue of a drama (vide *Moharājaya* 48), (ii) a scripture (vide *Ṭhāṇa* iv, 4) and (iii) a thread. The meaning 'thread' is acceptable; for, it can be construed as a thread of tradition—the tradition preserved and perpetuated by a succession of *Tīrthaṅkaras*.

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There are two allegations made by some of the scholars⁶ regarding the word *sutta* used by the Jainas and the Bauddhas. They are:

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⁶ Prof. Jarl Charpentier is one of them. In his intro. (p. 32) to his edition of *The Uttarādhyayanasūtra* he says: "It may further be noted that the term *sūtra* is in reality very inappropriate to the sort of compositions included in the Siddhanta, inasmuch as we usually understand by *sūtra*'s the very short and concise compendiums of ritual, grammar, philosophy and other sciences. But *sūtra* has apparently another sense amongst the Jains and Buddhists, and there is little doubt that it was their purpose in adopting this name rather to contest the claims of their Brahmanical opponents to be solely in possession of real canonical works than to imitate the style and modes of expression of the Brahmanical *sūtra*-literature."

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(i) The word *sutta* is used in the loosest sense possible.

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1-3 *Āyāra* (I. 2, 5, 88), *Viahapaṇṇatti* (I, 9, 79) and *Namipavajjā* are the respective instances of these *suttas*.

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(ii) The name *sūtra* is adopted "for the canonical writings more as a sort of formal counterpoise or set-off against Brahmanism than with a view to imitating the style and modes of expression of the Brahmanical *sūtra* literature."¹

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¹ See *The Daśavaikālikasūtra: A Study* (p. 19). 2 Cf. "अनन्तगमपर्यायत्वात् सूत्रस्य" occurring in Haribhadra Sūri's com. (p. 4ª) on *Dasaveyāliya*. 3 See Mr. M. C. Modi's intro, (p. xxxvii) to his edition of *Aṅgas* VIII and IX. 4 This is the designation we come across in Śilāṅka Sūri's com. (p. 153ª) on *Ayāra*. 5 दीहलोगसत्थ means fire; for, दीहलोग signifies *vanaspati*. Similarly पज (s. 56) means wind. Words like वसुय (s. 62), आमगंध (s. 88) etc. may be also noted in this connection.

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May I request these scholars and those who hold similar views to go through my exposition of *sutta* and to pronounce their verdict in this connection after linking it with the *Jaina* tradition that every *sutta* was originally associated with 4 *anuyogas* and that a *sutta* has got a number of meanings?² Incidentally I may add that some of the *Brāhmaṇas* and *Upaniṣads* are said to be loose in style, wanting in compactness and full of dreary repetitions.³ If so, it is perhaps owing to the mode of the theological style of olden days in India.

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*Gata-pratyāgata-sūtras*⁴—One of the striking features of *Ayāra* is that is consists of a number of *gata-pratyāgata-sūtras*. They may be roughly designated as *samavyāptika-sutras* or double-baralled pithy sentences. These *sūtras*, though simple, are more than forcible in producing a desired effect on the listener. As specimens I may note the following:—

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"जे लोयं अन्भाइक्खइ से अत्ताणं अन्भाइक्खइ;
जे अत्ताणं अन्भाइक्खइ से लोयं अन्भाइक्खइ." (s. 23 & 32)
"जे दीहलोगसत्थस्स खेयण्णे से असत्थस्स खेयण्णे;
जे असत्थस्स खेयण्णे से दीहलोगसत्थस्स खेयण्णे." (s. 33)
"जे गुणे से आवढे; जे आवढे से गुणे." (s. 41)
"जे अज्झत्थं जाणइ से बहिया जाणइ;
जे बहिया जाणइ से अज्झत्थं जाणइ." (s. 57)
"जे गुणे से मूलठाणे; जे मूलठाणे से गुणे." (s. 63)
"जहा अंतो तहा बाहिं; जहा बाहिं तहा अंतो." (s. 94)

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“जे अणण्णदंसी से अणण्णारामे; जे अणण्णारामे से अणण्णदंसी.” (s. 102) “जे पज्जवजायसत्थस्स खेयण्णे से असत्थस्स खेयण्णे; जे असत्थस्स खेयण्णे से पज्जवजायसत्थस्स खेयण्णे.” (s. 110) “जं जाणिज्जा उच्छालइयं तं जोणिज्जा दुरालइयं; ज जाणिज्जा दुरालइयं तं जाणिज्जा उच्छालइयं.” (s. 119) “जे एगं जाणइ से सव्वं जाणइ; जे सव्वं जाणइ से एगं जाणइ.” (s. 123) “जे आसवा ते परिस्रवा, जे परिस्रवा ते आसवा.” (s. 131) “जे अणासवा ते अपरिस्रवा, जे अपरिस्रवा ते अणासवा.” (s. 131)

