Mughal Administration c15: Chapter XI. Revenue Rules of Aurangzib
Mughal Administration c15
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Contents
- c15.s1 Farman of Aurangzib to Muhammad Hashim, diwan of Gujrat, issued in 1079 A. H. (1669 A. D.) — 1 part
Chapter XI. Revenue Rules of Aurangzib
Farman of Aurangzib to Muhammad Hashim, diwan of Gujrat, issued in 1079 A. H. (1669 A. D.)
Translation
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The officers of the present and future and tax-collectors (amils) of the Empire of Hindustan from end to end, should collect the revenue and other [dues] from the mahals in the proportion and manner fixed in the luminous Law and shining orthodox Faith, and [according to] whatever has been meant and sanctioned in this gracious mandate in pursuance of the correct and trustworthy Traditions,—
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And they should not demand new orders every year, but should consider delay and transgression as the cause of their disgrace [113b]* in this world and the next.
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First.—They should practise benevolence to the cultivators, inquire into their condition, and exert themselves judiciously and tactfully, so that [the cultivators] may joyfully and heartily try to increase the cultivation, and every arable tract may be brought under tillage.
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∗ The pages given within brackets are those of the Berlin State Library MS. (Pertsch's Catalogue, entry No. 15 (9) ff. 112b—125a and 15 (23) ff. 267a—272a.) This alone contains the commentary (an addition of doubtful value.) The text of the farman to Hashim has been printed in Mirat i. 268—272. The second farman is also to be found in Bib. Nat. ParisMS. Sup. 476 (f. 13 a) and in I.O.L. London MS.
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[Commentary, 113b margin :—Concerning what has been written in the first clause, the wish of the just Emperor is, "Display friendliness and good management which are the causes of the increase of cultivation. And that [friendliness] consists in this that under no name or custom should you take a dām or dirham above the fixed amount and rate. By no person should the ryots be oppressed or molested in any way. The manager of affairs at the place should be a protector [of rights] and just [in carrying out these orders."]
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Second.—At the beginning of the year inform yourself, as far as possible, about the condition of every ryot, as to whether they are engaged in cultivation or are abstaining from it. If they can cultivate, ply them with inducements and assurances of kindness; and if they desire favour in any matter show them that favour. But if after inquiry it is found that, in spite of their being able to till and having had rainfall, they are abstaining from cultivation, you should urge and threaten them and employ force and beating. Where the revenue is fixed at an unalterable rate for a specified quantity of land (kharāj-i-muazzaf) inform the peasants that [115a] it will be realised from them whether they cultivate or not. If you find that the peasants are unable to procure the implements of tillage, advance to them money from the State in the form of *taqāvi* after taking security.
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[*Commentary*, 114*a* :—The second clause proves that the only business of peasants is to cultivate and so pay the revenue of the State and take their own share of the crop. If they lack the materials of cultivation, they should get *taqāvi* from the Government, because, as the king is the owner [of the land], it is proper that when the cultivators are helpless they should be supplied with the materials of agriculture. The Emperor's desire is the first. And threatening, beating and chastisement are [ordered] with this view that, as the king is the owner, [and] always likes mercy and justice,—therefore it is necessary that the ryots too should, according to their own custom, make great exertions to increase the cultivation, so that the signs of agriculture may daily increase. This thing is the cause of the gain of the State and the benefit of the ryots.]
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*Third*.—About fixed cash revenue: If the peasant is too poor to get together agricultural implements, or runs away leaving the land idle, give the land to another on lease or for [direct] cultivation [as a tenant at will ?], and take the amount of the revenue from the lessee in case of lease, or from the share of the owner in case of [direct] cultivation. If any surplus is left, pay it to the owner. Or, substitute another man in the place of the [former] owner, in order that he may, by cultivating it, pay the revenue and enjoy the surplus [of the produce.] And whenever the [former] owners again become capable of cultivating, restore the lands to them. If a man [115b] runs away leaving the land to lie idle, lease it out after the current year is over.
