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The World of Courtesans c9: 6 Courtesans in the Gupta Period

The World of Courtesans c9

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6 Courtesans in the Gupta Period

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Courtesans in the Gupta Period

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IN KEEPING WITH the growth of luxury and wealth in the Gupta period the institution of the courtesan became fully evolved and played a very important part in the social and cultural life of the people. The *Kamasutra* of Vatsyayana and the *Natyashastra* of Bharata have collected all the relevant information about courtesans and their clients. One is not surprised to read stories of courtesans which describe the methods adopted by them to loot their lovers, and which speak of their accomplishments in the field of fine arts including music, dancing and acting and of the part they played in the royal harem and the court. In the city, the courtesans and the prostitutes had separate quarters assigned to them. There one could meet the cultured and the boorish, the rogues, the rakes and even pundits and philosophers. However, this part of the city was the chosen hunting ground of wealthy bankers and caravan leaders. Gambling and drinking were the necessary adjuncts of prostitution and, therefore, the quarters of the courtesans also became a centre of these vices. And though the *Smritis* condemned these vices and threatened eternal hell to those who indulged in them the life of the people who enjoyed these pleasures rolled on easily and pleasantly.

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Kalidasa, the greatest poet of India, has given us tantalizing glimpses of the social life of his times. To him Indian culture was whole and indivisible. Philosophy and religion helped one to understand the higher goals of life. The fulfilment of worldly desires was possible through the acquisition of wealth and through leading a life of luxury.

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This kind of life went hand in hand with wine and women, dancing and music and the cultivation of the arts. Both these aspects of life appealed to Kalidasa. The men and women who flit through his poems and dramas are not merely puppets moved by a string behind the curtain; they are animated by the joy of living

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The poet admires the peaceful hermitages in which the *rishis* discussed the mysteries of life, and also the laughing and playful men and women singing in the courts and in the royal processions, participating in festivals, going to music and dancing parties. He depicts men visiting courtesans and escorting them to gardens and forests to enjoy the pleasanter side of life. He was keenly alive to the beauty of the female form, and though he had no time to dwell on elaborate descriptions of women in all fields of life, like a great artist, he draws enduring images of them in the *Ritusamhara*, in the *Meghaduta* where women from various walks of life are described with an intensely poetic flavour. The poet gives us fleeting glimpses of the courtesans rambling among mountains, picking up jasmine flowers, perhaps to adorn themselves and their lovers. We have a glimpse of them dancing in the great temple of Mahakala at Ujjain. The poet addresses the cloud and asks it to stop close to Vidisha. He advises it to rest on Vichais Hill which is laden with blossoming *kadambas*, and gladdened as it were by the cloud's soft touch. The stones of the hill proclaim youth's joyous abandon and send forth fragrance gathered in the love sports of the courtesans. The poet again exhorts the cloud: "You rest for a while and then proceed to the garden that is full of jasmine groves and situated on the newly formed bank of the river. Spray them with fresh drops. There you could grant your cool shade to the lively faces of the flower pickers (*pushpalavi*) whose lotus earrings crumple as they wipe the beads of perspiration on their cheeks. For a brief instant you will be able to touch them. You will have to deviate from the straight road to the north, if you do not wish to miss the sights in the town of Ujjain, lovely women seated in the open terraces, their tremulous eyes dazzled by flashes of lightning."

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"And there you will find fragrant smoke come wafting from the latticed windows and dancing peacocks will receive you. The place will be full of the fragrance of sweet-smelling flowers and the lac-dyed footprints of lively women." But his close observation about the temple dancers in the temple of Mahakala at Ujjain deserves our attention. "The cloud will catch a glimpse of the temple of Mahakala, of the temple dancers and their elaborate foot work. The cloud will be able to gaze at the *chauri*-bearers carrying *chauris* with jewelled handles. These dancing girls wait expectantly for rain drops to come and soothe their aching feet. The glances they cast on the cloud are as bright as the black bees "

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In the *Ritusamhara* Kalidasa draws a picture of a joyous state of existence. He depicts the moods of the varying seasons and the costumes, ornaments and cosmetics used by women in different seasons. The women of the *Ritusamhara* are not ordinary housewives weighed down under the care of household duties, they are coquettish courtesans who earn huge incomes, are able to afford undreamed of luxuries and enjoy them in the company of their lovers.

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In the first canto of the *Ritusamhara* the poet draws a convincing picture of the smothering heat of the Indian summer. He speaks with awe of the havoc wrought by the sun during the day and describes the sweetness of the moonlit nights. The hot dusty wind, the scorching earth devoid of vegetation, the thirsty antelopes looking expectantly at the gloomy sky, the serpents sliding away from the hot and dusty paths recall the terrors of the Indian summer. In the forest a thirsty lion rolls his tongue but refuses to attack the elephant, his natural prey. In the dried up tank the fish and *saras* birds are tormented by terrible heat. The buffaloes wallow in the shallow pools, the birds perched on withered trees fear for their lives, and the monkeys seek shelter in the hilly groves. Herds of gazelle roam about in the forest in search of water. The forest fire is fanned by a strong wind and destroys the bamboo groves completely.

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The Indian summer affects the birds and animals, and makes them restless. But the lovers and the courtesans find their pleasure even on the hottest days. The moonlit nights are created to assuage the heat of the day. Summer houses, jewels cold to the touch and sandalwood help to lessen the rigour of the heat. The clean floors of houses are perfumed, and cold drinks are served all the time. There is music at night and it is a solace to the tired body. But in the stifling heat it is the courtesans who matter most.