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*Praśnottara paddhati*—We are even now in the dark about many things and phenomena. One of the ways to remove this darkness and to aquire the right sort of knowledge is to make an inquiry. This means putting questions either to oneself or to some one else who can enlighten us on the point concerned. Usually the latter course is easy to be followed.¹ This leads to a formation of *praśnottara paddhati*—a method adopted and approved of by even the present educational system. In this method, it is necessary to select pregnant questions. It is perhaps a peculiar feature of the *Jaina* canon that herein we come across entire works embodying such questions. They are *Viāhapaṇṇatti*, *Paṇṇavaṇā*, *Nandī* and *Aṇuogaddāra*. Out of them the first comprises thirty-six thousand (36,000) questions.

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¹ Indrabhūti and others did so.

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*Ethics*—The *Jaina* ethics² is not without its specialities. The doctrine of *ahiṃsā* forms the corner-stone of *Jaina* ethics, and its treatment and scope hold practically a unique place even when other systems of Indian thought which appreciate the virtue of *ahiṃsā*, are taken into account. The doctrine of *ahiṃsā* is not so simple as it appears. It is a subtle science, and the *Jaina* pontiffs¹ have pointed out its various intricacies.² *Paṇhāvāgaraṇa* (s. 21) mentions 60 synonyms of *ahiṃsā* and 30 of *hiṃsā* in s. 2.

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² It appears that this subject has not attracted as much attention of the scholars as it should, though there are materials whereby a comprehensive treatise can be written in this connection. I know of only three attempts made in this direction. One of them was made by Dr. Charlotte Krause as can be seen from her article *An interpretation of Jaina Ethics*. I think she has written another article in this connection, and it has been published in some standard journal of India. I remember to have read one article in German where the *Jaina* view about ethics was compared with the Zoroastrian one; but I am not in a position at present to specify the source.

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¹ See *Arhatadarśanadīpikā* (pp. 835-849).

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² See *Viāhapaṇṇatti* (I, 8; 68), *Dasaveyāliyanijjutti* (v. 45) and Haribhadra Sūri's com. (pp. 24b-25a) on this last work.

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*Maxims*—It is but natural that in works dealing with religion and ethics, one can easily come across maxims—apothegms (*subhāṣitas*). In the canonical literature we find a lot of them. Mr. G. J. Patel has singled out some of them in his following works:—

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1 महावीरस्वामीनो आचारधर्म [ जैन आगम ‘आचारांग’ नो छायानुवाद ] pp. 193-203. 2 ,, संयमधर्म [ ,, ,, ‘सूत्रकृतांग’ नो ,, ] pp. 241-250. 3 ,, अंतिम उपदेश ( श्रीउत्तराध्ययनसूत्रनो छायानुवाद ) pp. 271-281. 4 समीक्षाजनो उपदेश [ श्रीदशवैकालिकसूत्र ] pp. 138-146.

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The following remark made by Prof. Winternitz in connection with the contents of *Uttarajjhayaṇa* may be here noted:—

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“We find here many sayings which excel in aptitude of comparison or pithiness of language. As the Sutta-Nipāta and the Dhammapada, some of these series of sayings are bound together by a common refrain.-*A His. of Ind. Lit.* (vol. II, p. 467)

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*Metaphysics*—It is a well-known fact that the theory of *karman* plays an important part in the *Jaina* metaphysics and ethics as well. It has engaged the attention of several *Jaina* authors who have developed it into a science. This has been possible in view of the various particulars pertaining to this theory being dealt with in the *Āgamas* such as *Ṭhāṇa* (II, 4; s. 105; IV, s. 268; & VIII; s. 596), *Samavāya* (s. 51, 52, 58, 69 & 97), *Viāhapaṇṇatti* (I, 4; 1; VI, 3, 4-5; VI, 9, 1; & VIII, 10, 7), *Kammapayaḍi-pāhuḍa*, the 8th *Puvva*, *Paṇṇavaṇā* (XXIII-XXVII) and *Uttarajjhayaṇa* (XXXIII).