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[Commentary, 114b :—In what has been written about giving lease, entrusting to cultivators for [direct] cultivation, taking the amount of the revenue from the lessee [in case of lease] and from the owner’s share in case of [direct] cultivation, and paying one-half to the *mālik*, *i.e.*, to the former cultivator,—the word *mālik* (owner) does not mean ‘proprietor of the soil’ but ‘owner of the crop in the field’; because, if the word ‘owner’ meant ‘proprietor of the soil,’ then the owner would not run away through poverty and want of agricultural materials, but would rather sell his land and seek relief in either of these two ways: (i) throwing the payment of Government revenue upon the purchaser, (ii) devoting the sale-proceeds of his owner’s right to the removal of his own needs. As for the words “substitute another man for the [former] owner,” the rightful substitute for a proprietor can be none but his heir, and this is the distinctive mark of ownership. Therefore, the word ‘substitute’ as used here means ‘a substitute for the owner of the crop.’ But in the case in which a man, after spending his own money and with the permission of Government, cultivates a waste land which had paid no revenue before, and having agreed to its assessment for revenue pays the revenue to the State,—such a man has [true] tenant’s right to the land he cultivates, because he is the agent in reclaiming the land. The real owner is he who can create a substitute for the owner, *i.e.*, the king. It is a well-known maxim, “Whosoever wields the sword, the coins are stamped in his name.” As for the expression “pay half [the produce] to the owner, and do not lease out the field to any one else for a year afterwards,”—the intention is that, as the fixed revenue (*kharāj-i-muazzaf*) is not affected by the productive or barren nature [of the year], in both cases the cultivator has to pay the revenue in cash. As the Emperor likes leniency and justice, [he here orders] that the officers should kindly wait for one year [for the return of a fugitive ryot] and, in the case of [direct] cultivation or lease, they should pay to him any surplus left above the Government revenue.]
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*Fourth.*—Inform yourself about the tracts of fallow (*uftāda*) land which have not returned to cultivation. If they be among the roads and highways, enter them among the area (? *banā*) of towns and villages, in order that none may till them. And if you find any tract other than these, which contains a field incapable of tillage, then do not trouble anybody for the sake of its revenue. But if it be capable of cultivation, or is really a piece of land fallen into ruin (*bāir*), then in both these cases, in the event of the land having an owner and that owner being present and able to cultivate it, urge the owner to till it. But if the land has no owner, or if the owner is unknown, give it to a man who can reclaim it to reclaim. Therefore, if the lessee be a Muhammadan and the land [117*a*] adjoins a tract paying tithes (*ushr*), assess tithes on it ; if it adjoins a rent-paying tract, or if the reclaimer of the land be an infidel, lay the revenue on it without abatement. In case deduction has to be made from the [standard] revenue, as you may find politic either assess the land at something per bigha by way of unalterable rent,—what is called *kharāj-i-muqat‘at*,*—or lay on it the prescribed revenue of half the crop,—which is called *kharāj-i-muqāsema*. If the owner be known, but is quite unable to cultivate it, then if the land had been previously subject to *kharāj-i-muqāsema*, act according to the order issued [for this class of revenue]. But if it be not subject to *kharāj-i-muqāsema* or is not bearing any crop, then do not trouble [the owner] for tithes or revenue. But if he be poor, engage him in cultivation by advancing *taqāvi*.
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*Fifth*.—As for a desert tract (*bādia*), if the owner be known, leave it with him ; do not give possession of it to others, [117*b*]. If the owner be not known, and if there be no probability of *audāt* (minerals) in the land, then, as policy may dictate, give the land to whomsoever you consider fit to take care of it. Whosoever makes it arable must be recognised as the owner of the tract and the land should not be wrested from him.† If the land contains minerals forbid everything that may hinder the mining of the land ; and for the gain from the land, forbid cultivation, etc.; and do not let any one take possession of it, and recognise none as its owner.
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† For the rights of a tenant who reclaims waste land, see *Encyc. Islam*, ii. 457 (s.v. *Ihya*.)
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If an entire (*darbast*, undivided) tract of waste land has been transferred for any reason, and a contrary state of things is brought about by a different cause, then regard the land as belonging to the man up to the time till when it was in his possession, and do not give possession of it to anybody else.
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∗ *Bilmokta*—'land held at a low unalterable rent.'—(Brit. Ind. Analyzed, p. 151.)
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Sixth.—In places where no tithe or revenue has been laid on a cultivated land, fix whatever ought to be fixed according to the Holy Law. If it be revenue, fix the revenue at such an amount that [119a] the ryots may not be ruined by the payment of it; and for no reason exceed half [the crop], even though the land may be capable of paying more. Where the amount is fixed, accept it, provided that if it be *kharāj*, the Government share should not exceed one-half, lest the ryots be ruined by the exaction. Otherwise reduce the former *kharāj* and fix whatever the ryots can easily pay. If the land is capable of paying more than the fixed [amount] do not take more.