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They are clad in transparent muslin. It drapes their bodies revealing the lines of their orbed hips. On their breasts smeared with sandal-paste lie jewelled necklaces. Their hair, the sweet fragrance of the bath powder, and their feet painted with lac-dye shine with a tempting glow. They perspire in the armpits and throw aside their heavy wrappings and cover their bosoms with muslin *cholis*. They ply fans moistened in sandal water, and flower garlands encircle their breasts. Musical soirees are arranged to amuse them. The courtesans with their covert glances and coquetry try to attract the way-farers. The sole comfort in the summer is watersport in a lotus lake in which a large number of girls participate.

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The second canto describes the great joy that the rains bring to earth. The dark overcast sky is heavy with moisture, flashes of lightning and the sweet patter of rain are accompanied by the rumbling of thunder. When the heavy downpour descends, the earth is covered with green vegetation and the dancing peacocks symbolize the season. The surging muddy rivers uproot the trees on their banks, the Vindhya forest is draped with a green mantle and the antelopes wandering in search of fields enhance the beauty of the season. The grasshoppers chirp, the black bees hum, the peacocks dance on the hills and the blossoming *kadamba* and *ketaki* trees catch the raindrops. The rainy season provides the appropriate background for the lovers. Frightened by the roll of thunder, the courtesans lock their lovers in tight embraces.

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The women whose lovers are away remain without perfumes, garlands and jewelry. The girls adorn their long hair with flower ornaments; necklaces dangle on their bosoms; their faces are flushed by the impact of the wind, and this sight attracts their lovers. Chaplets of fresh *kadamba*, *bakula* and *ketakī* flowers encircle their heads. Earrings fashioned from the buds of the *arjuna* perfume their tresses. They anoint their bodies with black *agaru* and sandal paste. The necklaces dangle fully on their pointed breasts and the transparent muslin draping them reveals the firmness of their limbs.

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In the third canto Kalidasa sings the glories of the Indian autumn. The *kusha* grass, the lotuses in bloom, the cackling geese, and the ripening paddy impart a unique charm to this season. The forest carried the fragrance of jasmine flowers and the rivers teemed with fish. The white and silvery autumnal sky is radiantly lit on a full-moon night, the trees are laden with flowers and moved by a gentle breeze and the dancing peacocks attract everybody's attention. The women decorate their tresses with sweet-smelling jasmine and blue lotuses. Their breasts are smeared with sandal paste, and they wear tinkling anklets and chaplets.

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In the fourth canto of the *Rtusamhara*, the pleasures of winter are described. The trees are covered with fresh leaves, the paddy is ready for harvesting, the lotuses have disappeared and the days are now frosty. The black antelopes roam freely, the *krauncha* birds screech and the water is cold and limpid. The courtesans at this time of the year anoint their breasts with saffron paste, wear pearl necklaces, discard their garments and gold jewelry. They anoint their bodies with *agaru* paste, paint designs on their faces and fumigate their hair with *agallochum*. It is naturally the season for love-making. Lovers sleep locked in a deep and tight embrace, their breathing carries the fragrance of sweet smelling flowers. Some hold mirrors in their hands and watch the scratches made on their bodies by their lovers during the ardour of love-making; others are worn out by this love-play and fall into a deep slumber. Their lovely locks fall on their shoulders. Other women, their bodies bent under the weight of heavy bosoms cast away the wreaths from their hair and rearrange their hair. They look at themselves and see the scratches on their lips and their limbs and find the marks of the lover's teeth. Their eyes are slightly closed and their hair hangs loose. There are others who are tired and massage their bodies.

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In the fifth canto the pleasures of *shishira*, late winter, are described. In this season the windows are shuttered, the people love fire and sunshine, warm garments and young courtesans. Sandal paste, open terraces and cool breezes have lost their appeal. The nights are colder on account of the frost and the clear moonlight is of no use to the lovers. Accepting betel, perfumes and garlands, their mouths emitting the sweet aroma of wine, courtesans now enter bedrooms fumigated by *agallochum*. In this season courtesans forget all the faults of their lovers and consort with them. They wear charming *cholis* made of coloured silk They wear flowers in their hair. Lovers drink together at night. The nights are fragrant with the scent of lotuses In the morning they fumigate their hair with fragrant *agaru*-wood and wear garlands that tend to slip from their hair.

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In the sixth canto the comforts of the spring are described. In this season the trees are laden with flowers, the lotus plants grow again, the sweet breeze blows and the days are pleasant. The mango and *ashoka* trees blossom forth, the cuckoo sings and the black bee begins to hum.

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In the spring the women wear saffron-coloured garments. The earrings are of fresh *karnikara* flowers, ashoka and jasmine flowers are intertwined in their hair On their bosoms dangle pearl necklaces besmeared with sandal and they wear bracelets and armlets. Painted designs appear on their faces. Their eyes are red; their bodies are languid; their tongues lisp, their languorous glances betray ardent desires. They paint their breasts with the paste of *priyangu*, *agaru*, saffron, musk and sandal. They discard their heavy garments and wear lac-dyed clothes, fumigated with black *agaru*.