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*Logic*—By logic I mean pure logic having only one category viz. *pramāṇa* which, of course, touches upon other categories as far as they are necessary for its proper elaboration. Thus the doctrine of the nature and salvation of the soul has no direct place in this pure logic. So far as the *Jainas* are concerned, their logic deals with 3 topics viz. *pramāṇa*, *naya* and *nikṣepa*. The latter two topics are the special features of this logic. In *Thāṇa* (VII; s. 552), *Aṇuogaddāra* (s. 152) and *Visesā* (v. 2180-2278) there is a description of *naya* and its 7 kinds.

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*Pramāṇa* or valid knowledge is classified in *Thāṇa* (IV, 3; s. 338¹), *Viāhapaṇṇatti* (V, 4; 192) and *Aṇuogaddāra* (s. 144; pp. 211ᵃ-219ᵃ²). The word *heü* (Sk. *hetu*³) is used in *Thāṇa* in 2 senses viz., *pramāṇa*⁴ and reason - inference based on reason⁵. The word *heü* occurs in *Dasaveyāliyanijjutti*⁶, too. In its v. 86⁷, it is said to be four-fold. Several terms of debate occur in *Sūyagaḍa*. They are: *pakkha*⁸ (a party), *chala*⁹ (a quibble), *viyakkā*¹⁰ (speculation) and *takka*¹¹. In *Thāṇa* (s. 338) we come across the word *nāü* (Sk. *jñāta*) meaning an example. It is there divided into 4

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¹⁰ “एवमेगे वियक्काहिं नो अन्नं पज्जुवासिया। अप्पणो य वियक्काहिं अयमंजू हि दुम्मई ॥२१॥”-I, 1, 2

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¹¹ “एवं तकाइ साहेन्ता धम्माधम्मे अकोविया। दुक्खं ते नाइट्टेन्ति सउणी पंजरं जहा॥२२॥”-I, 1, 2

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1 “हेऊ चउव्विहे पण्णत्ते, तं जहा-पच्चक्खे अणुमाणे ओवम्मे आगमे।”

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2 Herein *pramāṇa* is said to be four-fold: *pratyakṣa*, *anumāna*, *aupamya* and *āgama*. Out of these *pratyakṣa* has two varieties viz. *indriya-pratyakṣa* and *no-indriya-pratyakṣa*. The former has 5 sub-varieties and the latter 3. *Anumāna* is of 3 kinds: *pūrvavat*, *śeṣavat* and *dṛṣṭisādharmyavat*. Out of these, the 2nd is of 5 types and the 3rd, of two types. *Aupamya* has 2 varieties, each of which has 3 sub-varieties. *Āgama* is of 2 kinds and of 3 kinds as well.

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In v. 25-27 of *Kappanijjutti*, there is a discussion about *pratyakṣa* and *parokṣa* *pramāṇas*. *Visesā* (v. 95) says that inferential knowledge is absolutely *parokṣa*, *avadhijñāna* etc. absolutely *pratyakṣa*, and one based upon sense-organs and mind *sāmvyavahāri-pratyakṣa*.

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3 Hemacandra Sūri in his com. (p. 213ᵃ-p. 213ᵇ) on *Aṇuogaddāra* has discussed the characteristics of a *hetu*. While doing so he has quoted several verses one of which is ascribed to Nyāyavādin Puruṣacandra by him.

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4 See fn. 1.

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5 “अत्थि तं अत्थि सो हेऊ १, अत्थि तं णत्थि सो हेऊ २, णत्थि तं अत्थि सो हेऊ ३, णत्थि तं णत्थि सो हेऊ।” (IV, 3; s. 338). Herein one can see the germs of a syllogism.

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6 “जिणवयणं सिद्धं चेव भण्णइ कत्थई उदाहरणं। आसज्ज उ सोयारं हेऊ वि कहिंचि भण्णेज्ज ॥४९॥”

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7 “अहवा वि इमो हेऊ विन्नेओ ततिथमो चउविभप्पो। जावग थावग वंसग लूसग हेऊ चउत्यो उ॥८६॥”

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8-9 “इमं दुपक्खं इममेगपक्खं आहंसु छलायणं च कम्मं॥”-I, 12, 5.

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kinds¹, each having 4 varieties. Further this Aṅga enumerates 6 expedients employed in a hostile debate or debate a l'outrance², and it enumerates 10 defects of a debate.³ In Dasaveyāliyanijjutti (v. 137)⁴ are mentioned 10 members⁵ of a syllogism, and in v. 138-148 is given a demonstration of this syllogism as applied to ahiṃsā.