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[Commentary, 118a :—In the sixth clause: the wish of the benevolent Emperor is that the revenue should be so fixed that the peasantry may not be ruined by payment of it. The land belongs to the king, but its cultivation depends on the ryots; whenever the ryots desert their places and are ruined, i.e., when they are crushed by the excessive exactions and oppression of the officers, one can easily imagine what the condition of the cultivation would be. Hence urgent orders are issued in this clause.]
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Seventh.—You may change fixed revenue (*muazzaf*) into share of crop (*muqāsema*), or vice versa, if the ryots agree to it: otherwise not.
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[Commentary :—The order for changing one kind of revenue into another at the wish of the ryots is for their convenience.]
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Eighth.—The time for demanding fixed revenue is the harvesting of every kind of grain. Therefore, when any kind of crop reaches the stage of harvest, collect the share of revenue proper for it.
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[Commentary :—The object is, whenever the revenue is demanded at harvest, the ryots may, without any perplexity, sell a portion of the crop sufficient to pay the revenue and thus pay the due of the State. But, if the demand is made before that time, it puts them into perplexity and anxiety. Therefore, the Emperor’s order is to seek their convenience.]
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Ninth.—In lands subject to fixed cash revenue, if any non-preventable calamity overtakes a sown field, you ought to inquire carefully, and grant remission to the extent of the calamity, as required by truth and the nature of the case. And in realising [119b] produce from the remnant, see that a net one-half [of the produce] may be left to the royts.
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Tenth.—In lands with fixed cash revenues: If anybody leaves his land untilled, in spite of his ability to till it and absence of any hindrance, then take the revenue [of it] from some other baze* [field in his possession.] In the case of fields which have been flooded, or where the rain-water has been exhausted, or any non-preventable calamity has overtaken the crop before reaping, so that the ryot has secured nothing, nor has he time enough left for a second crop to be raised before the beginning of the next year,—consider the revenue as remitted. But if the calamity happens after reaping, whether it be preventable like eating up by cattle or if after the calamity sufficient time is left [for a second cropping], collect the revenue.
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∗ Baze Zamin—See Wilson’s Glossary, p. 69. “The Baze Zamin or certain lands set apart for various uses.”—(Brit. Ind. Analyzed, p. 276.)
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[Commentary :—"If a man holds a land on which kharāj-i-muazzaf has been laid, and he has the power to cultivate it, and there is no obstacle to his cultivating, and yet he leaves it untilled,—then realise the revenue of that land from any other land belonging to the man, because he left his land idle in spite of his being able to till it and there being no obstacle. If any land belonging to the man is flooded or the rain-water which had been dammed up for irrigation of crops gets exhausted, and the crop is ruined, or if any non-preventable calamity befalls his crops, before they have ripened and been harvested, so that he secures no crop nor has he any time left for raising a second crop that year,—then do not collect the revenue.]
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Eleventh.—If the owner of a land, subject to a fixed revenue, cultivates it but dies before paying that year's revenue, and his heirs get the produce of the field [121a], collect the revenue from them. But do not take anything if the aforesaid person dies before cultivating and [time] enough is not left that year [for any one else to till it].
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[Commentary, 120a :—What has been published about "the death of the owner of the land, taking the revenue from his heirs, and not demanding the revenue from the heirs if he died before tilling" is manifestly just; because the land-owner, *i.e.*, truly speaking the owner of the crop, died before cultivating, so it is far from just to collect revenue from his heirs, even though they may have got something from him by way of bequest; for the [true] owner of the land is the king, and the owner of the crop, *i.e.*, the deceased [ryot] died before cultivating and his heirs have not got anything or crop that may be a ground for [demanding] revenue; so, nothing should be collected from them.]
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*Twelfth.*—*Concerning fixed cash assessments*: If the owner gives his land in lease or loan, and the lessee or borrower cultivates it, take the revenue from the owner. If the lessee plants gardens, take the revenue from him. But if a man after getting hold of a *kharaji* land denies it, and the owner can produce witnesses, then if the usurper has cultivated it, take the revenue from him; but if he has not done so, take the revenue from neither of them. If the usurper denies [the usurpation] and the owner cannot produce witnesses, take the revenue from the owner. In cases of mortgage (*rihan*), act according to the orders applicable to cases of usurpation. If the mortgagee has engaged in cultivation without the permission of the mortgagor, [121b] [exact the revenue from the former.]
