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Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c12: Introductory

Life in Ancient India as Depicted in the Jain Canons, with Commentaries: An Administrative, Economic, Social and Geographical Survey c12

Language
English

Contents

Introductory

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Indian society gives expression to the great principle that life is a long pilgrimage extending beyond death into the infinite and the eternal Let each individual in the society endeavour for his own welfare, but his interests should not run counter to the interests of the society The paths followed by individuals may be separate but the ultimate goal must be the same. "The Greatest Good of the Greatest Number" should be the motto

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In the following section we have made an attempt to collect the scattered material depicting the Social Life of ancient Indian people with a view to grasping the ordinary life and activities of the early people The first of these, the *Gospel of the Hebrews*, was used by the Jewish Christians of Palestine, and was probably a version of the Gospel of Matthew, though it contained some traditions not found in our canonical books. The *Gospel of the Egyptians* was used by the ascetic sects of Egypt, and was marked by a strong tendency towards mysticism and asceticism. The *Gospel of Peter* was used by the Docetists, and taught that Christ did not really suffer, but only appeared to do so.

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These gospels, and others like them, were not accepted by the Church as a whole, and were gradually lost or suppressed. The Church, however, felt the need for a standard collection of writings that would serve as a guide for faith and practice. This led to the formation of the New Testament canon, a process that took several centuries to complete.

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The first step in this process was the collection of the letters of Paul, which were widely circulated among the churches. Then came the four Gospels, which were accepted as the authoritative accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus. The Acts of the Apostles and the other epistles were gradually added, and finally the Book of Revelation.

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By the end of the second century, the core of the New Testament was generally accepted by the Church. The process of canonization was not a formal act of a council, but rather a gradual recognition by the churches of the writings that were most valuable for their life and worship. It was only in the fourth century that the canon was formally closed by the councils of the Church.

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The formation of the New Testament canon was a crucial event in the history of the Church. It provided a standard of faith and practice that helped to unify the Church and to protect it from the influence of heretical sects. It also ensured that the teachings of Jesus and the apostles would be preserved for future generations.

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SOCIAL ORGANISATION

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Caste-system (*vaṇṇa*) was the back-bone of the ancient Indian Society.

The Ārya and the Anārya

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Jain texts draw a distinction between the Ārya and the Anārya. According to the Vedic literature the characteristic physical difference between the two races was that of colour. The Āryans who were the conquerors were fair-coloured and the aborigines or the non-Āryans, who formed the subjugated race, were dark-coloured¹.

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¹ See Senart, *Caste in India*, p 122 f. For various theories of origin of caste, see *Census India*, 1931, Vol I, Pt. I, pp 433 ff.

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Jain texts divide the Āryans into five classes:—Āryan by country (*khetta*), birth (*jāti*), family (*kula*), trade (*kamma*), language (*bhāsā*) and art and handicraft (*sippa*)².

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² Panna 1 37.

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The twenty five and a half Āryan countries will be described later on. Among the Āryans by birth we have six respectable castes (*ibbhajāti*) such as *Ambattha*, *Kalinda*, *Videha*, *Vedaga*, *Hanta* and *Cuñcuna* (or *Tunṭuna*). Among Āryans by family there were *Ugga*, *Bhoga*, *Rāinna*, *Ikkhāga*. *Nāta* and *Koravva*.³ Among Āryans by trade we had dealers in cloth (*dosiya*), weavers (*sottiya*), dealers in cotton (*kappāsiya*), dealers in yarn (*suttaveḍhiya*), grocers (*bhandaveḍhiya*), potters (*kolāliya*) and carriers of litters (*naravāhaṇiya*).⁴ Among Āryans by art and handicraft we had tailors (*tunṇāya*), weavers (*tantuvāya*), silk weavers (*paṭṭagāra*), makers of leather bags for holding water (*deyaḍa*), feather-brush-makers or rope-makers (*varuḍa*), mat-makers (*chavviya*), wooden sandal-makers (*hatthapāuṇāya*), grass sandal-makers (*muñjapāuṇāya*), umbrella-makers (*chattakāra*), carriage-makers (*vajjhāra = vāhyakāra*), model-makers (*potthāra*), plaster-makers (*leppakāra*), painters (*cittāra*), workers in conch-shell (*saṅkhāra*), workers in ivory (*dantāra*), braziers (*bhaṇḍāra*), *jijjhagāra* (?), spear-makers (*sellagāra*), and workers in cowries (*koḍigāra*)⁵.

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³ However, it should be noted that *Ambattha* and *Videha* are mentioned as low castes; see infra.

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⁴ The *Anu Sū* 130, p. 136a adds grass cutters, stick-gatherers and leaf-gatherers, etc., also cf *Milindapañha*, p 331.

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⁵ Cf The *Rāmāyaṇa* (II, 83 12 ff) which mentions *maṇikāra kumbhakāra, sūtrakarmakṛt sastropajīvī, mayūraka krākacika, rocaka, vedhaka, dantakāra, sudhākāra, gandhopajīvī, suvarṇakāra, kambaladhātaka, snāpaka, ucchādaka, vardya, dhūṭaka, saundaka, rajaka, tunṇāya, grāmamahattara, ghoṣamahattara, sailūṣa, and kauṇḍaka*.

Four Classes

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Jainism and Buddhism opposed the caste system asserting the social superiority of the Kṣatriyas over the Brāhmaṇas. Yet it is a mistake to suppose that caste-distinctions were abolished during the period of Mahāvīra and Buddha The four classes such as Bambhana, Khattiya, Vaissa and Sudda are mentioned in the Jain Suttas ⁶ According to the Jain tradition during the time of Usabha those who were state-officers were styled as Khattiyas and those who were landlords and bankers as Gāhāvais Then came into being the Vāniyagas and the Vaissas. Later on during the reign of Bharata came into existence the Bambhanas or Māhanas⁷ and then the Suddas Besides these primary vannas there were mixed castes formed from the union of different castes.⁸

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⁶ Cf Uttarā 25 31 , Vivā 5, p 33 , Ācā Niy 19 27

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⁷ The Jain texts give a curious explanation of the term Māhana It is said that once Bharata invited the Jain monks to partake various kinds of eatables and their being refused, distributed them among the sātagas These sātagas were of simple nature and religious-minded, and whenever they saw anybody killing, they stopped him by saying “do not kill” (mā hana) and hence they came to be known as Māhanas (Ārā cū p 5 also cf ibid, p 213 f, Vasu p 184)

