Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times c22: Chapter XIV: Characteristics of Republics according to the Maha-Bharata

Hindu Polity: A Constitutional History of India in Hindu Times c22

Language: English

Chapter XIV: Characteristics of Republics according to the Maha-Bharata

c22.2

§ 122. In Śānti-Parvan, Chapter 107 is devoted to the characteristics of the g a ṇ a s. There are traces in the discussion which indicate that the characteristics given go back to fairly early times. It is nowhere contemplated that the gaṇas owed allegiance to monarchs, far less that they were conquered. This would relate to a period before the rise of empires.

c22.3

§ 123. As the discussion is of great importance, I give below the text and translation of the entire passage.¹ Former translations are hopelessly confused, the reason being that gaṇas had ceased to exist long before the time of commentators, and their real significance was forgotten.

c22.4

¹ Asiatic Society of Bengal ed. of the M.Bh., *Śānti-parvan*, Ch. 107.

c22.5

§ 124. The disquisition in the Mahā-Bhārata makes it clear that '*Gaṇa*' refers to the whole body politic, the entire P o l i t i c a l C o m m u n i t y, and, in the alternative, the Parliament, and not to the "governing body" only (a view to which Dr. Thomas inclines, *J. R. A. S.*, 1915, p. 534). The governing body was composed of the *G a ṇ a - m u k h y a s* and *P r a d h ā n a* (Chiefs and President) whose jurisdiction it was to conduct affairs of the community (verse 23).² Resolutions of State were matters which remained in their hands (verse 24); they held meetings and discussed those Resolutions (25). They also saw to the administration of justice (27). Thus the executive was a distinct body inside the *Gaṇa*.

c22.6

² *Gaṇa-mukhyas*=*Saṁgha-mukhyas*, Artha-Śāstra, p. 377 (XI.1).

c22.7

It may also be noticed that the large number which composed the *Gaṇa* is alluded to in verse 8; and the *whole* body is mentioned in verse 24. It was impossible to keep matters of vital policy secret on account of the large number of the *Gaṇa*. This was in the opinion of the Mahā-Bhārata writer a great defect in the *Gaṇa* constitution (8 and 24). It is thus apparent that a close body was not meant by '*Gaṇa*'. The *Gaṇas* generally formed confederacies (11 to 15). Learning in the *gaṇas* is alluded to in verse 21.

c22.8

"Of the Characteristics of the Gaṇas."
गणानां वृत्तिमिच्छामि श्रोतुं मतिमतां वर ॥ 6॥
यथा गणाः प्रवर्द्धन्ते न भिद्यन्ते च भारत ।
अरींश्च विजिगीषन्ते सुहृदः प्राप्नुवन्ति च ॥ 7 ॥
भेदमूलो विनाशोहि गणानामुपलक्षये ।
मन्त्रसंवरशं दुःखं बह्वानामिवि मे मतिः ॥ 8 ॥
एतदिच्छाम्यहं श्रोतुं निखिलेन परन्तप ।
यथा च ते न भिद्येरंस्तन् मे वद पार्थिव ॥ 9 ॥
॥ भीष्म उवाच ॥
गणानाञ्च कुलानाञ्च राज्ञां भरतसत्तम ।
वैरसदीपनावेतो लोभामर्षो नराधिप ॥ 10 ॥
लोभमेको हि वृणुते ततोऽमर्षमनन्तरम् ।
तौ क्षयव्ययसंयुक्तावन्योन्यञ्च विनागिनो ॥ 11 ॥
चारमन्त्रबलादानैः सामदामविभेदनैः ।
क्षयव्ययभयोपायैः कर्षयन्तीतरेतरम् ॥ 12 ॥
तत्रादानेन भिद्यन्ते गणाः संघातवृत्तयः ।
भिन्ना विमनसः सर्व्वे गच्छन्त्यरिवशं भयात् ॥ 13 ॥
भेदे गणा विनश्येयुर्भिन्नास्तु सुजयाः परैः ।
तस्मात् संघातयोगेन प्रयतेरन् गणाः सदा ॥ 14 ॥
अर्थाश्चैवाभिगम्यन्ते संघात-बल-पौरुषैः ।
बाह्याश्च मैत्रीं कुर्व्वन्ति तेषु संघातवृत्तिषु ॥ 15 ॥
ज्ञानवृद्धाः प्रशंसन्ति शत्रूषन्तः परस्परम् ।
विनिवृत्ताभिसन्धानाः सुखमेधन्ति सर्व्वशः ॥ 16 ॥