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The picture of courtesans, *goshthis* and other institutions as painted in the romantic literature of this period is clear and interesting. The Vasudeva Hindi and the *Brihatkathashlokasamgraha* give us an insight into the life of the courtesans. They depict the wiles that the courtesans practised on their lovers, the quarters in which they lived, and the luxury that surrounded them.

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Chapter 10 of the *Brıhatkathashlokasamgraha* of Budhasvamın gives an account of the quarter of ill-fame. It describes how Gomukha emerging from the Sujamuna palace (situated at Kaushambı) after his meeting with Padmavati, saw a fine chariot decorated with *chauris*. To this chariot were yoked fine Persian horses. The coachman, after saluting him, informed him that he himself came from a family whose profession was chariot-driving. He had orders from the king to try out these horses. He had obeyed the king's orders but he wanted Gomukha to repeat the experiment. Gomukha hesitated for a while, but Lambakarna, the scribe, turned to him and said, "The king has entrusted me with the task of making lists of all the sensible and all the stupid persons in town. I have yet to meet a single soul who is sensible!" Holding up the record, he showed it to Gomukha and said that if he kept on debating in his mind about this offer of a lovely drive, he proposed to put his name at the head of the list of stupid persons. Gomukha, in order to prove that he was a man of sense, jumped into the chariot.

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Gomukha drove the chariot swiftly till he came to a spot where he saw an elephant ambling in a leisurely fashion. Stopping the chariot, he asked the *mahout* not to obstruct his path. The *mahout* told him finally that what he was doing was right. The elephant was resting and if he tried to disturb him, he would never forgive him. Gamukha had no other choice except to ask the driver to turn the chariot and follow another road. The charioteer led him to the "Palace of Wit" (*chetasyavasa*).

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Here the road was paved with stones, and the shops lining it displayed garlands, ornaments, incense and perfumes. Gomukha went on further and saw a row of palatial garden houses. There he saw a group of intoxicated men and women behaving in a shameless way. A man who was following a young girl was reproached in strong yet tender words, "You boor, why do you touch me, the unfortunate one? Go and caress your village love, who has already been handled by many yokels.” He saw courtesans strumming the *vipanchi* lyre and at other places their plectrums strummed the lute. The chariot moved slowly. Gomukha found some girls studying sheets from a manuscript. The manuscript turned out to be *Vitashastra* or the “Breviary of Rakes”. Even in their sleep they refused to part with this manuscript. It was at this point that Gomukha discovered that the driver had, under false pretences, led him to the quarters where the courtesans lived. Gomukha was full of remorse and shame. He wanted to turn back, but the driver insisted on proceeding further. He stopped in front of a splendid mansion which was humming with activity. He saw beautiful women and polite men. Splendidly attired girls came out and surrounded the chariot and a middle-aged woman approached them with folded hands. She wanted to find out the purpose of their visit. Gomukha saw a beautiful girl engaged in her toilet She sat at the window and was trying to find out from her maids who Gomukha was. The driver knew that Gomukha's heart was drawn to the palace and he asked him to enter it.

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As soon as Gomukha entered the palace, he found in the first apartment a girl reciting lessons in politeness and courtesy. In the second quadrangle he found curtained bullock carts and litters for women In the third quadrangle were tethered horses that had been brought from various foreign countries. In the fourth quadrangle there were peacocks, parrots and mynas, their cages were made of gold and copper and fashioned by expert artisans. In the next quadrangle he found perfumers sitting with containers, and saw different kinds of cloth, and watched jewellers. At the entrance of the house he was received by the courtesans who again wanted to know the purpose of his visit. They described the Palace of Wits as an old palace, beautifully decorated, and not easy to find. In quality it was like the Wishing jewel. It was sanctified by his arrival. Finally he entered the palace and met the woman in charge. Inside the palace Gomukha enjoyed every manner of comfort. The woman in charge urged a girl named Padmadevika to serve him. The girl shampooed his body, and his fatigue seemed to disappear. After shampooing his limbs, she wanted to employ her breasts to shampoo his arms and chest.

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Drinking was frowned upon by the *Dharmashastras*. Yet it was a common enough vice, and drinking booths and halls were provided in the *Vesa*. According to the *Brihatkathashlokasamgraha*, II. 21-33, drinking was an important part of the daily routine of a king. He woke up early in the morning and the bards started their music. Then he adorned himself with splendid clothes, ornaments and garlands. He then proceeded to the audience hall (asthana sthanam). There he granted interviews to important people, distributed awards according to their ranks, and ordered his ministers to arrange for the erection of a drinking booth (*apanabhumi*) in the garden. When the booth was ready, people flocked there and were honoured with gifts of clothes, ornaments, and garlands. The king and his companions drank wine out of ruby cups (*padmaragsukti*). Outside the drinking booths lutes were strummed, there was dance and music. In the evening the king returned to his palace and almost regularly attended musical performances and dramatic shows in which women alone participated.

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The adventures of Sanudasa give clear proof that drinking was a common vice in the Gupta period. The merchant Sanudasa had a friend named Dhruva, who told him that a group of friends had decided to enjoy good food and drinks and watersport in a garden. Dhruva asked him to join them and bring a partner. Sanudasa at first refused the invitation. His plea was that bringing a partner would result in a drunken brawl. But later on he was persuaded to join the party. Dhruva made fun of him and said that if he did not want to drink himself, he could at least watch his friends and their partners enjoy their drinks. So both of them came to the garden and met the revellers who sported flowers and ornaments. A seat of tender mango leaves was offered to him in a bower. There he found his friends drinking in the company of their partners. Some of them sang the song of spring to the accompaniment of the *vina*. Then there appeared a man whose body was covered with moss and mud and who filled up a folded lotus leaf with wine, praised it and assured him that it did not taste at all like wine. The fool Sanudasa while drinking it remarked that it did have a very different taste and everybody laughed.