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⁸ In the line of Manu the following mixed castes are mentioned in the Jain texts Ambattha, Ugga Nisāda, Augava, Māgadha, Sūta, Khattā, Vaideha and Caṇḍāla Then through further combination between mixed castes we have Sovāga, Venava, Bokkasa and Kukkuraa (Ācā Niy 21-27, cf Manu. X 6-56, also Gautama, IV 16 ff)

The Brāhmaṇas

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In Jain texts the Brāhmaṇas are held in contempt and are represented as the opponents of the Jain religion Frequently the term dhujāi (dhik jāti) “condemned caste” is used for them contemptuously In Jain Suttas as stated above, generally the primary position in society is assigned to the Khattiyas instead of the Bambhanas We have seen that no Tīrthaṅkara was born in a family other than the Kṣatriyas It is laid down that no great men are ever born in low, miserly, beggarly or in Brahmanical families A legend tells us that before his birth Mahāvīra was removed from the womb of Brāhmaṇī Devānandā to that of Kṣatriyānī Triśalā.⁹

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⁹ Kalpa 2 22 Cf a similar view expressed in the Nidānakathā (I, p 49) that the Buddhas are born in one or other of the two highest classes the Khattiya or the Brāhmaṇa castes and never in the low caste The Buddhist writers in enumeration of four castes invariably mention the Kṣatriyas before the Brāhmaṇas Cf also Vājasaneya saṃhitā (XXXVIII 19) and Kathaka (28 5) where Kṣatriyas are stated superior to the Brāhmaṇas (Majumdar, op cit, pp 367 369, Fick op cit, p 84 ff) For a controversy regarding the superiority of castes between Vasistha, a Brāhmaṇa and Viśvāmitra a Kṣatriya, see Dr. G. S, Ghurye, Caste and Race in India, p 63 f.

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But it should be noted that though the Jain stories seem to make the position of the Bambhanas inferior to that of the Khattiyas, the Brāhmaṇas enjoyed a high position in the society. It is stated in the Nisītha cūrṇi that the Brāhmaṇas were gods in heaven, the Prajāpati created them on earth as divine beings and so offering alms to them results in gain of spiritual merit¹⁰ Then the terms Samaṇa and Māhana frequently occur together in the Jain texts which shows that the homeless ascetics and the Brāhmaṇas were identical.¹¹ The pre-eminent position of the Brāhmaṇas is also evidenced by the fact that Mahāvīra was styled as Māhaṇa¹² or Mahāmāhaṇa.¹³

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¹⁰ 12, p. 865,

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¹¹ Cf. Ica cū. p. 93, cf. Samyutta, Samaṇa Brāhmaṇa Sutta (II p. 129 f, 236 f, IV, p. 231 f, V, p. 1).

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¹² Sūya 9.1.

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¹³ Uā 7.

Jain Conception of Brāhmaṇa

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Jain writers like those of the Buddhists lay stress on one's deeds rather than one's birth. It is said that one does not become a Sāmaṇa by the tonsure, nor a Brāhmaṇa by enchanting the sacred syllable ‘Om’, nor a Muni by living in woods, nor a Tāvasa by wearing clothes of kusa grass and bark, but one becomes a Sāmaṇa by equanimity of mind, a Brāhmaṇa by chastity, a Muni by knowledge and a Tāvasa by penance. In fact, a person's worth in life is determined by virtuous life and not by birth.¹⁴ The ridicule of caste system reaches its highest pitch when Hariesa, a soāga by birth, visited a sacrificial enclosure (jamacāḍa) of a Brāhmaṇa teacher and preached him that the real fire was penance, the real fire-place was life, the real ladle (suā) was right exertion, the real cow-dung was body, the real fire-wood was karman, the real oblation was self-control, right exertion and tranquility, the sacred pond was law and the real bathing-place was celibacy.¹⁵ But it is interesting to note that in spite of those caste-denouncing preachings and sermons the Jains could not do away with the time honoured restrictions of caste. They drew a line of distinction between high tribes (jāti-ārya) and low tribes (jāti-jungiya), high trade (kamma-ārya) and low trade (kamma-jungiya) and high crafts (sippa-ārya) and low crafts (sippa-jungiya)¹⁶ which we shall see shortly.

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¹⁴ Uttara 25.29 ff. Cf. a similar view of the Buddhist writers. Birth and caste cause conceit, virtue is the highest, Khattiya, Brāhmaṇa, Vessa, Sudda, Caṇḍāla and Pukkasa all become equal in the world of God if they have acted virtuously here, Sutta Nipāta I, 7, III, 9, Lick op. cit. p. 29. Majjhima op. cit. pp. 354-363.

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¹⁵ Uttara 12.4 ff.

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¹⁶ Cf. the Buddhists who stood as great champions for the purity of blood by keeping the family pure through marriage confined to the people of one's standing and profession and not to allow it to degenerate through mixture with lower elements (Fick op. cit., p. 52). Cf. also Ghuve op. cit. p. 66 also see Sammele Vinoda-ni (p. 410) where kamma and sippa are divided into high and low.

Their Privileges

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Whatever view the Jains may have had about the Brāhmaṇas, it is certain that generally they were held in respect and esteem by the people as pointed out already. We are told that king Bharata fed them daily and distinguished them from others by putting the mark of kākinī jewel on their person.¹⁷ The kings showed liberality towards them by offering gifts. We learn that the Nandas of Pāṭaliputta gave away wealth to the Brāhmaṇas¹⁸ Vararuci, a Brāhmaṇa, received one hundred and eight dīnāras every day for reciting the same number of verses in praise of the king¹⁹ Not only kings but other people also gave away charity and paid reverence to the Brāhmaṇas, whose services they required on various occasions On special occasions such as birth, death-ceremony etc. they were invited to meals.²⁰

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¹⁷ Ava. cū. p. 213 f.