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¹ “चउव्विहे णाए पण्णत्ते, तं जहा-आहरणे, आहरणादेसे, आहारणतदोसे, उव्वण्णासोवणए” (s. 338). Cf. Dasaveyāliyanijjutti (v. 53).

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² “छव्विहे विवादे पण्णत्ते, तं जहा-ओसक्कतिता, उस्सक्कइत्ता, अणुलोमइत्ता, पडिलोमइत्ता, भत्ता, मेलतिता।” —Thāṇa (VI; s. 512)

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³ “दसविहे दोसे पण्णत्ते, तं जहा-

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⁴ “ते उ पन्न विभत्ती हेतु विभत्ती विवक्ख पडिसेहो। दिद्वंतो आसंका तप्पडिसेहो निगमनं च॥१३७॥”

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⁵ In v. 50, a syllogism having 5 members is referred to. These members appear to be the same as pratijñā, hetu, udāharaṇa, upanaya and nigamana mentioned in Gautama’s Nyāyasūtra (I, i, 32).

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Syādavāda—Syādavāda having anekāntavāda etc., for its synonyms, is a key-note of Jainism. So it is no wonder, if we find several references pertaining to it in the canonical and non-canonical philosophical works of the Jainas.⁶ The word aṇeganta occurs in Mahānisīha as can be seen from its quotation in Upadeśaratnākara of Munisundara Sūri (B. O. R. I., No. 1263 of 1884-87). The word siyā (Sk. syāt) is found in Jīvājīvābhigama (s. 125) and Aṇuogaddāra (s. 142), and the word syādavāda occurs in Hemacandra’s com. (p. 266ᵇ) on Aṇuogaddāra. The origin and usage of syādavāda can be traced in Vīhāpaṇṇatti (V, 7, 1) where it is said: “परमाणुपोग्गले णं भंते एयति वेयति जाव तं तं भावं परिणमति? गोयमा! सिय एयति, वेयति जाव परिणमति, सिय णे एयति जाव णे परिणयति”. Another passage occurring in this Aṅga (s. 318) may be also noted: “जीवा नाणी वि अण्णाणी वि.”⁷

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⁶ For a tentative list of sources dealing with syādavāda see my intro. (pp. xi-xii) to Anekāntajayapatākā (vol. I) published with two commentaries. (G. O. S.)

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⁷ Cf. “आया पुण सिय णाणे, सिय अण्णाणे”—Aṅga V (?)

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Saptabhaṅgī—We notice the three fundamental bhaṅgas which lead to seven on further investigation, in the following lines of the 5th Aṅga:—

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“गोयमा! अप्पणो आदिद्वे आया, परस्स आदिद्वे नो आया, तदुभयस्स आदिद्वे अवत्तव्वं आताति य णे आताति य।”

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तज्जायदोसे, मइभंगदोसे, पसत्थारदोसे, परिहरण्दोसे।
सलक्खण-कारण-हेउदोसे, संकामण, निग्गह वत्थुदोसे॥” (X; s. 748)

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Parallels in non-Jaina Literature—Just as the word *tripitaka* and its Pāli equivalent occur in the *Bauddha* literature so do the word *gaṇipiṭaka* and its Prākṛta equivalent *gaṇipiḍaga* in the *Jaina* literature. This *gaṇipiḍaga* is twelve-fold inasmuch as it consists of 12 *Aṅgas*. Out of them *Āyāra* may be compared with the *Vinayapiṭaka* of the *Bauddhas*, and *Thāṇa* and *Samavāya*, with their *Aṅguttaranikāya*. Further, the stories pertaining to the fructification of merit and demerit which are embodied in *Vivāgasuya* may be compared with *Avadānaśataka* and *Karmaśataka* of the *Bauddhas*. Similarly the Paesi-Kesi dialogue occurring in *Rāyapaseniya* has a parallel in the *Pāyāsisutta* of the *Dīghanikāya* Nr. 23. In this connection Prof. Winternitz says in *The Jainas in the His. of Ind. Lit.* (p. 147):—

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"The original may in this case be the Jaina dialogue, but it is also possible that both have to be derived from an older *Itihāsa-saṃvāda*, forming part of the ancient ascetic literature."¹

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¹ Prof. Winternitz in *The Jainas in the His. of Ind. Lit.* (p. 145, fn.) says:— "If I am not mistaken, E. Leumann (*Z. D. M. G.* 48, 1894, p. 65 ff.) was the first to speak of a ‘Parivrājaka Literature’, though not quite in the same sense as I use the term ‘Ascetic Literature’. See my lecture on ‘Ascetic Literature of Ancient India’ in *Some problems of Indian Literature* (Calcutta University Press, 1925), p. 21 ff."