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This potent stuff went to his head and in that drunken stupor he heard the voice of a woman and followed the voice to a bower. The woman told him that she was Yakshini Gangadatta and if he refused to accept her, that would be his end. He accompanied Gangadatta to her home. She was in fact a courtesan. There he was welcomed by another woman who gave him lotus wine (*pushkara-madhu*). In a drunken state he returned to his friends with Gangadatta and they all laughed at him

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According to the *Vasudeva Hindi*, taverns and gambling halls were the chief resorts of the anti-social elements and the gambling house was a noisy affair. It was frequented by the rich and entrance to it was strictly regulated. The stakes were high. It is mentioned that when Vinadatta won on the basis of the advice of his friend, he challenged the other party to gamble with him if they dared Vinadatta's friend Amsumana accepted the challenge and staked his ornaments and won.

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In another place the *Vasudeva Hindi* refers to gambling for very high stakes In the gambling hall rich men, ministers, caravan masters, superintendents of police and army officers assembled to gamble. Vasudeva staked his ring valued at a hundred thousand. The stakes varied from a hundred thousand to a crore, but five hundred was the lowest stake. The gamblers doubled or trebled the stake after losing. In the end an account was drawn up and the gains and losses of the gamblers were calculated.

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In cockfighting the bets were very high. It is mentioned in the *Vasudeva Hindi* that Vinadatta once went to the market-place of *Shravasti* in the company of his friend Gangarakshita, the doorkeeper. There he was told by Rangapataka's maid that there was to be a fight between the cocks of the courtesans Ratisena and Rangapataka and that he was to act as a referee for Rangapataka. After some hesitation, the friends proceeded to the house of Rangapataka and received a warm welcome there. The cockfight ---\|cu and the wage was a lakh, Vinadatta backed the cock of Rangapataka and it won. Later on the stake was raised to a million and Ratisena's cock was backed by Ganga-rakshita and it won.

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At another point it is mentioned that a courtesan approached a king and challenged him to a cockfight, staking a hundred thousand.

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The Kamasutra has described *yatra* as one of the forms of amusements that the members of *goshthis* favoured. The *Brihatkathashlokasamgraha*, VIII. 1-53 has left us an elaborate description of such a *yatra*. It is said that the ruler of Kaushambi advised Naravahanadatta and his friends to go out and see for themselves the arrangement that was being made for a pleasure trip to Nagavana which was not far off from Kaushambi. They saw huge crowds pouring out of the city gate. They saw horses, elephants and litters (*sibika*). They saw Rumanvasuta mounted on an elephant and the queens Vasavadatta and Padmavati surrounded by chambermaids and palace attendants. There were also courtesans carrying *makarayoshtri* and red flags. Apparently those were symbols of their profession. Naturally their coquetry attracted the crowd

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In order to join the *yatra* Naravahanadatta mounted a chariot which brought him to the city gate. The way was cleared by an attendant (*anujnabhinaya*). The party wanted another view of the crowd so they proceeded to the temple. There they saw a carriage (*pravahana*) which was covered with white cloth and to which were yoked eight bullocks decorated with palm impressions dipped in saffron paste. In the carriage there were many courtesans. One of them held two fingers on her forehead and her other hand was folded with a lotus bud. Poor Naravahanadatta who was ignorant of the art of love could not interpret the meaning of the gesture. His artful companion watched Naravahanadatta's confusion and told him to take off his crown and return the girl's salute. This gave rise to a lot of merriment among the girls for they thought he lacked manners.

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After seeing the amusement park (*kridasthanani*) the party reached the Yamuna river and crossed it in boats.

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They passed the night in the play house (*kridagriha*) and reached Nagavana the next day. There he found crowds of people enjoying themselves. Naravahanadatta's party was led to the rich houses (*yatragriha*). They passed the time in amusement, bathing and eating. The next day the prince's party decided to go on a hunt. They were accompanied by the young Pulindas who were presented with indigo, turmeric, oil pots and yellow garments.

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Another description of a garden party (*udyana yatra*) also appears in the *Vasudeva Hindi*. Dharmika heard that the prince had gone to the garden with the members of the *goshthi*. He was a friend of the prince so he got into the *goshthis*, and decked himself with clothes and ornaments. He was accompanied by two courtesans; he drove his chariot to the pleasure garden. There the servant fixed the silken tents and pavilions, and furnished them with beds. A large tent serving as a dining hall was pitched at a pleasant spot. Flowers were spread on the floor and the flower seats were arranged according to their position they occupied in society and this was all sanctioned by the king. They occupied their seats. They were clad in fine clothes and ornaments and entered after they had perfumed their bodies. When the dinner was over the inebriated courtesans sang and danced.