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¹⁸ Uttarā Ṭī 3, p 57

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¹⁹ ibid 2, 27 a

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²⁰ Uttarā Ṭī 13, p 194 a

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Besides, the Brāhmaṇas enjoyed certain other privileges, such as immunity from taxes and capital punishment We have seen as to how a Brāhmaṇa was received by a certain king on his discovery of a treasure-trove whereas a merchant was despised for the same and his property confiscated²¹

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²¹ See Supra p. 62

Study

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The Brāhmaṇas were versed in the fourteen subjects of study (caud-dasa vijjatṭhāna), and were generally employed by the king We are told that Kāsava was a state Brāhmaṇa of Kosambi and after his death his place was given to another Brāhmaṇa²² There were teachers moving in the company of their pupils²³

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²² Uttarā Ṭī. 8, p 123 a

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²³ Uttarā Sū 12 19

Sacrifice

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The practice of sacrifice was very common among the Brāhmaṇas During his tour Mahāvīra is stated to have spent the rainy season in a sacrificial house (aggihottavasahī) of a Brāhmaṇa of Campā²⁴

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²⁴ Ā.a cū. p 320

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Then we hear of Vijayaghosa who was engaged in performing Brāhmaṇical sacrifice The monk Jayaghosa approached him for alms and converted him to his faith,²⁵ after preaching the true sacrifice We have already referred to Ajja Sejjambhava who was engaged in his sacrificial duties when visited by the pupils of Pabhava Besides, the Brāhmaṇas were employed by the kings for the same purpose Reference has been made to the priest Mahesaradatta who was versed in the four Vedas and who used to perform sacrifice to avert evil against the king²⁶

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²⁵ Uttarā 25.

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²⁶ See Supra p 58.

Other Professions

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Another profession in which the Brāhmaṇas were interested was that of dream-reading (suvinapādhaga) and fortune-telling On the birth of a king's child it seems to have been a standing custom to have the future predicted by the Brāhmaṇas. Signs (lakkhana) in the body were interpreted by the Brāhmaṇas versed in the signs of predicting the future We are told that, when Mahāvīra was born, king Siddhārtha sent for the interpreter of dreams (suviṇalakkhaṇapādhaya), versed in the eight divisions of Mahānimitta and other sciences, who predicted the future of the child ²⁷ Then we hear of a fortune-teller who prophesied the fall of Indra’s thunderbolt on the head of the lord of Poyanapura.²⁸ People ascertained from the Brāhmaṇas whether a day was good for a journey, when the latter uttered benediction praying for safe journey.²⁹

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²⁷ Kalpa Sū 4 60 ff

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²⁸ Uttarā Ṭī 18 p 242

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²⁹ Nāya 8, p 98

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Magic and demon-worship was another profession practised by the Brāhmaṇas which we shall treat in a separate chapter Medical profession is mentioned as still another profession of the Brāhmaṇas

The Khattiyas

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As we have seen in contrast to the Brāhmaṇical works which state the Brāhmaṇa superiority, Jain writers like those of the Buddhists claim an undisputable supremacy for the Khattiyas The Kṣatriyas learnt seventy two arts and achieved efficiency in the art of fighting. They acquired the right to rule the country by the strength of their arm A number of Khattiya kings and princes are mentioned who achieved the ideal of Jina-hood.

The Gahāvais

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The Gahāvais³⁰ or the householders correspond to the traditional Vaisya order of the Hindus of ancient India They were rich, owned land and cattle and belonged to the mercantile class Jain texts mention a number of Gahāvais, who were adherents of Jain faith (samaṇo-vāsaga), and after taking to the homeless life attained salvation Reference has been made to the householder Ānanda, a rich land-owner of Vāṇiyagāma, who possessed a large number of cattle, ploughs and carts Pārāsara was another Gahāvai who was prosperous in agriculture (kisi) and hence he was known as Kisipārāsara, he had six hundred ploughs ³¹ Kuiyanna is described as another Gahāvai who is said to have possessed a number of herds of kine ³² Then Gosankhī, a kutumbī, is mentioned as the lord of the Abhuas, his son used to journey to Campā for trade with the carts loaded with ghee³³. Nanda is mentioned as another influential setthi of Rāyagiha.³⁴

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³⁰ The Gahāvais were also known by the terms Ibjha, Setthi and koḍumbiya, who were included in the retinue of the king, Oṇā Sū. 27, cf. Iich, op cit, p 250 ff.

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³¹ Uttarā Ṭī. 2, p. 45.

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³² Āa cū p 44.

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³³ ibid, p 297.

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³⁴ Nāya Iu, p. 141.

Guild Castes

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During the course of our study of the Economic life we have seen the two main trade associations, viz, the merchant union and the craft guilds.

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On account of their traditional organisation they formed certain rules and customs of their own and tended to appear a distinct order in the social organisation.

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Besides these organised guilds, there were the manufacturers, the wandering dancers, musicians and tramps who roamed from village to village earning their bread by exhibiting skill We read of a young acrobat who exhibited his performance in the town of Dhannaura³⁵ Visvakarman is mentioned as another acrobat of Rājagaha.³⁶ Then snake-charmers³⁷ and demonologists³⁸ are mentioned in the category of itinerant jugglers

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³⁵ Uttuā Ti. 18 p 250 a.

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³⁶ Pinda Nir 174 f.

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³⁷ Uttarā Ti 12, p. 174

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³⁸ ibid

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Among other corporative unions mention may be made of Mallagana, Hastipālagana³⁹ and Sārasvatagana ⁴⁰ We are told that there was great unity among the Mallas, they disposed of the dead body of a forlorn Malla and helped the poor people of their organisation ⁴¹ Among religious corporation the organisation of the Sramanas may be mentioned Then more settled than these wandering people were the herdsmen the huntsmen, the foresters, grass-cutters and stick-gatherers

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³⁹ Vya Bhā Ti 7 459

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⁴⁰ Brh. Bhā 6 6302.

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⁴¹ Sūya cū p. 28, also see Malalasekara, op cit under ‘Malla’.

The Mlecchas

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The Milakkhus or Milakkhas are characterised as wicked and cruel-hearted people, who were different from one another in respect of their language, dress and food They did not know the language of the Aryans and committed various sins, such as killing of animals etc, and hence they were known as Anāryas The Milakkhas were also styled as Yuvānas as they wore different dresses and spoke different dialects They were distinguished as Paccantiyas, since they resided on the border of the Aryan countries They were also characterised as Dasu since they were supposed to bite with their teeth, apparently a fanciful derivation.¹⁹

The Despised and the Untouchables

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Now we come to the lowest strata of society A Sūdra had a degraded position in the society from very early days Mahāvīra and Buddha tried to improve their lot to a great extent, but it seems they could not do away fully with the caste restrictions as we have seen already The Uttarādhyayana commentary mentions Citta and Sambhūya, the two sons of a Mātanga leader of Vārānasī, who led a singing and dancing party during the festival of god of love The high caste people could not tolerate it and they belaboured them with kicks and blows and turned them out of the town⁴³.