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All the *Cheyasuttas* such as *Nisīha* etc., have almost the same contents as we meet with under the name of *vinaya* in the *Bauddha* literature. Just as *Pajjosaṇākappa* deals with the life of Lord Mahāvīra, so does *Lalitavistara*, a *Bauddha* work so far as the life of Lord Buddha is concerned. The famous saying of King Janaka of Mithilā (after he had adopted asceticism) viz. ‘How boundless is my wealth as I possess nothing! When Mithilā is on fire, nothing that is mine will be burnt’, occurring in the *Mahābhārata*² (XII, 178, 2) is found in the *Jātaka* Nr. 539 g. 125 and has a parallel in the *Uttarajjhayaṇa* (IX), a work about which Prof. Winternitz remarks: "from a literary point of view perhaps the most interesting book". The legend of King Nami where the ascetic ideal is contrasted with that of the ruler and the warrior is noted by Jarl Charpentier in *Studien zur indischen Erzählungsliteratur I, Paccekabuddhageschichten* (Uppasala, 1908) and *Z. D. M. G.* (vol. LXVI, 38ff.). *Ajjhayaṇa* XII has a counterpart in the *Mātaṅgajātaka* Nr. 497 as shown by Charpentier in *Z. D. M. G.* (vol. LXIII, 171 ff.), whereas the legend of Citta and Sambhūta occurring in *ajjhayaṇa* XIII has been long ago compared with *Jātaka* Nr. 498 by Prof. Leumann.¹

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² "In many cases verses and *Itihāsa-saṃvādas* of the *Mahābhārata* have actually been traced in Pāli Gāthās, and in Jaina books. A very remarkable example of the latter is the fine dialogue between a father and his son in the *Mahābhārata*, XII, 175 (repeated XII, 277), which occurs also—with variants in the *Mārkaṇḍeya-Purāṇa*, X ff., in the Buddhist *Jātaka* (Nr. 509 in Fausböll’s edition), and again in the *Uttarajjhayaṇasutta* (Adhy, XIV) of the Jainas."—*The Jainas in the His. of Ind. Lit.* (p. 146)

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¹ See *Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes* (V, 111 ff.; VI, I ff.). 2 In *Jaina* works, too, we come across *Samaṇa* and *Bambhaṇa* (vide *Sūyagaḍa* I, 6, 1; II, 6, 4 & 12), and Lord Mahāvīra himself is at least four times addressed as *Bambhaṇa*. Vide the ending verse of each of the 4 *uddesas* of *Āyāra* (IX). 3 Many pieces of ascetic poetry are found in the *Mahābhārata*, specially in its XIIth *parvan*. Out of them may be singled out the beautiful *itihāsa-saṃvāda* of Jājali and Tulādhāra (261-264) where Tulādhāra, the shopkeeper of Benares, teaches the *Brāhmaṇa* Jājali, 'the eternal religion of love'. For other instances see *The Jainas* in the *His. of Ind. Lit.* (pp. 145-146).

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Ascetic Literature—This is the terminology coined by Prof. Winternitz, in view of his having noticed in *Bauddha* texts² *Samaṇas* and *Brāhmaṇas*, and in Aśoka inscriptions *Samaṇa-bambhaṇa* and on finding Megasthenes making a clear distinction between *Brāhmaṇas* and *Śramaṇas*. He notes the following characteristic features of this literature in *The Jainas* in the *His. of Ind. Lit.* (p. 145):-

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"It disregards the system of castes and *āśramas*; its heroes are, as a rule, not gods and *Ṛṣis*, but kings or merchants or even *Śūdras*. The subjects of poetry taken up by it are not Brāhmaṇic myths and legends, but popular tales, fairy stories, fables and parables. It likes to insist on the misery and sufferings of *Saṃsāra*, and it teaches a morality of compassion and *Ahiṃsā*, quite distinct from the ethics of Brahmanism with its ideals of the great sacrificer and generous supporter of the priests, and its strict adherence to the caste system."

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The ballad of King Nami (*Uttara* IX) and the legend of Citta and Sambhūta (XIII) are specimens of the ascetic literature³.