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One of the pastimes which the members of a *goshthi* favoured was cutting different kinds of patterns on the leaves. It is related in the *Vasudeva Hindi* that Dhammilla, in the course of his adventures rested for some time on the banks of the river Chandra near Champa. He cut out many designs on lotus leaves and placed them in a boat which reached the Ganga. While he sat there cutting out these designs two persons approached him and they wanted him to attend the *lalita goshthi* of the prince of Champa which was being held in the Ganga and the party was extremely impressed by his designs.

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The *Brihatkathashlokasamgraha*, IX. 1-7 repeats this story in another form. It attributes proficiency in cutting the designs to Gomukha, a bosom friend of Naravahanadatta. The story runs that Gomukha thought of a way of amusing his friend by cutting designs out of lotus petals. These blended properly with the cheeks of the women. To satisfy their friends’ curiosity Gomukha described in detail the designs employed in *patrachchhedya*. The designs were of four kinds—triangular (*tryasra*), rectangular (*chaturasra*), long (*dīrgha*) and circular (*vritta*). The triangular pattern was used for cutting the figures of cattle, birds, houses and so on. The rectangular design was employed for cutting the patterns of the city, of men etc. The long pattern was employed for representing lakes, rivers, pathways, canopies (*pratana*), etc., and the circular designs for spaces in a necklace (*bhūshanasamyoga*).

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Not only were designs cut from lotus flowers but picking the lotus flowers was a favourite form of amusement of the women of eastern India and was known as *padmabhanjika*. It appears that the fountains in the public gardens of Kaushambi were especially equipped for that kind of game. In one place, the *Vasudeva Hīndī* (tr. p. 45) paints a fine picture of the *ashoka bhanjika*. The adventurer Agadadatta saw a red *ashoka* tree in a garden which was laden with red flowers. Swarms of black bees were humming close to it. Under the tree appeared a girl holding a branch with the right hand and her one leg rested on the tree trunk.

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The *Vasudeva Hīndī* is full of stories and incidents which throw considerable light on the courtesan and her way of life. One story takes place in a particular town where there lived a beautiful and qualified courtesan who was visited by the king, his ministers, and other rich clients. When they left her house they gave her ornaments as a token of the memory of their visit. Once a clever son of a banker visited her house and saw a footstool inlaid with five porcelain gems. He asked the courtesan to give it to him as a memento and she gave it to him.

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A second episode relates the story of Kuberadatta, a renowned courtesan of Mathura. She was pregnant and it was obvious that she was going to give birth to twins. This was regarded as an inauspicious event. She was advised by her mother to place the twins when they were born, into a bowl and to set it afloat in a river. Her mother’s advice was based more than anything else on the calculation that this would preserve her daughter's charm. In course of time a son and a daughter were born to the courtesan. She named them Kuberadatta and Kuberadatta respectively. She put a signet ring on the fingers of each of the twins and placed them in a boat filled with gold and precious stones. She allowed the boat to slide away in the waters of the Jamuna Fortunately two women espied the boats and each woman adopted one baby. When they grew up, it was arranged that the boy should marry the girl. During the wedding festivities the women arranged a gambling match between the bride and the bridegroom and made them exchange their rings. The secret was out and the match was broken.

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The story of Vasantatilaka and Dhammilla throws an interesting sidelight on the profession of a courtesan. Dhammilla, a foolish young man, was the son of a rich caravan leader. His wife's desire remained unsatisfied. His mother learnt of this state of affairs and she gave her son some advice. She said, "What is the use of all your learning? Try to enjoy the pleasures of life. Gather some experience in the arts of love." To furnish him with this experience she got him admitted to the *lalitagoshthi*, and she did this in spite of her husband's protestations. Then he and the members of the club (*gotthiyajana*) roamed the gardens and forests of the area and visited a gambling house (*sabha*). They wanted to get used to a luxurious mode of living.

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One day the king decided to witness the debut (*padhamanatta vihidamsanam*) of Vasantasena's daughter. He sent for the head of the *goshthi* and asked him to invite assessors (*pasaniye*) to judge this dance recital. The head invited Dhammilla to act as one of the assessors When everybody, including the king, had occupied their seats, the dance began The stage (*bhumibhae*) was well decorated and designed for a dance performance. The dancer was endowed with beauty and vigour. The choreography, the change in *varnas*, the gestures simulating the movements of black bees, the expression in the eyes expressing haughty indifference, and the gestures of the hands. all followed the principle laid down in the *Natyashastra*. The dance was accompanied by the strains of a *vina*, and by drums and vocal music.

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The performance drew a prolonged applause from the audience. The only comment that the assessor Dhammilla made was that Vasantatilaka danced like a nymph. The king was pleased and honoured her with a court award. Dhammilla now began visiting Vasantatilaka's house regularly, listened to music and improved his acquaintance with other arts. To meet his expenses his parents sent to the mother of the courtesan a sum of five hundred *karshapanas* daily. This proved to be a heavy drain on their family's resources and soon they were reduced to penury. Even Dhammilla's wife had to send her own ornaments to help continue this liaison.

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One day, however, Vasantatilaka's mother told the infatuated lover that since he was now a pauper, the time had come for him to quit. But Vasantatilaka loved Dhammilla intensely and she frankly told her mother that she would not bear any separation from him. The mother pretended to accede to her daughter's wishes. But she actually worked out a plan to get rid of him. To gain her end, she decided to hold a festival in honour of the local deity (*kabbadadevata*) and invited her relatives and other courtesans to be present at the festival. After the worship of the deity, Dhammilla ate and drank in the company of Vasantatilaka and her friends. Soon he was in an absolutely drunken state and Vasantatilaka's mother got him removed to a place outside the city. When he gained consciousness, Dhammilla bemoaned his fate and cursed the perfidy of the courtesan. But there was nothing left for him to do but proceed to his own home. There he found that his parents had died. He was disgusted with his life and retreated to a forest.