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⁴² Nisi cū 15, p 1110

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⁴³ Uttarā Ti 13, p 185 a, also cf Citta-Sambhūta Jātaka.

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Then we meet a number of low races in our stories. The *Pānas*, also known as *Cāṇḍālas*, were employed to carry corpses.⁴⁴ We read in the *Antagaḍa* that Kanha Vāsudeva asked the *Pānas* to drag the dead body out and throw it⁴⁵ away. They also attended the burial ground; they had no houses of their own and lived outside the villages under the open sky.⁴⁶ Then there were the *Dombas*, who sang songs and sold winnowing basket and such other articles. Then there were the *Kiṃkas* who prepared the leather-fittings around the musical instruments and blew them before the criminals carried for execution. To the same category of despised classes belonged the *Sovāgas*, who cooked the flesh of dogs and sold bow-string (*tanti*). The *Varuḍas* earned their bread by making ropes.⁴⁷

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⁴⁴ Vya Bhō 2 37

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⁴⁵ 4, p 22

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⁴⁶ Cf *Manu* X 50 1

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⁴⁷ Vya Bhō 3 92, Nisī cū 11, p 747

Low Professional Castes

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Besides these despised classes we meet with other groups of people who were despised and isolated from the "civilised" castes of people. Amongst them may be mentioned peacock-tamers (*posaga*), barbers (*samvara*), acrobats (*naṭa*), pole-dancers (*laṅkha*), hunters (*vāha*), fishermen (*macchandha*), washermen (*rajaya*), fowlers (*vāguriya*) and cobblers (*padakāra*).⁴⁸

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⁴⁸ Vya Bhō 3 94, Nisī c 345, 11, p 747

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THE FAMILY

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DOMESTIC LIFE

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According to Kautilya, members of the family for whose maintenance the head of the family is responsible include children, wife, mother, father, minor brothers, sisters or widowed girls.¹ The conditions of living in a family were that the members must live in the same abode, partake of the food cooked in the same kitchen, and enjoy the common property.² The patriarch was the head and the master of the family and he was obeyed by all the other members His wife was the mistress who looked after the household duties and was obedient to the master.

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¹ Artha. p. 47.

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² Cf. ibid p 190.

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The Nāyādhammakahā tells us the story of a rich merchant who had four sons and four daughters-in-law. The merchant was the master and the sole representative of the family. Once a thought arose in his mind as to who would be able to look after his family after his death So he invited his friends, relations, kinsmen and other family members and put his daughters-in-law to the test in their presence ³

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³ 7, p. 84 f.

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The father was held in great respect which was equal to that paid to the master and the religious teacher. It is stated that one should apply sayapāga and sahassapāga oils and other fragrant unguents to the body of the parents, should give them bath and decorate them. They should be served with eighteen kinds of seasoned food, and even if one carried them on one's shoulders one could not repay the debt which one owed to them ⁴

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⁴ Thā 3. 135.

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The father was viewed like a God in ancient India. We notice sons and daughters coming to the father to touch his feet (pāyacandava) every day.⁵ We are told of a merchant who was ready to sacrifice his life for the sake of his sons Upon this his eldest son rose and offered himself in his father's place saying that he was like a teacher and God to them and the protector and supporter of the family and hence his life was more precious⁶ than that of the rest.

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⁵ Cf Nāyā. 1, 13, 16, 176

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⁶ ibid 19, p. 213.

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Our stories are full of pathos and happiness which depict the sublime love of a mother towards the child. We are told that when prince Megha-kumāra decided to embrace the ascetic life, his mother became unconscious and fell on the ground like a log. She was sprinkled over with water, fanned with a palm-leaf and was consoled by friends Her eyes filled with tears and in most pathetic words she persuaded her son not to give up the wordly pleasures.⁷ Mothers were highly esteemed We hear of king Pūsanandi who had a great devotion towards his mother and used to bathe and eat after she finished her bath and meals

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⁷ *Nāyā* 1, p 25 f, *Uttarā Sū*, 19

Relations and Friends

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Various relations and friends are mentioned There were friends (*mitta*), kinsmen (*nāti*), members of one's own family (*niyaga*), one's blood relations (*sayana*), connected by marriage (*sambandhī*) and one's dependents (*parijana*).⁹

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⁹ *Nāyā* II, p 51

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As the father grew older, the care of the household fell on the shoulders of the eldest son We hear of people retiring from the world after giving the household management to their sons

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The relatives and friends etc. were invited at various occasions such as birth, marriage, death and various festivals We are told that when Mahāvīra was born, his parents invited their friends, relations, kinsmen and followers and enjoyed a grand feast in their company ¹⁰

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¹⁰ *Kalpa Sū* 5.104

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Then we are told of the Brāhmana brothers of Campā who lived with their wives They decided to have their meals together in one another's house by turn.¹¹

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¹¹ *Nāyā* 16, p 162.

II Children

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The children were happy adjuncts of the household. The mothers who gave birth to children, fondled and dandled them on the knee, were considered happy The childless mothers (*nindu*) were taken as unlucky, so they yearned for children and propitiated various deities to obtain them We hear of Devai, the wife of Vasudeva, who considered herself unhappy and unrighteous because she could not have a child for a long time.¹² Bhaddā was another woman who prayed to deities, worshipped them and promised to offer wealth to repair their old shrines provided a son or a daughter was born to her.¹³ Mention is made of another woman, Siribhaddā, who used to give birth to still-born children She was told by an astrologer to cook rice-pudding (*pāyasa*) with the blood of a stillborn child and to offer it to a right type of monk (*sutavassī*) so that her children might survive.¹⁴

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⁸ *Vutā* 9, p 34 f

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¹² *Anta* 3, p. 13

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¹³ *Nāyā* 2, p 49, cf. *Atadāna Sataka* I, 3, p. 14.