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[Commentary, 120b:—This order may be construed in either of the following two ways, or it will yield no sense: "If the owner of a land under fixed revenue gives his land in lease or loan, and the lessee or borrower cultivates it, realise the revenue from the owner. If the lessee &c. has planted gardens on it, take the revenue from him, because he has planted the gardens. If a man after getting hold of a *kharājī* land denies it, and the owner has witnesses, then, in the case of the usurper having tilled it, take the revenue from him, but if he has not done so take the revenue from neither of them. If the usurper denies [the usurpation] and (i) the owner *has no* witness, take the revenue from the owner.” This is one construction. The other is (ii) “if the owner *has* witnesses, take the revenue from the owner,” i.e., the usurper denies [the usurpation] and the owner produces witnesses to prove his own cultivation, therefore the owner should pay the revenue.
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“In cases of mortgage act according to the orders issued for cases of usurpation. If the mortgagee has engaged in cultivation without the consent of the mortgagor, [demand the revenue from the former],” because if the mortgagee engaged in cultivation *with* the consent of the mortgagor, the latter ought to have paid the revenue, because the right to cultivate is [here] included in the mortgage. But if he has engaged in cultivation *without* the mortgagor’s consent, he ought to pay the revenue, because the land alone, and not the right to cultivate it, was mortgaged.]
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*Thirteenth.*—About lands under fixed cash revenue: If a man sells his *kharājī* land, which is culturable, in the course of the year, then, if the land bears one crop only and the buyer, after taking possession, gets enough time during the rest of the year to cultivate it and there is none to hinder him, then collect the revenue from the buyer; otherwise from the seller. If it yields two crops, and the seller has gathered in one and the buyer the other, then divide the due revenue between the two. But if the land is [at the time of sale] under a ripe crop, take the revenue from the seller.
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[Commentary, 122a:—If a man wishes to sell his land, *i.e.*, the crop of his land, and the purchaser gets sufficient time during the year to cultivate it, take the revenue from the purchaser. If it bears two crops, of which the seller has gathered in one and the buyer the other, divide the revenue and collect it from the two parties. If the land be under a ripe crop, take the revenue from the seller, because as the crop is ripe and the seller has sold it with full knowledge, he must have taken the price of the ripe grain. Therefore the seller should pay the revenue.]
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Fourteenth.—Concerning lands under fixed cash revenue: If a man builds a house on his land, he should pay the rent as fixed before; and the same thing if he plants on the land trees that do not bear fruit. If he turns an arable land, on which a fixed revenue was assessed for cultivation [123a] into a garden, and plants fruit-trees on the whole tract without leaving any open spaces between [fit for cultivation], take Rs. 2¾, which is the maximum rate for gardens, although the trees are not yet bearing fruit. But in the case of grape and almond trees, while they do not bear fruit take the customary revenue only, and after they have begun to bear fruit, take Rs. 2¾, provided that the produce of one legal *bigha*, which means 45 × 45 Shah Jahani yards, or 60 × 60 Canonical yards, amounts to Rs. 5½ or more. Otherwise take half the actual produce [of the trees.] If the price of the produce amounts to less than a quarter-rupee,—as in the case when grain sells at 5 Shah Jahani seers a rupee and the Government share of the crop amounts to one seer only(?)*—you should not take less than this [quarter-rupee.]
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If an infidel sells his land to a Muhammadan, demand the revenue in spite of his being a Muslim.
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[*Commentary*, 122b :—If a man owns a land under a fixed revenue, and builds a house on it or plants a garden of trees that bear no fruit, there should be no change in its revenue, the former revenue should be taken. If a garden is planted on a land which was used for cultivation and on which the revenue of culturable land was fixed, and the fruit-trees are placed so close together that no open space is left for tillage, take Rs. 2-12, which is the due (*hāsil*) of gardens, even while the trees do not bear fruit. But in the case of grape and almond trees, the [usual] revenue is taken while they have not begun to bear fruit, and afterwards the due (*hāsil*) of gardens. But if this due of gardens, which is fixed at Rs. 2-12—on the ground that the total yield (? *rab'a*) of a legal *bigha* including the owner's share may reach up to Rs. 5-8—does not reach that amount, then take half the actual produce as revenue.* But if the price of this half-share of the produce be less than As. 4—as, in the case of grain, if you get one seer in five Shah Jahani seers (?)—do not take less [than As. 4.] If an infidel sells his land to a Muhammadan, collect the revenue from the latter, because in truth it was not the latter’s possession.]