c22.9

धर्मिष्ठान् व्यवहारांश्च स्थापयन्तश्च शाश्वतः ।
यथावत् प्रतिपश्यन्तो विवर्धन्ते गणोत्तमाः ॥ 17 ॥
पुत्रान् भ्रातृन् विगृह्णन्तो विनयन्तश्च तान् सदा ।
विनीतांश्च प्रगृह्णन्तो विवर्धन्ते गणोत्तमाः ॥ 18 ॥
चारमन्त्रविधानेषु कोषसन्निचयेषु च ।
नित्ययुक्ता महाबाहो वर्तन्ते सर्वतो गणाः ॥ 19 ॥
प्राज्ञान् शूरान्महोत्साहान् कर्मसु स्थिरपौरुषान् ।
मानयन्तः सदा युक्तान् विवर्धन्ते गणा नृप ॥ 20 ॥
द्रव्यबन्तश्च शूराश्च शस्त्रज्ञाः शास्त्रपारगाः ।
कृच्छ्रास्वापत्सु संमूढान् गणाः सन्तारयन्ति ते ॥ 21 ॥
क्रोधो भेदो भयं दण्डः कर्षणं निग्रहो वधः ।
नयत्यरिवशं सद्यो गणान् भरतसत्तम ॥ 22 ॥
तस्मान्मानयितव्यास्ते गणमुख्याः प्रधानतः ।
लोकयात्रा समायत्ता भूयसी तेषु पार्थिव ॥ 23 ॥
मन्त्रगुप्तिः प्रधानेषु चारश्चारित-कर्षण ।
न गणाः कृत्स्नशो मन्त्रं श्रोतुमर्हन्ति भारत ॥ 24 ॥
गणमुख्यैस्तु सम्भूय कार्यं गणहितं मिथः ।
पृथग्गणस्य भिन्नस्य विततस्य ततोऽन्यथा ॥ 25 ॥
अर्थाः प्रत्यवसीदन्ति तथानर्था भवन्ति च ।
तेषामन्योन्यभिन्नानां स्वशक्तिमनुतिष्ठताम् ॥ 26 ॥
निग्रहः पण्डितैः कार्य्यः क्षिप्रमेव प्रधानतः ।
कुलेषु कलहा जाताः कुलवृद्धैरपेक्षिताः ॥ 27 ॥
गोत्रस्य नाशं कुर्व्वन्ति गणभेदस्य कारकम् ।
आभ्यन्तरभयं रक्षामसारं बाह्यतो भयम् ॥ 28 ॥
आभ्यन्तरं भयं राजन् सद्यो मूलानि कृन्तति ।
अकस्मात् क्रोधमोहाभ्यां लोभाद्वाऽपि स्वभावजात् ॥ 29 ॥
अन्योन्यं नाभिभाषन्ते तत् पराभव-लक्षणम् ।
जात्या च सदृशाः सर्व्वे कुलेन सदृशास्तथा ॥ 30 ॥
न चोद्योगेन बुद्ध्या वा रूपद्रव्येण वा पुनः ।

c22.10

भेदाच्चैव प्रदानाच्च भिद्यन्ते रिपुभिर्गणाः ॥ 31 ॥
तस्मात् सङ्घातमेवाहुर्गणानां शरणं महत् ॥ 32 ॥

c22.11

TRANSLATION.

c22.12

[Yudhishṭhira said,] "(6) I (now) desire to hear, O Leader of the Wise, of the nature of the *gaṇas* : (7) How the *gaṇas* prosper and how they avoid (the policy of) *Bheda* [disunion employed by the enemy], O Bhārata, and (why it is,) they aspire to conquer enemies, and also gain allies. (8) Disunion, it seems to me, is the root-cause of their destruction. (Again their) difficulty is, in my opinion, how to keep the resolutions of state secret on account of (their) large number. (9) I am desirous of listening to an exhaustive discourse on this subject, O Oppressor of Enemies. Tell me also, O Prince, how they might avert disintegration."

c22.13

Bhīshma said : (10) "Greed and Jealousy, O King, are the two main provoking causes of enmity amongst the *gaṇas*, as well as amongst the *Kulas of Rājās*,¹ O Noblest of the Bhāratas. (11) One (of the *gaṇas or kulas*) yields to

c22.14

¹ Aristocracies like those of Patala : 'for in this community the command in war is vested in two hereditary kings of two different houses, while a Council of Elders ruled the whole State with paramount authority.' (Diodorus) ; also *Artha-Śāstra*, p. 35 : कुलस्य वा भवेद्राज्यं कुल-सङ्घः हि दुर्जयः ।

c22.15

avarice, then follows jealousy, and the two entailing waste and decay lead to mutual destruction. (12) They oppress one another through spies, intrigues, and military force, by employing the policy of conciliation, subsidy and division, and by applying other means of decay, waste and danger. (13) The *gaṇas* which form a confederacy are divided by those means ; divided they become indifferent (to the common cause) and ultimately through fear they pass under the control of the enemy. (14) Thus, divided, the *gaṇas* would surely perish : separated, they fall an easy prey to the foe. *Gaṇas*, therefore, should always exert themselves through the system of confederacy.² (15) "Material prosperity is won by the prowess of the confederated army; outsiders also seek the alliance of confederate entities.