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¹⁴ *Ava. cū* p. 288,

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The child possessing the entire and complete five sense organs, with the lucky signs, marks and good qualities, well-formed and having full weight and length was considered good.¹⁵

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¹⁵ *Kalpa sū* 1. 8

Dreams

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Dreams played an important part in the birth of a child in the life of ancient Indians.¹⁶ There was a regular science of dreams (*suminasattha*) and books were written on the subject. It is considered as one of the eight divisions of *Mahānimitta*.¹⁷ The *Bhagavatī* devotes a section on dreams where five kinds of dreams are mentioned. It is stated that if at the end of the dream one beholds a row of horses, elephants or oxen or rides on them, one achieves salvation. Similarly, the dream of ocean, a big rope, yarn of various colours, a heap of iron, copper, lead, silver, gold, a pile of wood, leaves, skin, straw, husk, ashes and dust, various kinds of grass such as *śarastambha* etc, the jar of milk, curds, ghee, honey, wine, oil and fat, a big lotus pond, jewelled palace and jewelled aerial car leads to salvation.¹⁸

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¹⁶ In the *Mahāsupina Jātaka* (I, 77), p 344 king Pasenadi makes an offering in order to prevent the effect of evil dreams. The king had sixteen dreams in one night. In the morning when he enquired, the Brāhmaṇas said that great dangers were threatened either to his kingdom, his treasures or his life.

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¹⁷ *Uttarā. sū* 15. 7

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¹⁸ 16. 6.

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Then by seeing decorated articles, horse, elephant and a white bull in dream one gets fame, and one who having passed urine or red stool in dream wakes up, loses wealth.¹⁹

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¹⁹ *Uttarā* 8. 13 com. by Śāntisūri. The commentator Nemicandra quotes some Prākṛt verses on the interpretation of dreams, which shows the existence of literature on dreams in Prākṛt. Some of these verses find parallelism in Jagaddeva's *Svapnacintāmaṇi* edited by Dr. Negelein (Charpentier, *Uttarā*, notes, p 310 f).

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Lord Mahāvīra is said to have beheld the following ten dreams before attaining omniscience: defeating of a fierce demon, a white male cuckoo, a variegated male cuckoo, a pair of garland, a herd of cow, lotus pond, crossing of a big ocean by swimming, the shining sun, encircling the Mānuṣottara mountain from all sides, and climbing up the Meru.²⁰ The *thera* Bambhagutta is said to have seen in dream that his bowl filled with milk was emptied by a stranger which indicated the arrival of someone to study the sacred lore from him.²¹

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²⁰ *Bhag.* 16.6. *Ava cū* p 274.

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²¹ *ibid.* p. 394.

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In Jain texts usually a mother before conception beholds certain dreams. We learn that at the time of the conception of Mahāvīra his mother had fourteen great dreams in which she saw an elephant, a bull, a lion, the besprinkling of goddess *Śrī*, a garland, the moon, the sun, a banner, a jar, a lotus-pool, the sea, the celestial palace, a heap of jewels and fire ²² The Nāyādhammakahā gives a similar description of Dharinī's dreams; she saw a big elephant passing into her mouth during the night of her conception.²³

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²² *Kalpa* 4 66-87 ²³ *Nāyā* 1, p 8 ff Queen Māyā, the mother of Gotama Buddha, dreams a white elephant entering her body, which is sculpturally represented on the Barhut Stūpa and elsewhere (*Nidānakathā*, 1, p 50 ff) ²⁴ *Nāyā* 1, p 19, cf *Avadāna Śataka* I, 3, p 15 ²⁵ *Nāyā* 1 p 10 ff, also *Uttarā Tī* 9 p 132 a ²⁶ *Vya Bhā* 1 335, p 16a. ²⁷ 3, p 57 ²⁸ *Vivā* 2, p 14. ²⁹ According to another tradition the piece of flesh was cut from a hare (*Āta. cū.* II, p 166). ³⁰ *Niryā*. 1, pp. 9-11.

Period of Pregnancy

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Then we come to the period of pregnancy which is very delicate for women During this period the women are asked to be very careful while standing, sitting, sleeping and taking meals which should be neither too cold nor too hot, nor too acrid, pungent, sour or sweet but good and nutritious for the safety of the unborn babe They should avoid sickness, sorrow and terror and being moderate in the use of clothing, perfumes and garlands, should comfortably carry the unborn babe ²⁴

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During the period of pregnancy, *dohada* or pregnancy longing played an important part in ancient India When two or three months of pregnancy had passed, the women had peculiar cravings. We are told that in the third month of her pregnancy, Dhārinī had a pregnancy longing to roam about in the outskirts of Vebhāra in the monsoon riding on an elephant When the longing of the queen was not fulfilled she became sick, emaciated, unhappy and lost all her beauty This was brought to the notice of the king who saw Dhārinī immediately and asked her the reason of her sadness. Later on, Abhayakumāra satisfied the pregnancy longing of his step-mother ²⁵ Queen Satyavatī was another woman who had a pregnancy desire to play in an ivory palace ²⁶ The *Uttarādhyayana* commentary refers to another craving of “drinking the moon” (*candapiyana*) ²⁷

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The desire to eat meat to fulfil the pregnancy longing seems to be very common. We are told of a woman who had a pregnancy longing to relish various kinds of wine and flesh of various cattle ²⁸ We know of Cellanā, who had a chronic longing to eat the flesh of her husband's belly together with wine When prince Abhaya came to know this, he sent a confidential man to get fresh meat, blood and the entrails from a slaughter house (*ghāyatthāna*) ²⁹ This flesh was placed on the belly of the king who pretended to be unconscious ³⁰ The king simulated that the meat came from his body and thus satisfied the longing of the queen. Then we are told of queen Sudamsanā, who went to visit the painting-hall where having seen the painted deer she had a craving to eat their flesh ³¹ Khandasiri was another woman who had a desire to taste plenty of food, drink, spices, sweetmeats and wine.³²

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³¹ Piṇḍ Nir 80

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³² Vivā 3, p. 23 For pregnancy longings see also Suśruta Saṃhitā, Śarīrasthāna, ch, III, pp. 90-92, also cf Mahāvagga X, 2 5, p. 343. Also Kathāsaritsāgara, Appendix III, pp 221-8

Miscarriage

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Cases of miscarriage were not uncommon The Vivāgasūya tells us of the queen Miyādevī who, since the onset of her conception, felt intense pain in her body and became disagreeable to her husband Miyādevī imagined that her fall from her husband's favours was due to her pregnancy, so she made up her mind for abortion. She took various kinds of alkalis (khāra), bitters (kaḍuya) and astringents which cause abortion, but failed to carry out her purpose and carried the pregnancy in sorrow In course of time, Miyādevī gave birth to a totally blind boy. She called her nurse (ammadhāī) and asked her to leave the child on the dunghill (ukkuṇudiyā). When the king came to know of this he immediately visited the queen and stopped her from doing so, since it was her first child.³⁸

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³⁸ 1, p. 9; also Āva. cū. II, p. 166.