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∗ Is not this a very round-about way of saying that when the revenue in kind is worth only one-fifth of a rupee, a quarter-rupee should be regarded as the minimum assessment? O.P.L. M.S. reads ‘take less than that amount.’
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Fifteenth.—If any man turns his land into a cemetery [123b] or serāi in endowment (waqf), regard its revenue as remitted.
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[Commentary, 124a :—As it is a pious act to endow tombs and serāis, therefore the Emperor forbids the collection of revenue from them, for the sake of benefiting and doing good [to the public.] Revenue ought not to be taken [from such lands.]
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Sixteenth.—About revenue by division of crops (kharāj-i-muqāsema) : If a man, whether Hindu or Muhammadan, is not the owner of a revenue-paying land, but has only bought it or holds it in pawn, he ought to enjoy the profit from whatever is produced in it. Collect from him the proper portion which has been fixed [as revenue],—provided that the share is neither more than one-half nor less than one-third [of the total crop]. If it be less than one-third, increase it, [if more than one-half, decrease it], as you consider advisable.
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[Commentary :—If a man is not the real owner of a muqāsema land, but holds it [by purchase or]
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∗ In revenue by division of crops, the State took only one-third of the gross produce in the case of grain; but one-fourth to one-eighth in the case of opium, sugar-cane, vine, plantain, and cotton. (Brit. Ind. Analyzed, p. 179.)
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in pawn, he ought to enjoy the gain from the land, whether he be Hindu or Muhammadan, on condition that in case of mortgage he has received permission [to till] from the mortgagor. Therefore, collect from him the portion [previously] fixed as the assessment on that land. But this portion ought not to be more than one-half nor less than one-third. If more than one-half, decrease it, if less than one-third, increase it, to a proper amount.]
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*Seventeenth.*—If the owner of a *muqāsema* land dies without leaving any heir, act, in giving it in lease, direct cultivation, etc., according to the ordinances issued [above] for *muazzaf* lands.
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[*Commentary* :—If the cultivator dies without heir, the man who administers the land should act in the manner prescribed in the third clause about *kharāj-i-muazzaf*, in giving it in lease or direct cultivation.]
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*Eighteenth.*—In *muqāsema* lands, if any calamity overtakes the crop, remit the revenue to the amount of the injury. And if the calamity happens after reaping the grain or before reaping, gather revenue on the portion that remains safe.
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[*Commentary* :—The Emperor seeks the happiness of the ryots. Therefore he strongly orders that no revenue should be demanded for the portion destroyed. But it should be collected for the remnant according to the share of that remnant.]
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[*Note by J. Sarkar.*—For the right understanding of the above rules it is necessary to bear in mind the following passages of Abu Yusuf's *Kitab-ul-kharaj*, giving the principles and regulations of the early Khalifs:—
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“As for fiefs (qitai) those that are naturally irrigated have to pay the tenth, those that are watered with the help of buckets, or leather bottles or wells with wheels, do not pay more than one-twentieth, because of the cost of irrigation”, (p. 79 of M. Fagnan’s French translation.)
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“All the polytheistic people with whom Islam has concluded peace on the conditions that they recognise its authority, submit themselves to the division [of their land] and pay the kharaj,—are a tributary class, and the soil which they occupy is called the land of kharaj……All the land of which the [Khalif=] Imam has become master by force may be…divided by him among [the Muslims] who have conquered it, and then it becomes land of the tithe” (p. 95.)
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“Uncultivated desolate lands in conquered countries having no houses on them and not belonging to anybody, are called “dead lands”……Abu Hanifa says, ‘He who vivifies (=reclaims to cultivation) a dead land becomes its proprietor when the Imam(=Khalif) permits it……If he has vivified it without the authority of the Imam, the latter may, at his pleasure, give it on lease, as fief, etc…or do whatever he deems useful,’” (p. 96.)
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“He who vivifies a dead land……becomes its master……He pays either the tithe or the kharaj, according as it is in tithe-paying territory or in kharaji” (p. 98.)
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“All places inhabited by non-Arabs which are conquered by the Imam and left by him in the hands of the conquered, are land of *kharaj*; but it is tithe-land if it is divided by him among the [Muslim] conquerors” (p. 104.)
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Forbidden *abwabs* named on pp. 131 and 165-166,—one among them being the cost of changing the *dirhams* which many of the peasants offered in paying their *kharaj*, (*rawāj.*)
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*Encycl. Islam*, iv. 1050-’51 (*s.v. ushr*) does not make the land-tax rules very clear.]