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Many verses of the *Āyāra* and *Sūyagaḍa* which in form and contents, can just as well be included in the *Bauddha Suttanipāta* or *Dhammapada* belong to the *samaṇa* literature of ancient India. I need not dilate upon this topic any more. So I may conclude it by reproducing the following words of Prof. Winternitz:—

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"We see, then, *that in the sacred texts of the Jainas a great part of the ascetic literature of ancient India is embodied* (tho italics are not mine), which has also left its traces in Buddhist literature as well as in the epics and Purāṇas. Jaina literature, therefore, is closely connected with the other branches of post-Vedic religious literature."—*The Jainas in the His. of Ind. Lit.* (p. 147)

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Narrative Literature and Folk-lore —Students of narrative literature need not be reminded of the fact that as shown by Prof. Johannes Hertel, the most popular recensions of the *Pañcatantra* are the work of the *Jainas*, and that it is in all probability a *Jaina* to whom we owe the so-called 'Textus Simplicitor' of the *Pañcatantra*, and the *Jaina* saint Pūraṇabhadra completed in 1199, the *Pañcākhyānaka* or the *Pañcatantra* in the 'Textus ornatior.'¹ Some of the *Aṅgas* and their exegetical literature provide us with all sorts of narratives², legends³, stories, tales, parables, fables, anecdotes and ballads, to mention a few out of many. It is the careful investigation of this narrative litertaure of the *Jainas* that makes Prof. Hertel utter the following words in "*On the literature of the Shvetambaras of Gujarat* (p. 8)":—

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¹ See *The Jainas in the His. of Ind. Lit.* (p. 149). 2 For 4 varieties of narrations see *Thāṇa* (IV, 2; s. 282). 3 The legend of the sons of Sagara and the descent of the Ganges is found in Nemicandra Sūri's com. (pp. 233-285) on *Uttarajjhayaṇa* (XVIII, 35).

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"*Characteristic of Indian narrative art are the narratives of the Jains. They describe the life and the manners of the Indian population in all its different classes, and in full accordance with reality. Hence Jain narrative literature is, amongst the huge mass of Indian literature, the most precious source not only of folk-lore in the most comprehensive sense of the word, but also of the history of Indian civilization.*

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"The Jain's way of telling their tales differs from that of the Bauddhas in some very essential points. Their main story is not that of the past, but that of the present; they do not teach their doctrines directly, but indirectly; and there is no future Jina to be provided with a rôle in their stories,

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"Jain stories are much more reliable sources of folk-lore than the stories handed down in the books of the Bauddhas."—p. 9

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These remarks and one made by him on p. 11 goad me to say that the narrative literature embodied especially in the *Cuṇṇis* and *Ṭīkās* of the *Āgamas* deserves to be specially studied by one who wants to have a complete picture of world-sociology in general and Indian sociology in particular. I may add that *Aṅgas* VI and VII furnish us with materials whereby we can prepare articles like *Occupations and Professions as seen in the Rāmāyaṇa*.¹ They supply us with specimens of short stories.

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¹ This is an article by Mr. P. C. Dharma, M. A., L. T., and it is published in the Annals of B. O. R. I. (vol. XIX, pt, II, pp. 127-146).

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*Music*—The seven *svaras* of the musical scale or gamut are mentioned in *Thāṇa* (VII). These along with their *sthānas*, the birds and beasts that utter these notes, the musical instruments² which give rise to these notes, the advantages occurring from singing particular *svaras*, 3 *grāmas*, 21 *mūrcchanas*, and the art of singing are dealt with in *Aṇuogaddāra* (s. 127). Further Abhayadeva Sūri in his com. (p. 659ᵇ) on *Viāhapaṇṇatti* (XV; s. 539) notes *gītamārga*, the pertinent line being “मार्गो गीतमार्ग-नृत्यमार्गलक्षणौ सम्भाव्येते”.

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² Names of some of the musical instruments are given in, *Viāhapaṇṇatti* (V, 4, 1), *Rāyapaseniya* (s. 23), Malayagiri Sūri’s com. (p. 2ᵇ) on *Nandi* etc.

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*Staging of dramas*—In *Rāyapaseniya* (s. 24) we come across the staging of a drama in 32 ways. Out of them, some of the poses produce an appearance of some of the letters—a feature hardly to be found elsewhere in the staging of any drama. In Nemicandra Sūri’s com. (p. 196ᵇ) on *Uttarajjhayaṇa* (XIII), there is mention of a *nāṭyavidhi* named Mahuyarigīya.