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In the meanwhile, Vasantatilaka rose from the state of torpor and asked everybody where her lover was. She learned about the mean trick played upon her lover. She tied up her hair in a single braid and took a vow that she would not untie it till her lover returned.

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Sometimes courtesans married their lovers. This is evident from Charusami's adventures with a courtesan. The adventure began when he saw a woman resting against an *ashoka* tree. She wore costly jewelry, and her body was draped in fine linen. He asked her who she was. She said that she was a nymph who had been sent to attend on him. He was convinced that she was a nymph. He asked his servant to serve dinner and invited the stranger to join him. When he was under the influence of drink he heard a voice say, "This man is under my control." Later on the woman drove him to her house. When the effect of drinks had worn off, Charusami found himself in the house of the courtesan Vasantatilaka. There she revealed to him her true identity and explained to him that she loved him deeply. She said that the subterfuge has been the work of her friends. He was extremely gratified when he heard her words and married her.

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Music and dancing formed an integral part of the *goshthi* culture. Accomplishment in dancing and music was an essential qualification for any courtesan. Frequently competitions were held to judge the merit of the dancers. Music was regarded as a heavenly gift It is said that owing to the practice of magic taught by a Vidyadhara two *chetis*—Babbari and a Kirati—learnt music and dance. Their voices became melodious. Such was their absorption in dance that they were indifferent to worldly things.

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It is mentioned that when the time came for a prince to depart in order to protect a hermitage, four courtesans named Chitrasena, Kalingasena, Anangasena and Kamapataka, participated in a dance competition. One of the slaves of Kamapataka arranged the "needle dance" (*suinattam*). The dancer took a vow to worship the Jina if she won the first place in the competition. The prince was pleased by her skill and honoured her with a gift of ornaments, an umbrella and a *chauri*.

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Another kind of dance is mentioned where they kept time with water clocks and in which a prince acted as an assessor. It is said that two dancing girls Hiranna and Suvanna gave a dance recital in which Samba acted as an assessor. He came to the garden and sat before the performers. Then Hiranna danced keeping time with the water clock (*nalikagalaya*). When this "water test" (*udaka-* *parikkha*) was over, Suvanna performed thirty-two kinds of dances. In the end the winner was bathed in the water that still remained in the mechanism of the water clock.

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In the *Brihatkathashlokasamgraha*, XI, the dance of Madanamanchuka reveals how such performances used to be arranged. The dance was arranged on the orders of Udayana. Naravahanadatta went to the venue of the performance accompanied by his friends and *nagarakas*. They entered the king's palace and after saluting him, sought to occupy their allotted seats round the throne. They saw the venue of the performance (*rangangana*) crowded with an appreciative audience (*kushalaprekshakulam*). The two dance-teachers saluted the king and informed him that the dancers were ready and awaited his permission to begin the dance. The king left the selection of the first entry to Gomukha, whose choice fell on Suyamunadatta. As soon as she came on the stage the clamour of the crowd subsided. Her dance received tremendous applause though the competition was actually won by Madanamanchuka.

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Two versions of a musical competition shed interesting light on the manner in which competitions were held. The *Vasudeva Hindi* relates that Vasudeva while entering Champa saw a crowd of young men carrying *vinas*. Wagon loads of *vinas* were surrounded by prospective buyers. When Vasudeva made enquiries and tried to find out why these people acted in this strange fashion, he was told that Gandharvadatta, the daughter of the merchant Charudatta, was a great exponent of the *vina* and her father had announced that he would bestow her on the man who could defeat her in a music competition. Vasudeva's curiosity was roused and he asked for the addresses of some music teachers. He was directed to two music teachers, Sugriva and Jayagriva. He approached Sugriva and feigning ignorance of music, requested him to give him lessons in music. At first the teacher refused to teach him but the gift of a jewelled bracelet to his wife softened his attitude. Homage was paid to Narada and Tumburu and then the teacher asked Vasudeva to play on the *vina* with a sandalwood bow. In the very first lesson he broke the strings which were replaced by stronger ones and the lessons continued. The day of the competition approached and Vasudeva wanted to participate in the competition but the teacher refused him permission. The gift of yet another bracelet did the trick and he was allowed to attend the competition.

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In the *sabha* arranged for the competition Vasudeva saw the experts occupying raised seats while other people sat on the floor. Charudatta offered the king a raised seat. Gandharvadatta sat behind a curtain and the competition began. Nobody dared to challenge her. Vasudeva asked for a *vina* but rejected it on the plea that the gourd-resonator was not properly charged. He rejected the second *vina* on the plea that it was made of water-soaked wood and this resulted in false notes. Then they brought a sandalwood *vina* decorated with fragrant flowers. Then Gandharvadatta and he played the *vina* and sang the *Vishnugitaka*, which was applauded by the gathering.