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Farman of the Emperor Aurangzib-Alamgir to Rasik-das krori in the form of a revenue-guide.
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*Translation.*
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[267*a*.] Rasik-dās, thrifty and obedient to Islam, hope for imperial favours and know—
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That, all the desires and aims of the Emperor are directed to the increase of cultivation, and the welfare of the peasantry and the people at large, who are the marvellous creation of and a trust from the Creator (glorified be His name!)
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Now the agents of the imperial Court have reported, after inquiry among the offices of the *parganas* of Crownlands and fiefs (*taiul*) of jāgir-holders, that at the beginning of the current year the *āmins* of the *parganas* of the imperial dominions ascertain the revenue of many of the *mauzas* and *parganas* from a consideration of the produce (*ḥāsil*)
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of the past year and the year preceding it, the area capable of cultivation, the condition and capability of the ryots, and other points. And if the ryots of any village do not agree to this procedure, they fix the revenue at the time of harvesting by [actual] survey or estimated valuation of crop.* And in some of the villages, where the cultivators are known to be distressed and deficient in capital, they follow the practice of division of crops [ghalla-bakhshi] at the rate of one-half, one-third, two-fifths, or more or less. And at the end of the year they send to the imperial record office the account-books (tumār)† of the cash collection of revenue, according to rule and custom, with their own verification (tasdiq) and the kroris' acceptance, [267b] and the signatures of the chaudhuris and qānungoes. But they do not send there the records of the lands of every pargana with description of the cultivation and details of the articles forming the autumn and spring harvests,—in such a way as to show what proportion of the crop of last year was actually realised and what proportion fell short, what difference, either increase or decrease, has occurred between the last year and the present, and the number of ryots of every mauza, distinguishing the lessees, cultivators, and others. [Such papers] would truly exhibit the circumstances of every mahal, and the work of the officers there—who, on the occurrence of a decrease in the collection of the mahal, after the assessment of the revenue had taken place, reduce a large amount from the total [standard] revenue on the plea of deficient rainfall, the calamity of chillnip, dearth of grain, or something else.
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∗ Kankoot—"Estimate of the ripened corn is called Koot." (Brit. Ind. Analyzed, p. 216.) † Tumar—rent-roll.
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If they act economically [or with attention to minute details] after inquiring into the state of the crops and cultivators of every village, and exert themselves to bring all the arable lands under tillage and to increase the cultivation and the total standard revenue, so that the parganas may become cultivated and inhabited, the people prosperous, and the revenue increased, then, if any calamity does happen, the abundance of cultivation will prevent any great loss of revenue occurring.
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THE EMPEROR ORDERS THAT—
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You should inquire into the real circumstances of every village in the parganas under your diwāns and āmins, namely, what is the extent of the arable land in it? [268a.] What proportion of this total is actually under cultivation, and what portion not? What is the amount of the full crop every year? What is the cause of those lands lying uncultivated?
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Also find out, what was the system of revenue collection in the reign of Akbar under the diwāni administration of Todar Mal? Is the amount of the sāir cess the same as under the regulations, or was it increased at His Majesty's accession? How many mauzas are cultivated and how many desolate? What is the cause of the desolation? After inquiring into all these matters, exert yourself to bring all arable lands under tillage, by giving correct agreements (*qaul*) and proper promises, and to increase the first-rate (*kamil*)* crops. Where there are disused wells, try to repair them, and also to dig new ones. And assess their revenue in such a way that the ryots at large may get their dues and the Government revenue may be collected at the right time and no ryot may be oppressed.
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And every year after correctly preparing the papers containing the number of the cultivators of every *mauza*, [the extent of] the cultivated and uncultivated lands, irrigated by wells and by rain [respectively], the first-rate and inferior crops, the arrangements for cultivating the arable land, for increasing the first-rate crops and bringing under culture the villages which had lain desolate for years,—and what else has been ordered in previous revenue-guides (*dastur-ul-aml*),—report these details, with the amount of the money collected during the year just completed [268*b*]. Know this regulation and procedure as established from the beginning of the autumn of the [Turkish] year of the Hare, the 8th year of the reign, and act in this way, and also
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* Tipu Sultan’s order: “On the commencement of the year [the *amil*] shall give *cowle* to all the ryots...and encourage them to cultivate the lands.” *British India Analyzed*, I. 1 and 2.
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*Jins-i-kamil*, the best crop that a field can produce (translated by me as “first-rate crop”), while inferior crops, such as millets, are called *nakis*.