Birth

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The birth of a child was an occasion for great rejoicing in ancient India. We are told that after a period of nine months and seven days and a half queen Dhārinī gave birth to Meghakumāra. King Seniya was pleased to hear the news, he gave away all his ornaments except the diadem to the chamber-women (aṅgapaḍiyāryāo), anointed their head and, manumitting them, gave them manifold presents. In honour of the auspicious event, king Seniya ordered his chamberlain to declare a general amnesty to the prisoners (cāragasohana) and to clear the city and to decorate it with flowers, garlands, etc. The prices of the goods were lowered and the king having sent for the eighteen corporations asked them to celebrate the birthday for ten days During this period of rejoicing tolls or taxes (ussuṅkam · ukkaram) were suspended, agricultural operation (ukkittha), selling, weighing unwelcome visit of the police officers(abhadap-pavesam) and the payment of debt were held in abeyance for the time being Excellent women of pleasure and actors, clappers and drummers participated in the festivals.

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On the first day the parents observed the jāyakamma ceremony when the navel vein (nāla) of the child was cut and buried under the earth The second day jāgarikā or the whole night vigil was celebrated The third day the ceremony of showing the moon and the sun (candasūradamsaniya) to the baby was performed. Then for seven days there was a great rejoicing in the city. The eleventh day was the day of purification (suikamma) when the impurity caused by the birth of the child ended On the twelfth day the lustatory and birth rites were over and food, drinks, sweetmeats and dainties were distributed among friends, kinsmen, relatives and other subordinates There were dance parties in which the king participated and then in the presence of the relations the child was given a name (nāmakaraṇa) which had descended from generation after generation 34

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Then various ceremonies were performed when at appropriate occasions the child started babbling (parangāmana), and walking (cankamana), when he had the first taste of solid food (jemāmana), when the first intelligible words came out from his mouth (pajappāvana), and when his ears were bored (kannavedha) Then there was birth ceremony (samvaccharapaḍilakkhana), tonsure ceremony (colopana), sacred thread ceremony (upanayana) and ceremony of learning the alphabets (kalāgahana) 35

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In his babyhood a child was attended by five nurses as noted above 36 Besides there were a large number of attendants brought from foreign countries who were skilful, accomplished and well-trained, to be entrusted with the children.³⁷ The Nisītha cūrṇi describes in detail the various nurses, particularly the wet-nurse and the effect of her milk on the child.³⁸

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³⁴ Sometimes the name given had some reference to an earlier event. A son of king Seṇiya was named Mehakumāra because his mother had had the craving of seeing rain-clouds out of season (Nāyā 1, p 20 f); a boy was named Umbaradatta because his mother had had the craving of worshipping the Umbara Jakkha (Vivā 7, p 44)

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³⁵ Bhagavatī (11 11), cf Nāyā (1, p 21), Otū Su , 40, p 185, Kalpa Sū 5 102-108 For the daily life of a Jain with all details, see Ācāradinakara by Vardhamāna sūri, Bombay, 1922, also Indian Antiquary, 1903, p 460 ff

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³⁶ See p 107 The Divyāvadāna (XXXII, p 475) mentions four kinds of nurses ankhadhātrī, mala, stana and krīḍāpanikā, also Avadāna I, V, p 28

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³⁷ Nāyā ibid

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³⁸ 13, p 856 ff, cf also Pinda. Ti. 418 ff. Cf also Susruta Samhitā Sarirasthāna ch 10, Sū 25, p 281, also Mugapakkha Jātaka (533), VI, p 21, Lalita vistara, 100.

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POSITION OF WOMEN

General Attitude Towards Women

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It is said about the women that they are faithless, ungrateful, treacherous, untrustworthy and strict control must be kept over them It is said that a village or a town in which women are strong is sure to come to grief¹ In the voice of Manu the Jain texts state that a woman when a child must be kept under the control of her father, when married under her husband and when widow under her son, thus a woman is never allowed to live independently² It is stated that the daughter-in-law of a house if she had acquired the taste of witnessing procession or ran to see the commotion caused by a stray horse, or a chariot from the house window, was forbidden to do so If she did not desist she was abused, and if she persisted she was beaten, and even then if she did not stop, she was turned out of the house³

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¹ *Vya Bhā.* 1, p. 130.

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² *ibid* 3 233.

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³ *Brh Bhā* 1 1259 f

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Various fanciful etymologies are given to the various synonyms of "woman" in Prākrit She is called *nārī* because there is no worse enemy of man than her; she is termed *mahilā* because she charms by her wiles and graces; she is called *pamaḍā* because she accelerates a man's passion; she is called *mahilīyā* because she creates great dissension (*kalī*), she is called *vāmā* because she takes delight in men by means of her coquettish gestures; she is called *aṅganā* because she loves the body of men, she is called *lalanā* because she attracts a man even in domestic quarrels, and keeps company in pleasures and pains; she is called *josiyā* because by her tricks and devices she keeps men under her subjugation; she is called *vanitā* because she caters to the taste of man with various blandishments.⁴ It is said of women "the intelligent may know the sands of the Ganges, the waters in the sea, and the size of the Himavat, women's heart they may not know" "They weep and make you weep, they tell lies and make you believe them, and deceitfully they eat poison; they die, but they do not conceive a true affection." "Woman indeed, as soon as she has fallen in love is all sugar like a piece of sugarcane, the very same woman surpasses the bitter *nimba*, as soon as her love is gone"

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⁴ *Tandul* p 50

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"In a moment women fall in love, but in another moment their love grows cold Delighting in various lovesports and unstable in their affection, they are like the colour of turmeric"

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"Cruel in their hearts and charming in body, speech, and glance, girls resemble a knife inlaid with gold."⁵

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⁵ *Agadadatta*, Trans in *Hindu Tales* by Meyer, p. 286 f.

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We notice that both Jainism and Buddhism place nuns under a more rigorous discipline than monks. They are prohibited to study the chapters on Mahāparijñā and Aruṇopapāta and the Dṛṣṭivāda. It is stated that the Dṛṣṭivāda deals with the magical formulae and as women are not strong enough and are fickle-minded, hence they are not allowed to study the above-mentioned scripture⁶ The climax is reached in the rule which lays down that a monk of three years practice can become a teacher of a nun of thirty years practice; and a monk of five years practice can become an ācārya of a nun of sixty years practice.⁷

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⁶ Brh. Bhā Pi 146, also cf Vya Bhā 5 139

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⁷ Cf the position of the Bhikkhunīs in the Buddhist Sangha. The eight principle vows prior to admission, make a Bhikkhunī in every way subordinate to a Bhikkhu. The first rule is that a Bhikkhunī, even if of a hundred years standing, should make salutation to, should rise up in presence of, should bow down before a Bhikkhu, if only just initiated (Cullavagga, X, 1. 4).