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A very elaborate version of this story also appears in the *Brihatkathashlokasamgraha*, XVI-XVII. The story relates that Naravahanadatta was dropped by Vidyadhara Amitagati into an unknown country A dense forest surrounded the place. After crossing the forest, he came to a garden and asked the gardener the name of its owner. The poor man was nonplussed when this question was put to him. He was sure that the questioner was joking. Naravahanadatta was disappointed. He came to a second garden provided with a huge gateway (*torana*). In this country-house he found a man seated on a slab of stone provided with a pillow. The man was strumming a *vina*. This *nagaraka* was so absorbed in music that he did not at first see Naravahanadatta approaching him, but when Naravahanadatta addressed him he got up and welcomed the stranger. He offered him a seat by his side. Naravahanadatta asked him the name of the country and the man said that he must have fallen from heaven to ask such a question, or perhaps he was trying to deceive him!

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Naravahanadatta invented a story about himself. He told the man that he was a Brahman who lived in Vatsa and that he had allowed himself to be carried away by a *Yakshi* who had fallen in love with him. But after a lovequarrel she had carried him through the air and had left him in this unknown spot. The man told him that this was the country of Anga and that he was in the city of Champa. His own name was Dattaka, though his friends, out of affection for him, called him Vinadattaka because of his proficiency in playing the *vina*. After revealing his identity, he ordered an attendant to bring his conveyance. Mounting the carriage they drove to Champa.

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As they entered the city, people wondered why the foremost citizen of Champa had accorded a seat in his chariot to an unknown guest. Naravahanadatta also observed that even the tillers of the soil and the herdsmen were engaged in playing the *vinas*. Near the city gate he found wagons carrying parts of *vinas*. These were all for sale. Soon they reached the market road and Naravahanadatta found to his surprise that carpenters, potters and cane-workers were all playing the *vina*. At last Naravahanadatta reached the city house of Vinadattaka.

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There Vinadattaka asked his servant to treat Naravahanadatta with respect as he would his own master. Since Naravahana had said that he was a Brahman, Vinadattaka ordered thick rice pudding (*payasam*) for him. Thereafter his body was shampooed and oiled by an expert (*mardana-shastrajnah*). Then he bathed his body and wore costly garments. After doing obeisance before the household deities, he went with Vinadattaka to the dining hall (*bhojanamandapam*). Vinadattaka took his seat among his close relatives. Naravahanadatta had said that he was a Brahman so he was provided with a separate seat. The cook served him rice pudding in a golden cup and the *ghee* and honey in an amethyst bowl. When he saw the tasty food and drinks served to others, Naravahanadatta found it difficult to sustain the part of a Brahman. He pretended that his tongue had been scalded by the hot pudding and made out that he was trying to cool it with water.

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The trick was detected by Vinadattaka and he was offered fragrant water which he accepted very readily. He also enjoyed meat cooked with condiments (*adhishthana samkulan*). After dinner, a bed was prepared for him in the same hall and he was offered perfumed pills (*mukha-* *gandharaga*) and betel leaves. He lay down in comfort and asked Vinadattaka why the entire city's life revolved round *vina*-playing. He was told that Gandharvadatta, the beautiful daughter of the merchant prince Sanudasa, was to be given in marriage to a man who could accompany her on the *vina* as she sang an unfamiliar song. Every six months she performed before a group of sixty-four *nagarakas*, but so far nobody had succeeded in winning her. Towards the end of this conversation two cane-bearers sent by Sanudasa came to tell Vinadattaka that a meeting of friends was to be arranged and they were to participate in the show (*samasya*).

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Naravahanadatta heard the news. He pretended that he knew no music but was anxious to learn. At his request Vinadattaka found him a teacher. This teacher who had a harsh voice and who was unfamiliar with the *Shrutis* and musical notes claimed that he was a great exponent of the *Naradiya* system of music Naravahanadatta enraged at the tall claims of the teacher felt that to lose a kingdom was better than accepting such a person as a tutor. But this teacher was welcomed by Vinadattaka and his party and ignoring the presence of Naravahanadatta he took his seat. Vinadattaka then requested him to give Naravahanadatta lessons in Narada's musical system. The pompous Guru turned down the suggestion. He said this future disciple of his would not be able to pay him even a dime (*kakini*) for his troubles. He said knowledge from a teacher could be obtained either by serving him or by paying him money. Naravahanadatta could do neither of these two things.

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When he heard these uncalled for remarks, Vinadattaka mildly rebuked the teacher and gave him hundred gold coins. After paying homage to Narada and Sarasvati, the teacher handed over to Naravahanadatta a *vina* that had been very badly strung. When he took it in the lap, this teacher rebuked him and said that a person who could not even hold a *vina* properly hardly deserved to receive lessons in music. The teacher then began his lessons using the *nishada* note in the place of *shadaja*. Angered at this ignorance, Naravahanadatta snapped four or five strings of the *vina* for which he was mildly rebuked by Vinadattaka.

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Touched to the quick and forgetting for a moment the role he had decided to assume, he took the broken *vina* in his hands and played a tune which demonstrated an intimate knowledge of music Everybody applauded him but the teacher said it was mere chance that he had managed to play so well. He pocketed his fees and left.

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After the night meal Naravahanadatta entered a sleeping room that had been perfumed with flower garlands and incense smoke. Two beautiful girls (*rupajiva*) appeared and they tried to entertain him with soft, endearing speeches and with music In order to save himself from their music which sounded to him like the braying of an ass, he feigned sleep This forced them to leave.