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urge the officers of the *mahals* of the *jāgirdārs* to act similarly :—
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*First.*—Do not grant private interviews to the *amils* and *chaudhuris*, but make them attend in the [public] audience-hall. Make yourself personally familiar with the ryots and poor men, who may come to you to report their condition, by admitting them to public and private audiences, so that they may not need the mediation of others in making their requirements known to you.
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*Second.*—Order the *amils* that (i) at the beginning of the year they should inquire, village by village, into the number of cultivators and ploughs, and the extent of the area [under tillage]. (ii) If the ryots are in their places, the *amils* should try to make every one of them exert himself, according to his condition, to increase the sowing and to exceed last year’s cultivation ; and advancing from inferior to superior cereals, to the best of their power leave no arable land waste. (iii) If any of the peasants runs away, they should ascertain the cause and work very hard to induce him to return to his former place. (iv) Similarly, use conciliation and reassurances in gathering together cultivators from all sides with praise-worthy diligence. (v) Devise the means by which barren (*banjar*) lands may be brought under cultivation.
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*Third*—Urge the *āmins* of the *parganas*, that at the beginning of the year, after inquiring into the agricultural assets (*maujudāt-i-mazru‘aāt*) [269a] of every tenant, village by village, they should with attention to details assess the revenue in such a way as to benefit the Government and give ease to the ryots. And send the *daul** of revenue to the imperial record office without delay.
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*Fourth.*—After settling the revenue, order that the collection of revenue should be begun and the payment demanded at the appointed time, according to the mode agreed upon in every *pargana* for the payment of the instalments of revenue. And you yourself should every week call for reports and urge them not to let any portion of the fixed instalments fall into arrears. If by chance a part of the first instalment remains unrealised, collect it at the time of the second instalment. Leave absolutely no arrears at the third instalment.
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*Fifth.* Having divided the outstanding arrears into suitable instalments according to the condition and capability of the ryots, urge the *kroris* to collect the instalments as promised [by the ryots], and you should keep yourself informed about the arrangements for collecting them, so that the collection may not fall into abeyance through the fraud or negligence of the *amils*.
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*Sixth.*—When you yourself go to a village, for learning the true condition of the *parganas*, view the condition and appearance of the crops, the capability of the ryots, and the amount of the revenue. If in apportioning [the total revenue among the villagers] justice and correctness have been observed to every individual, fair and good. But if the *chaudhuri* or *muqaddam* or *patwāri* has practised oppression, conciliate the ryots [269*b*] and give them their dues. Recover the unlawfully appropriated lands (*gunjāish*) from the hands of usurpers. In short, after engaging with honesty and minute attention in ascertaining [the state of things] in the present year and the division (or details) of the assets, write [to the Emperor] in detail,—so that the true services of the *āmins* and the admirable administration of this wazir [Rasik-dās] may become known [to His Majesty].
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∗ Daul—"an account of particular agreements with the inferior farmers of the district, attested by the Canongoes; sub rent-roll." (*Brit. Ind.*, p. 222.)
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Seventh.—Respect the rent-free tenures, *nānkār* and *in‘ām*,* according to the practice of the department for the administration of Crownlands. Learn what the Government *amils* have increased (?), namely, how much they have left in arrears from the beginning of the grant of the *jagirs*, what portion they have deducted on the plea of shortage [of crop] and [natural] calamity. In consideration of these things resume [the unlawfully increased rent-free lands] of the past, and prohibit [them] in future, so that they may bring the *parganas* back to their proper condition. The truth will be reported to the Emperor, and favours will be shown to all according to their devotion.
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Eighth.—In the cashier's office (*fotah-khānah*) order the *fotahdārs* to accept only Alamgiri coins.
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∗ *Enams*—"the meanest and more general gifts of land, bestowed on mendicants and common singers." (*Brit. Ind.*, p. 186.) *Nankar*—a gift of land for a man's sustenance. [*Ibid*, 148.]
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But if these be not available, they should take the Shah Jahani Rupees current in the bazar, and collect only the *sikka-ābwāb* (discount). Do not admit into the *fotah-khānah* any coin of short weight which will not pass in the bazar. But when it is found that the collection would be delayed if defective coins are returned, take from the ryots the exact and true discount for changing them into current coins, and effect the change in their presence.