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Jain texts mention a number of women of wicked nature, thereby preaching the ascetic ideal of renunciation. We hear of Mayanamañjarī, the wife of prince Agadadatta, who fell in love with another man and made an attempt on the life of her husband, which caused the prince to renounce the world and join the ascetic order.⁸ Then we are told of a banker's wife, who had illicit connections with some young man The father-in-law of the woman told his son about it but he would not believe that his wife had been of false faith. Later on she was put to an ordeal of entering into a Jakkha temple. The ordeal resulted in a guilty person remaining in the temple for ever, while the non-guilty came out free The banker's wife visited the Jakkha, who was her own paramour in the disguise of a Pisāca, and said "if I love any other person except the man to whom I had been given in wedlock by my parents, 'you, the Ghost', should know." The Jakkha got perplexed and began to think that even he had been cheated by her In the meantime she came out of the temple and her father-in-law was put to humiliation by the people.⁹

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⁸ Uttarā Ṭī, 4, pp 84-93

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⁹ Das cū pp. 89-91. This story is also found in the Suka Saptati, 15, p. 56, Ed. by Richard Schmidt, Leipzig, 1893.

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It should be noted, however, that the above remarks about women do not find general acceptance in society and they are made with a view to blacken the character of women in order to warn the lustful monks to keep aloof from feminine charms that might overcome their reason Judging from the contemporary writings of other faiths, it does not appear that women had suddenly clothed themselves in all sorts of vices specially in the Jain and Buddhist period Varahamihira has pointed out boldly that all the defects that have been attributed to women exist in man as well. Women, however, try to remove them, while men are supremely indifferent in the matter. Marriage vows are equally binding on the couple Men treat them lightly, while women act up to them Who suffer more from the sex urge? Men, who marry even in their old age, or women who lead a chaste life, even if widowed in the prime of their youth? Men no doubt go on talking of their love to their wives, while they are alive, but contract second marriages soon after their death. Women, on the other hand, feel grateful to their husbands and decide to follow them on the funeral pyre, urged by the promptings of their conjugal love. Who then are more sincere in their love, men or women? For men to say that women are fickle, frail and faithless is the height of impudence and ingratitude; it reminds one of the audacity of clever thieves who first send away their loot and then challenge innocent persons demanding from them the stolen articles.¹⁰

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¹⁰ *Br̥hatsaṃhitā*, ch. 76 6 12, 14, 16, 17, trans by A S Altekar, *The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization*, p 387

The Other Side

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The other side of the picture cannot be ignored. We hear of devoted and chaste wives and of happy love and affection between husband and wife. A woman is counted among fourteen jewels of a *cakkavatti*.¹¹ Malli, although a woman, we are told rose to the status of a *Tirthankara*¹²

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¹¹ *Jambu.* 3 67, also cf *Dīgha* 11. pp 172-7 which mentions *cakka ratanam, hatthi ratanam, assa ratanam, maṇi ratanam, itthi ratanam, gahapati ratanam and pariṇāyaka ratanam*

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¹² *Nāyā* 8. However, attaining *Tirthankarahood* by a woman is unusual according to the Śvetāmbaras and hence it is described as one of the ten unexpected things According to the Digambaras, however, Malli was a male, and no woman can ever attain *Mokṣa*.

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Women were highly regarded and it is prescribed that at the time of difficulty such as caused by water, fire, robbers or famine, a woman must be rescued first.¹³ We hear of the faithful and chaste woman Rājimati, who followed the footsteps of her husband and joined the ascetic order We are told that once Aritthanemi, his brother Rahanemi and Rājimati all were practising penance on the same mountain, when Rahanemi lost self-control and began to court his sister-in-law The latter resisted boldly and baffled his attempt by offering him a drink in which she vomitted in his presence.¹⁴ Subhadrā was another chaste woman who was the daughter of a *śrāvaka* and was married to a Buddhist (*uvāsaga*). She was accused of having illegal connections with white-clad monks (*seyavadiyabhikkhu*). Once upon a time, when a Jain monk was begging alms, it so happened that a rice-speck entered into his eye which Subhadrā picked out with her tongue While doing so, the forehead of Subhadrā and the monk touched each other and her forehead mark made with red lead (*ciṇapiṭṭha*) was imprinted on the monk's forehead. This was shown to Subhadrā's husband, who suspecting the chastity of his wife proposed to put her to an ordeal¹⁵

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¹³ *Br̥h. Bhā* 4.4348f.

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¹⁴ *Das. Sū.* 2.7-11; *Uttarā.* XXII.

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¹⁵ *Das. cū.* 1, p. 49 f.

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Jainism and Buddhism declared as we have seen that womanhood was no bar to salvation. We hear of a large number of women in Jain texts who distinguished themselves as teachers and preachers.¹⁶ Ajja Candanā is the supreme example of superiority of women, who was the first disciple of Mahāvīra and under whom a large number of nuns practised the rules of right conduct and attained salvation.¹⁷ Then we hear of Jayantī, the sister of king Sayāṇiya of Kosambī, who abandoned her royal robe and became a devout nun.¹⁸

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¹⁶ Cf. *Anta.* 5, 7, 8; *Nāyā.* II, 1-10, pp. 220-30.

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¹⁷ Cf Anta. 8, Kalpa sū, 5. 135.

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¹⁸ Bhag 12 2

Marriage

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Marriage, according to the Hindus, is not merely a contract between two parties but a spiritual union, a holy bond of unity brought about by divine dispensation. One of the purposes underlying such marriage is to keep the continuity of the line for which man must take the best bride available and the maiden should be married to the best groom available. There should be complete harmony between husband and wife.

Marriageable Age

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Jain texts do not tell us definitely about the age of marriage. We are simply told that both a girl and a boy should be of an equal age (samānavaya). It seems that in ancient India late marriages were considered harmful. A popular saying is quoted that, if after the attainment of puberty of a maiden, her guardians fail to arrange for her marriage, they go to hell.¹⁹

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¹⁹ Pinda. Nir 500 ; cf for a similar view, Manu (IX, 88).