c22.16

² *Cf. Artha-Śāstra*, page 376 :—सङ्घाभिसंहतत्वाद्धृष्यान् परेषां ताननुगुणान् भुञ्जीत सामदानाभ्याम् । द्विगुणान् (read विगुणान्) भेददण्डाभ्याम् ।

c22.17

(16-17) "In good *gaṇas*, Elders-by-knowledge encourage mutual subordination; behaving with complete straight-forwardness (to one another), good *gaṇas* attain happiness all round. Good *gaṇas* prosper for they establish valid legal procedures according to the Śāstras, and they are fair to one another. (18) Good *gaṇas* prosper because they discipline their sons and brothers, (members,¹ along with the younger generation) and always train them, and they accept (only) those who have been well trained.

c22.18

¹ In Indian guild and caste associations even to this day, members address each other '*brother*', which denotes equality.

c22.19

(19) "*Gaṇas* prosper all-sidedly as they always attend, O thou of-mighty arms, to the working of the espionage service, to the matters of policy, and to the collection of revenue to the Exchequer. (20) *Gaṇas* prosper because they always pay due honour to (their) officers who are wise, heroic, enthusiastic and persevering in the execution of their duties. (21) Wealthy, heroic, versed in the Śāstras,∗ and accomplished in the art of weapons, *gaṇas* help the help-less ones (= members) across miseries and calamities.

c22.20

∗ This is a clear reference to the learning and cultivation of thought amongst the *gaṇas*, an information which we have gathered from other sources as well.

c22.21

(22) "*Gaṇas* fall at once into the clutches of the enemy when driven by anger, division, absence of mutual confidence (lit. fear), military violence, tyranny, oppression and executions (amongst them). (23) Hence the Leaders-of-the-gaṇas are to be obeyed through the President. O King, the jurisdiction to conduct the community should be mainly vested in them. (24) O Reducer of enemies, (the department of) intelligence and the secret of the resolutions of state should remain in the hands of the Presidents. It is not advisable that the whole body of the *gaṇas* should know those resolutions, O Bhārata. (25) The Leaders-of-the-gaṇas having assembled should adopt measures ensuring the welfare of the *Gaṇas*.

c22.22

"The course is otherwise of a *Gaṇa* which remains aloof from others, has severed itself (from the confederacy), or which is (in) strained (relations with others). (26) Wealth dwindles down and misfortune follows on account of their division and on their falling back on their individual resources. (27)

c22.23

"Criminal justice should be administered promptly and by men learned (in law), through the President. If disputes arise in the *Kulas* and the Elders of the *Kulas* remain indifferent, (28) they destroy the race (*gotra*) and dissolve the *Gaṇa*.

c22.24

"The internal danger is to be guarded against, the external one is insignificant. (29) For the internal danger, O King, is destructive of the very foundations in no time. (30) When (the members of a *Gaṇa*) cease to discuss amongst them on account of uncalled-for anger, on account of foolishness, or on account of natural avarice, there is the symptom of discomfiture.

c22.25

"There is universal equality by birth (in the *Gaṇas*) and also there is equality by *Kula*.¹ (31) They cannot be broken up by prowess or cleverness, nor again by temptations of beauty.² They can be broken up by enemies through the policy of division and subsidy only.

c22.26

¹ Kula=family of *rājās*, referred to above in verse 10, or, family as a unit, as opposed to individuals. The distinction is still maintained in our social phraseology *ghar pīchhe* and *pāgṛī pīchhe*, 'per household,' and 'per head' (lit. per turban=every male member). More likely it refers to equality amongst aristocrats, otherwise it would be illogical after the mention of the universal equality by birth.

c22.27

² रूपद्रव्येण.

c22.28

(32) "The great safety of the *Gaṇas* therefore is considered to lie in (the maintenance of) a confederacy only."

Linked texts (2)

Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra — Kauṭilya, Sanskrit
Mahābhārata — Vyāsa, Sanskrit