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*Erotic*—It may sound strange that the Jaina canon which ought to discuss and define religion pure and simple, contains an exposition of erotic elements. But this can be explained on the ground that a novice is as much in need of being told what he ought to refrain from as he is in need of being told what he ought to indulge in. So erotic discussions do deserve to be treated. Even names of standard works of this science deserve mention in the canonical treatises, and this is exactly what we find in *Aṇuogaddāra* (s. 41) and *Nandī* (s. 42). Even the *Dasaveyāliyanijjutti* (v. 259–262) furnishes us with some materials in this direction. Four types of *kāma* are treated in *Thāṇa* (IV, 4; s. 357), and a detailed exposition of sexual indulgence is given in *Thāṇa* (s. 116, 122 & 123), *Viāhapaṇṇatti* (VII, 7; s. 289), *Pannaṇā* (XXXIV) etc.

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*Mathematics*—In 1923 I was given a Research grant by the University of Bombay to carry on research on "Jaina Mathematics". The various results then arrived at have been dealt with at length by me in the intro. (pp. i-xlvii) to *Gaṇitatilaka*¹. So I shall here mention only a few points:—

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¹ This is edited by me with the com. of Siṃhatilaka Sūri, and it is published in Gaekwad's Oriental Series as No. LXXVIII.

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(i) *Viāhapaṇṇatti* (s. 90) and *Uttarajjhayaṇa* (XXV, v. 7, 8 & 38) inform us that knowledge of *saṅkhyāna* and *jyotiṣa* is one of the main accomplishments of a *Jaina* saint.

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(ii) Geometry is spoken of in *Sūyagaḍanijjutti* (v. 154) as the lotus of Mathematics.

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(iii) *Bhaṅgas* are likely to remind a student of Mathematics of ‘Permutations and Combinations’. They are mentioned in *Thāṇa* (X; s. 716), and their two varieties are noted and explained by Abhayadeva Sūri in his com.² (p. 478ᵇ) to this *Aṅga*. Śīlāṅka Sūri in his com.³ (p. 9ᵇ) to *Sūyagaḍanijjutti* (v. 28) has given us 3 verses⁴ which supply us with 3 rules. The first verse enables us to determine the total number of transpositions which can be made when a specific number of things is given, whereas the other two help us in finding the actual spread of representation. The problem known as *Gāṅgeya-bhaṅga* and treated in *Viāhapaṇṇatti* (IX; s. 372–374) may be specially mentioned as one of the typical problems connected with this branch of Mathematics.

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² In this com. (p. 317ᵇ) there is mention of Sīmandharasvāmin. He is a *Tīrthaṅkara* living in *Mahāvideha kṣetra* according to the *Jaina* belief.

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³ See my intro. (p. xiii) to *Gaṇitatilaka*.

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⁴ *Visesa* (v. 942–943) gives us a method of working out *anupūrvī*, leaving aside *pūrvānupūrvī* and *paścānupūrvī*, a subject pertaining to *bhaṅgas*.

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(iv) *Thāṇa* (X; s. 747) mentions 10 kinds of calculation which are differently interpreted by different scholars.

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(v) *Thāṇa* (II, 4; s. 95), *Sūriyapaṇṇatti* (VIII, 29; p. 86ᵃ), *Jambuddīvapaṇṇatti* (s. 18) and *Aṇuogaddāra* (s. 137) give us names of notational places, the last being *Sīsapaheliyā* which stands for (84 lacs)²⁸ years, but which according to *Joisakaranḍaga* (v. 64-71) stands for (84 lacs)³⁶ years.

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(vi) *Uttarajjhayaṇa* (XXX, v. 10, 11) furnishes us with the names of powers 2, 3, 4, 6 and 12, whereas *Aṇuogaddāra* (s. 142) deals with successive squares and square-roots.

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(vii) 21 kinds of numbers are treated in *Aṇuogaddāra* (s. 146). In this connection Dr. Bibhutibhusan Datta says:—

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"It will be noticed that in the classification of numbers stated above, there is an attempt to define numbers beyond Alef-zero....... The fact that an attempt was made in India to define such numbers as early as the first century before the Christian era, speaks highly of the speculative faculties of the ancient Jaina mathematicians."—*The Jaina School of Mathematics* (p. 142) published in "The Bulletin of the Calcutta Mathematical Society" (Vol. XXI, No. 2, 1929).