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Naravahanadatta got up in the middle of the night and saw the *vina* of Vinadattaka in the room It was wrapped in figured silk (*chitrapatta*) and hanging on a peg. He wanted to practise a little on it, since this was something he had not been able to do for a long time. He took down the *vina*. Slowly with the upward and downward movement and without touching it with his fingers, he tuned it. The soft melodious music created a stir among the sleeping inmates of the house They thought it was the goddess Sarasvati playing the *vina* If the beginning was so beautiful, the end was bound to be absolutely wonderful. Naravahanadatta heard their voices and quickly kept the *vina* where it was before and went to sleep. When the crowd entered his room, they found nothing out of the ordinary. They consoled themselves with the belief that the goddess Sarasvati could not reveal herself to such petty fellows like themselves!

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In the morning Naravahanadatta received the news that he was invited to the music competition (*gandharvasamasya*) of Sanudasa and that he should drive to this party with other invitees Naravahanadatta told his friend Vinadattaka that he and his friends could drive to the residence of Sanudasa but that he himself preferred to walk. Vinadattaka welcomed the idea and placed him at the tail end of the party. They all walked to the venue of the competition. This did not please the *nagarakas* who blamed him for leaving the conveyance behind and deciding to cover the long distance on foot.

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By the roadside Naravahanadatta saw a big palace. Women had congregated there to see Naravahanadatta the beloved of a Yakshi. Walking slowly, the party reached the house of Sanudasa. There he saw in the first apartment (*kaksha*) sixty-four seats draped with costly silk covers. The guests were welcomed by the master of the house who led them to their seats. When he saw Naravahanadatta, he expressed his regret for not providing him with a seat. Vinadattaka at once offered him his own seat. But as long as he stood, the others were forced to stand as a matter of courtesy. A suitable seat was offered to Naravahanadatta and then they all sat down Three hundred courtesans entered and washed the feet of the guests. They poured out water from ewers. When one of them reached Naravahanadatta the ewer slipped from her hands. She became bashful and confused. Such was his grace that all the women hoped that he would marry Gandharvadatta.

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After the ceremony was over, the nagarakas were led to a big hall (*sabha*). The chamberlain announced that Gandharvadatta was ready to begin the performance. This announcement confused the nagarakas, who were well aware of their own limitations. Naravahanadatta alone maintained his composure. Others thought he was only putting up a bold front and was actually a very stupid person.

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At this juncture the curtain was pulled aside and accompanied by the chamberlain and her attendants, Gandharvadatta entered the hall. Her beauty overpowered the assembly (*goshthi*). Then the chamberlain invited those who wanted to accompany her to come and play. The nagarakas pressed Vinadattaka to go ahead and play but he did not dare to move from his place. As soon as she started singing Naravahanadatta knew that it was the song of Narayana (*Narayani-gita*). He had learnt it from Udayana and it was known to gods and heroes only. Naravahanadatta stood up to accept the challenge. This surprised Vinadattaka and the others. They strongly disapproved of his childishness, but he refused to be browbeaten. He went and sat by the side of Gandharvadatta. A *vina* was brought to him but he rejected it saying that its resonator was full of cobwebs which deadened the sound. The *nagarakas*, scandalized by his behaviour called him a shameless man who was out to court notoriety. They said it was not possible for a Brahman well-versed in the Vedas to play the *vina*. But when the cobweb was found in the resonator, everybody was surprised. A second *vina* was also rejected because its strings were not good enough Finally Sanudasa brought in a *vina* whose resonator was shaped like a tortoise. It was decorated with fragrant flowers. Naravahanadatta after washing his feet and circumambulating the *vina* took his seat on the platform which was covered with silk. He fingered the instrument and set it in tune and then began playing on the *gandharva* scale. He now invited Gandharvadatta to begin her song. His perfect accompaniment to her song won him the hand of Gandharvadatta. Then the chamberlain asked the *nagarakas* to leave

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The nagarakas usually enjoyed pleasant company. But from time to time they had to face scoundrels lurking in wine shops, in gambling dens, in sweetmeat shops, in the convents of the yellow and red-robed monks or in the houses of low-class prostitutes, in gardens and in deserted temples etc.

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In the story of Dhanasiri and Viniyoga the dangers from a *dindi*, a class of worthless loafers and toughs are emphasized. This story is about a woman who was sitting with her lover on a terrace and enjoying herself. A *dindi* dressed in fashionable attire was passing by the house and the woman happened to spit out her *pan* which fell on the fellow. He looked up, saw the lady, fell in love with her, and decided to win her through her lover. For that purpose he called him to his house and gave him money and asked him to help him in the venture. Then the woman and her lover decided to have their revenge. The *dindi* was asked to wait in the *ashoka* grove (*ashoka vatika*) in the evening. There they met him and plied him with drinks and chopped off his head.

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In the post-Gupta period the pattern of life continued as in the previous centuries—only in a more elaborate form. As a matter of fact, the literature of the time reveals a luxurious mode of existence. This was reflected in the highly decorated palaces which housed a multitude of attendants, courtesans and harem inmates. The king led a life of comfort and he showed the same interest in festivals, music, dancing and *goshthi* that he had displayed in the Gupta period. The *goshthi*, with its well organized membership, continued to exist. Gambling, drinking and prostitution were widely prevalent and in spite of the *shastric* injunctions against these vices, human nature seemed to have found delight in all of them.

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