Forms of Marriage

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The forms of marriage mentioned in the Jain texts may be classified into three types²⁰: marriages arranged by parents of both parties, Svayamvara, and Gāndharva marriage. The current form of marriage was that arranged by parents of both parties. Generally, marriage within one's own caste (jāti) was the rule. As in the Jātakas, we meet here with the effort to keep the family pure through the marriage connections among the people of same standing and profession and not to allow it to degenerate through intermixture with lower elements²¹. Ordinarily, we find that the parents brought a wife for their son from a family of the same rank (sarisayakula). We are told that prince Meghakumāra was married to eight princesses of equal age, beauty and virtue, belonging to the same royal rank.²² However, exceptions regarding caste and rank are not unknown in the Jain texts. For instance, we hear of the minister Teyaliputta who married a goldsmith's daughter,²³ Gayasukumāla, a ksatriya, was betrothed to a Brāhmaṇa girl;²⁴ king Jiyasattu married a painter’s daughter; ²⁵ Bhambhadatta married the girls from the Brāhmaṇa and the merchant families.²⁶

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²⁰ In the Hindu literature eight forms of marriage are enumerated (Manu. 3.21); Mahābhārata (I. 64 Sf), see also Altekar, op. cit., pp. 41-56.

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²¹ Cf. Fick, op. cit., p. 51 f.

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²² Nāyā. 1, p. 23.

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²³ Nāyā. 14, p. 148.

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²⁴ Anta. 3, p. 16.

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²⁵ Uttarā Ṭī., 9. p. 141 a ff.

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²⁶ ibid., pp. 188 a, 192 a. In the days of Manu the system of intermarriages was much more flexible than it is today. The anuloma marriages were not uncommon in society down to the eighth century A. D. Altekar, op. cit., p. 88.

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In matters regarding marriage very often the elders consulted each other and informed of their grown-up children. Sometimes the consent of the boy was understood by his silence. We hear of Jinadatta, a merchant of Campā, who happened to see the daughter of Sāgaradatta playing with a golden ball (*kaṇagatindūsaya*). The former approached the latter and proposed to marry his son to the latter’s daughter. Later on Jinadatta went home and consulted his son who gave his consent by keeping quiet.²⁷

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²⁷ Nāyā. 16, p. 168 f. Also Anta. 3, p. 16.

Marriage by Purchase

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In this form of marriage a wife was obtained for money paid to her father’s family by the husband or his father. The minister Teyaliputta, referred to above, wanted to marry the daughter of a goldsmith, and so he asked him as to what money (*sunka*) he should pay him. The latter replied that it was sufficient that a minister was marrying his daughter and hence he need not worry about payment. We hear of a merchant, who, after leaving his negligent wife, married another girl by paying a large sum.²⁸ A robber who had plenty of money paid the desired amount (*jahacchiyam sunkam*) and married a girl.²⁹ Then we hear of king Candacchāya, who, while estimating the value of Malli, remarked that she was worth his whole kingdom.³⁰ These instances sufficiently testify to the prevalence of the practice of giving daughter in marriage in exchange of money.³¹

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²⁸ Uttarā Ṭī. 4, p. 97.

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²⁹ Uttarā. cū. p. 110.

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³⁰ Nāyā. 8, p. 103.

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³¹ For condemnation of such marriage, see Manu. III.51; also Altekar, op. cit., pp. 47-50

c12.s10.t3.6

It is said that the following marriage gifts (*pridāna*) were given to Meghakumāra by his parents : eight crores of silver, the same of gold, eight crowns, eight pairs of earrings, eight strings of pearls (*hāra*), half strings of pearls, (*addhahāra*), the same of one stringed necklaces of gems, (*ekkāvalī*), the same of pearls, gold, necklaces (*kaṇakāvalī*), jewel necklaces (*rayaṇāvalī*), bracelets, armlets (*tuḍaya*), eight suits of fine linen (*khoma*), tussar silk (*vaḍa*), silk (*paṭṭa*) dukūla silk (*dugulla*), eight figures of the goddesses such as *srī*, *hrī*, *dhṛti*, *kīrti*, *buddhi* and *lakṣmī*, eight round iron seats (*nandam*), stools (*bhaddā*) locks (*tāla* ?) flags, eight herds of cows (*vaya*), eight dramas with thirtytwo actors in each, eight jewelled horses, elephants, carts, (*yāna*), carriages (*jugga*) coaches (*sibikā*), litters (*saṃdamānī*), elephant litters (gilli), horse-palanquin (thilli), open carts (viyaḍayāna), chariots, eight villages, eight male slaves (dāsa), female slaves (dāsi), attendants (kinkara), chamberlains (kañcuki), courtiers (mahattara), eunuchs (varisadhara), eight lamps, platters (thāla), chargers (pāī), mirror plates (thāsaga), cups (mallaga), spoons (kaiviya), aveya pot (com tāpikā-hastaka ?), frying pans (avapakka), stools (pīḍha), seats (bhisiya), bowls (karodiyā), couches (pallankaya), sofas (padisijjā) each of gold, silver and gold-silver, the same number of swan chairs (āsana), heron chairs, eagle chairs, tall chairs (onaya), sloping chairs (panaya), long chairs, fine chairs (bhadda) winged chairs (pakkha), crocodile chairs, lotus chairs and disā-sovatthiya chairs, eight casks of oil (tellasamugga), the same of the substances such as kuttha, patta, coya, tagara, haritāla, hingula, manosilā and mustard (sarisava) ; eight hunch-backed women (kirāta) etc. as mentioned before There were eight maid-servants holding umbrellas, chowries, fans, bowls, five nurses, eight women to rub (maddiya), to knead, (ummaddiya), to bathe and to attire, eight women to pound sandal, to pound powders (cunnaya), eight women to make sport (kilākārī), to make laughter (davagārī), to wait by his couch (uvatthāniyā or ucchāviyā), eight to be of his theatre (nādailla), eight women as attendants (koḍumbinī), kitcheners (mahānasinī), stewards (bhaṇḍārī), carriers of babes (ajjhadhāriṇī?), flowers and drink, eight to perform the domestic sacrifice (balikārī), to make beds, to carry messages within and without, eight to make chaplets (mālākārī), and eight to be dispatched out (pesaṇakārī). Besides, the gifts included plenty of riches, gold, jewels, gems, pearls, shells, corals and rubies which were sufficient to last for generations³²

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