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(viii) *Aṇuogaddāra* (s. 131) supplies us with various tables of measurement which can be compared with those given in Kautilya's *Arthaśāstra* and elsewhere. Further, these tables incidentally throw light on the history of Magadha.

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(ix) *Viāhapaṇṇatti* (XXV, 3; s. 724-726), *Aṇuogaddāra* (s. 123 & 144) and *Sūriyapaṇṇatti* (s. 11, 25 & 100) supply us with names of several geometrical figures, plane and solid as well.

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(x) *Viāhapaṇṇatti* (s. 91), *Jīvājīvābhigama* (s. 82 & 109) and *Sūriyapaṇṇatti* (s. 20) furnish us with values of Π.

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(xi) *Sūriyapaṇṇatti*¹ and *Joisakaranḍaga*² supply us with astronomical knowledge. Prof. Weber observes:

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1-2 These two works along with *Lokaprakāśa* (pt. IV) were found very useful in understanding the knotty points of *Vedāṅga-jyotiṣa*. So says Mr. B. L. Kulkarni in his article entitled "ऐतिहासिक दृष्टि से प्राचीन जैन वाङ्मयका महत्त्व और उसके संशोधनकी आवश्यकता" and published in *Jainasatyaprakāśa* (vol. VI, No. 11, pp. 418-420).

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“That not only do the astronomical works of *Jainas* furnish information about the conceptions of a religious sect but may, if rightly investigated, yield valuable material for the general history of Indian ideas.”¹

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¹ See “Sacred Literature of the Jainas” (I, p. 372 and II, p. 574 ff.), and “Indian Antiquary” (XXI, p. 14 ff.).

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(xii) *Visesā°* (v. 351-372) provides us with a chapter on sound (accoustics) and *Paṇṇavaṇā*, with that of light (optics)—subjects coming under the class of Applied Mathematics.

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(xiii) It may be that the 3 *Prākṛta* verses quoted by Bhāskara I in his com. on v. 10 of the *Gaṇitapāda* of the *Āryabhaṭīya* of Āyrabhaṭa I, may be belonging to some extinct *Āgama*².

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² See Dr. B. Datta’s article entitled as *A lost Jaina treatise on Arithmetic* and published in “The Jaina Antiquary” (vol. II, No. 2, pp. 38-41, September 1936).

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(xiv) Rājāditya (1120 A. D.) has written *Jaina-gaṇitasūtrodāharaṇa*.³ It may be that the examples given here may have something to do with the *Agamas* and their exegis.

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³ See my intro. (p. x) to *Gaṇitatilaka*.

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*Alchemy*—The first verse of *Dasaveyāliya* mentions the process of preparing gold.⁴ Verse 336 of *Āvassayanijjtti* does the same.

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⁴ See Appendix III of my translation of *Caturviṃśatiprabandha*. In Appendix I *Gāhājuyalathui* of Pādalipta Sūri is given along with its *avacūri*. The latter interprets this hymn whereby a base metal can be turned into gold.

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*The science of medicine*—Some topics dealing with this subject have been already dealt with (vide pp. 136-137). So it now remains to add that *Thāṇa* (VIII; s. 611) gives us names of the 8 kinds of *Āyurveda*, and *Viāhapaṇṇatti* deals with the medicinal properties⁵ of certain articles of food.

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⁵ See pp. 116, 136, 137.

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*Modern branches of knowledge*—*Paṇṇavaṇā* provides us with information pertaining to metaphysics and Physics, and *Nandī* regarding psychology and logic. *Jīvājīvābhigama* gives us some information about geology. *Jambuddīvapaṇṇatti* gives us an idea about cosmology, in its own way. Elements of chemistry can be gleaned from *Paṇṇavaṇā* which deals with ontology, too. As regards biology, at least some information can be gathered from *Paṇhāvāgaraṇa* (s. 3), and *Dasaveyāliya* (II, 6; IV; V, 1, 70, and 73; V, 2, 14, 16, 18 and 20-24; VI, 64; IX, 1, 4; IX, 2, 1; and IX, 1).² In *Aṅga* V (s. 324) names of certain trees are given, and in s. 274, food of trees is discussed. In *Paṇṇavaṇā* (I, s. 19-26) several items pertaining to *vanaspati* are mentioned. In *Āyāra* (s. 47) it is stated that the organism of *vanaspati* is akin to that of humanity. Its s. 54 mentions a number of motives which lead to the destruction of the *trasa* and its s. 49 the 8 varieties of *trasa*

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