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Ninth.—If, (God forbid it!) any calamity [270a] from earth or sky overtakes a *mahal*, strongly urge the *āmins* and *amils* to watch the standing crops with great care and fidelity ; and after inquiring into the sown fields, they should carefully ascertain [the loss] according to the comparative statement of the present and past produce (*hast-o-bud*).* You should never admit [as valid] any *sarbasta*† calamity, the discrimination (*tafriq*) of which depends solely on the reports of the *chaudhuris*, *qanungoes*, *muqaddams*, and *patwāris* ; so that all the ryots may attain to their rights and may be saved from misfortune and loss, and usurpers may not usurp [others’ rights.]
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† *Sarbasti*, exemption from payment. Hence the word in the text means entitled to remission of revenue. *Sarbasta* in the sense of secret does not yield so good a sense.
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Tenth.—Strongly urge the *āmins*, *amils*, *chaudhuris*, *qānungoes*, and *mutasaddis*, to abolish balia, exactions (*ākhrājāt*) in excess of revenue, and forbidden *ābwābs* (cesses),—which impair the welfare of the ryots. Take securities from them that they should never exact *balia* or collect the *ābwābs* prohibited and abolished by His Majesty. And you yourself should constantly get information, and if you find any one doing so and not heeding your prohibition and threat, report the fact to the Emperor, that he may be dismissed from service and another person appointed in his place.
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∗ Hastabood jama—“Comparative account of the former and actual sources of revenue, showing the total increased valuation of the lands, the variations produced by casualties, new appropriations, &c.” (*Ibid*, 220.)
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Eleventh.—For translating Hindi papers into Persian, inquire into the ratable assessment and apportionment (*bāchh-o-bihri*)* of the revenue, exactions (*ākhrājāt*), and customary perquisites (*rasumāt*)*†* name by name. As for whatever is found to have been taken from the peasants on any account whatever, after taking account of the payments (*wāsilat*) into the *fotah-khanah*, the balance should be written as appropriated by the *āmin*, *amil*, *zamindārs* and others, name by name. And, as far as possible [270b] collect and translate the rough records (*kāghaz-i-khām*) of all the villages of the *pargana*. If owing to the absence of the *patwari* or any other cause, the papers of certain *mauzas* cannot be got, estimate this portion from the total produce of the villages [taken collectively], and enter it in the *tumār*. After the *tumār* has been drawn up, if it has been written according to the established system, the *diwān* ought to keep it. He should demand the refunding of that portion of the total gains of *amils*, *chaudhuris*, *qānungoes*, *muqaddams*, and *patwāris*, which they have taken in excess of their established perquisites (*rasum-i-muqarrar*.)
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∗ *Bachh*—Distribution of an aggregate sum among a number of individuals (Wilson, p. 42b.) *Behri*—Proportionate rate (Wilson, p. 70b) *Balia* ? = *malba*.
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† *Russooms*—"Customs or commission." (Brit. Ind., p. 149.)
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*Twelfth.*—Report the names of those among the *āmins* and *kroris* of the *jāgirdārs*, who have served with uprightness and devotion, and by following the established rules in every matter have proved themselves good officers,—so that as the result they may be rewarded according to their attention to the gain of the State and their honesty. But if any have acted in the opposite manner, report the fact to the Emperor, that they may be dismissed from the service, put on their defence and explanation [of their conduct], and receive the punishment of their irregular acts.
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*Thirteenth.*—With great insistence gather together the papers of the records at the right time. In the village in which you stay, every day secure from the officers the daily account of the collection of revenue and cess and prices-current, and from the other *parganas* the daily account of the collection of revenue and cash (*maujudāt*) every fortnight, and the balance [271*a*] in the treasuries of *fotahdārs* and the *jam‘a wāsil bāqi* every month, and the *tumār* of the total revenue and the *jama bandi* (annual revenue settlement) and the incomes and expenditures of the treasuries of the *fotahdārs* season by season. After looking through these papers demand the refunding of whatever has been spent without being accounted for, and then send them to the imperial record office. Do not leave the papers of the spring harvest uncollected up to the autumn harvest.
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[271b.] *Fourteenth.*—When an *āmin* or *amil* or *fotahdār* is dismissed from service, promptly demand his papers from him and bring him to a reckoning. According to the rules of the *diwān’s* department, enter as liable to recovery the *ābwābs* that ought to be resumed as the result of this auditing. Send the papers with the records of the *ābwābs* recovered from dismissed *amils*, to the imperial *kachari*, in order that the auditing of the men’s papers may be finished.
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*Fifteenth.*—Draw up the *diwāni* papers according to the established rules season by season, affix to them your seal and note of verification, and send them to the imperial record office.